Internal Assignment

NAME: Babar

ROLL NUMBER: 0000

PROGRAM: MASTER OF COMPUTER APPLICATION (MCA)

SEMESTER: II

COURSE NAME: ADVANCED COMPUTER NETWORKS

CODE:

SESSION: MAY 2023

 Set – I

Q1. Explain following Network Models:

a) OSI Model
 The Open Systems Interconnection Model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the function of a
communication system into seven distinct layers. It was developed by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) in the 1980s to promote interoperability between different computer systems
and networks.
The seven layers of the OSI model are as follows:
1. Physical layer: This is the lowest layer of the model and deals with the actual physical
transmission of data. It defines the electrical, mechanical, and procedural aspects of the physical
medium, such as cables, connectors, and signaling.
2. Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for the reliable transmission of data frames over a
physical link. It provides error detection and correction, flow control, and handles the
synchronization of data between sender and receiver. Ethernet is an example of a data link layer
protocol.
3. Network layer: The network layer is responsible for addressing, routing, and packet forwarding
across multiple networks. It deals with logical addressing and determines the best path for data
packets to reach their destination. The Internet Protocol (IP) operates at this layer
4. Transport layer: This layer ensures reliable, end-to-end delivery of data between hosts. It
segments and reassembles data into smaller units called segments, performs error recovery, and
provides mechanisms for flow control and congestion control. The Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) is a transport layer protocol.
5. Session layer: The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates connections between
applications. It provides services such as session establishment, maintenance, and synchronization.
This layer is responsible for setting up communication sessions and managing checkpoints for data
recovery.
6. Presentation layer: The presentation layer deals with the syntax and semantics of the data
exchanged between applications. It provides services such as data encryption, compression, and
formatting, ensuring that data from different systems can be understood by the receiving
application.
 7. Application layer: The application layer is the highest layer of the OSI model. It provides services
directly to the end-user applications and supports network services such as email, file transfer,
remote login, and browsing. Protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS operate at this layer.
b) Internet Model
 The internet network model is often represented by the TCP/IP model, which stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It is a conceptual framework that outlines the protocols and layers
involved in transmitting data over the internet. The TCP/IP model consists of four layers:

1. Network Interface Layer: This layer deals with the physical connection between a device and the
network, including the network interface card, cabling, and other hardware components. It defines how
data is formatted for transmission at the electrical and mechanical level.
2. Internet Layer: The internet layer focuses on the logical addressing and routing of data packets. It
uses IP (Internet Protocol) to assign unique IP addresses to devices and handles the routing of packets
across multiple networks, allowing data to traverse the internet.
3. Transport Layer: The transport layer ensures reliable and efficient data transfer between devices. It
utilizes protocols such as TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented communication with error detection, flow control, and
packet retransmission, while UDP offers faster, connectionless communication without some of TCP's
features.
4. Application Layer: The application layer is where applications and services interact with the network.
It encompasses various protocols such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and others, enabling different types of data
exchange and services.

Q2. What is multiplexing? Describe the following multiplexing types in detail:

a) Frequency Division Multiplexing
b) Wavelength Division Multiplexing
c) Time Division Multiplexing

 Multiplexing is technique used in telecommunication and computer networks to combine multiple data
streams into a single transmission medium, such as a cable or a wireless channel. The purpose of
multiplexing is to optimize the use of available resources and increase the efficiency of data
transmission.
 a) Frequency Division Multiplexing: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a multiplexing
technique that allows multiple independent signals to be transmitted simultaneously over a
single communication channel by dividing the available frequency spectrum into non-
overlapping frequency bands.
The key components involved in FDM are:
1. Multiplexer
2. Transmission Medium
3. Demultiplexer
b) Wavelength Division Multiplexing: Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a
multiplexing technique used in optical fiber communication systems to transmit multiple
independent signals simultaneously over a single optical fiber. Unlike Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM), which operates in the electrical domain, WDM operates in the optical
domain by dividing the available wavelength spectrum of light.
The key components and concepts involved in WDM are:
1. Optical Multiplexer
2. Optical Fiber
3. Optical demultiplexer
Wavelength Division Multiplexing can further be categorized into two types:
1. Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing
2. Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
c) Time Division Multiplexing: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a multiplexing technique
that enables multiple independent signals to be transmitted over a single communication
channel by dividing the channel into discrete time slots. Each signal is allocated a specific time
slot, and the signals are transmitted sequentially, one after the other.
The key components and concepts involved in TDM are:
1. Time Division Multiplexer
2. Transmission Medium
3. Time Division Demultiplexer

Q3. Explain Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) with following concepts:
a) Goal and Structure of ISDN
 The Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of international standards that were developed
to provide a digital telecommunication network that could transmit voice, data, and other services over

traditional copper-based telephone lines. The main goal of ISDN was to create a single network capable
of handling various types of communication, including voice and data, in a more efficient and flexible
manner.
The structure of ISDN is based on two types of channels:
1. Bearer Channels (B-Channels): B-channels are used for user data transmission. In ISDN, there
can be multiple B-channels, and each channel operates at a rate of 64 kbps. These channels can
be dynamically allocated based on the bandwidth requirements of different applications.
2. Delta Channels (D-Channels): D-channels are used for signaling and control purposes. They
carry signaling information between the network and the user's equipment, facilitating call setup,
termination, and other control functions. The D-channel operates at a lower data rate than the B-
channels, typically at 16 kbps.
b) ISDN Devices
 ISDN requires specific devices to interface with the network and provide connectivity for various
applications. Here are some common ISDN devices:
1. ISDN Terminal Adapter (TA): An ISDN Terminal Adapter is used to connect traditional analog
devices, such as telephones, fax machines, or modems, to the ISDN network. The TA converts the
analog signals from these devices into digital signals that can be transmitted over the ISDN lines.
2. ISDN Network Termination (NT): The ISDN Network Termination is the interface between the
ISDN network and the customer's premises. It terminates the ISDN lines and provides access for
various ISDN devices. The NT can be a standalone device or integrated into other equipment, such
as a router or PBX (Private Branch Exchange).
3. ISDN Router: An ISDN router is a network device that connects a local area network (LAN) to the
ISDN network. It enables data transfer between the LAN and the ISDN network, allowing multiple
devices on the LAN to access the ISDN services.
4. ISDN Private Branch Exchange (PBX): An ISDN PBX is a telephone switching system used
within an organization. It connects internal phones and devices to the ISDN network, allowing for
internal voice communication as well as external calls through ISDN line. ISDN PBX systems can
support features such as call routing, call forwarding, and conference calling.
 Set – II
Q4. What is Multicast Routing? Describe the following Multicast Routing Protocols in detail:
a) Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP)
b) Multicast Open Shortest Path First Protocol (MOSPF)
 Multicast routing is a technique used in computer networks to efficiently deliver multicast traffic from
a source to multiple receivers. Multicast communication is one-to-many, where a single sender
transmits data to a group of recipients interested in receiving the data. It is commonly used for
applications such as multimedia streaming, online gaming, and video conferencing.
Key concepts in Multicast Routing:
1. Multicast group
2. Source
3. Distribution Tree
4. Rendezvous Point (RP)
5. Multicast Routing Protocols

a) Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol:

 Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) is a routing protocol used for multicast
communication in computer networks. It is based on the distance vector algorithm, similar to the
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) used for unicast routing. DVMRP enables the efficient distribution
of multicast traffic across networks by determining the optimal paths for delivering multicast packets.
Working process for Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol: -
1. Distance Vector Updates: DVMRP routers exchange multicast routing information using distance
vector updates. Each router maintains a routing table, which includes information about multicast
groups and the cost (distance) to reach them.
2. Multicast Group Membership: DVMRP routers keep track of the multicast groups to which they
belong. When a router wants to join a multicast group, it sends a multicast group membership report
to its neighboring routers.
3. Routing Table Updates: When a router receives multicast group membership reports from its
neighbors, it updates its routing table to include the multicast group information. This allows the
router to determine the optimal path to reach each multicast group.
 4. Route Calculation: DVMRP routers calculate the routes to multicast groups based on the
information exchanged in the distance vector updates. The routes are determined by considering the
cost to reach each neighbor and the information received from other routers.
5. Forwarding Multicast Traffic: Once the routes are calculated, routers use these paths to forward
multicast packets. Each router maintains a forwarding table, which specifies the outgoing interface
for each multicast group.
6. Handling Topology Changes: DVMRP routers continuously exchange distance vector updates to
adapt to changes in the network topology. If a router detects a change, such as a link failure or a
new neighbor, it updates its routing table and propagates the changes to other routers.
b) Multicast Open Shortest Path First Protocol:
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a widely used interior gateway protocol (IGP) that is used for
routing within autonomous systems (AS) in IP networks. It is a link-state routing protocol that employs
the shortest path first algorithm to determine the best path for packet forwarding.
Characteristics of OSPF are:
1. Link-State Database: OSPF routers maintain a complete map of the network in their link-state
database. This database contains information about the network's topology, including the state of
each router and the links connecting them.
2. Cost-Based Metric: OSPF uses cost metric to calculate optimal path for routing. Cost is typically
based on the bandwidth of the link, and routers choose the path with the lowest cumulative cost.
3. Hierarchical Structure: OSPF supports a hierarchical network design that organizes routers into
areas. Routers within an area have detailed knowledge of the area's topology, while they have
summarized information about other areas.
4. Route Summarization: OSPF allows for the summarization of routing information at area
boundaries. This reduces the size of routing tables and enhances routing efficiency.
5. Fast Convergence: OSPF has fast convergence times, which means it can quickly adapt to network
changes and reroute traffic along the new optimal paths. It achieves this through the exchange of
link-state updates and the use of reliable flooding mechanisms.
6. Multiple Paths: OSPF supports equal-cost multipath (ECMP) routing, where traffic can be load-
balanced across multiple paths with the same cost.
7. Authentication: OSPF provides authentication mechanisms to ensure the security and integrity of
routing information exchanges between routers.
Q5. What is Symmetric Key Encryption?
a) Data encryption standard (DES)
b) Double DES
c) Triple DES
 Symmetric key encryption, also known as secret key encryption or conventional encryption, is a type of
encryption algorithm that uses the same key for both the encryption and decryption processes. In
symmetric key encryption, the sender and the receiver share a secret key that is used to encrypt and
decrypt the data.
a) Data encryption standard (DES)
 The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetric key encryption algorithm that was developed in
the 1970s by IBM in collaboration with the National Bureau of Standards (now the National Institute of
Standards and Technology, NIST).
Important points about the Data Encryption Standards are –
1. Block Cipher: DES is a block cipher that operates on fixed-size blocks of data. The block size for
DES is 64 bits, meaning that each plaintext message is divided into 64-bit blocks for encryption.
2. Key Size: DES uses a 56-bit key. However, due to the recognition of its vulnerability to brute-force
attacks, which exhaustively try all possible keys, the effective key size is considered to be 56 bits,
as opposed to the theoretical 2^56 possible keys.
3. Substitution-Permutation Network: DES employs a substitution-permutation network (SPN)
structure. It combines substitution (substituting values with other values) and permutation
(rearranging values) operations to provide confusion and diffusion, enhancing the encryption
strength.
4. Feistel Cipher: DES follows the Feistel cipher structure. It splits the input block into two halves
and performs a series of iterations (16 rounds in the case of DES) on the data.
5. Key Expansion: DES employs a key schedule to generate the round keys. The 56-bit key
undergoes a permutation and shifting process to produce 16 round keys, one for each round
of encryption.
6. Cryptographic Strength: Over time, advances in computing power and cryptanalysis techniques
have rendered DES less secure against modern attacks. In 1999, DES was officially deprecated as
a standard for encryption by NIST.
 7. Triple DES (3DES): To address the vulnerabilities of DES, Triple DES (3DES) was introduced.
It applies the DES algorithm multiple times with different keys. 3DES uses either two or three
iterations of DES encryption, providing a higher level of security.
b) Double DES:
 Double DES (2DES) is a variant of the Data Encryption Standard (DES) that involves applying the
DES algorithm twice with two different keys. It is an attempt to strengthen the security of DES by
increasing the key length and complexity. However, it is important to note that Double DES has been
deprecated and is no longer considered secure due to vulnerabilities.
Here’s how Double DES works –
1. Encryption: In Double DES, the plaintext message is first encrypted using one 56-bit key (K1) and the
DES algorithm. The resulting ciphertext is then encrypted again using a second 56-bit key (K2) and the
DES algorithm. The output is the final ciphertext.
2. Decryption: To decrypt the ciphertext, the process is reversed. The ciphertext is first decrypted using
the second key (K2) and the DES algorithm. The resulting intermediate plaintext is then decrypted
again using the first key (K1) and the DES algorithm, resulting in the original plaintext message.
c) Triple DES:
 Triple Data Encryption Standard (Triple DES or 3DES) is a cryptographic algorithm that is derived
from the Data Encryption Standard (DES). It is designed to provide increased security compared to
DES by applying the DES algorithm multiple times with different keys. 3DES is still used in certain
legacy systems and specific applications where it is required for backward compatibility.
Here’s how triple DES works –
1. Key Generation: Three 56-bit keys (K1, K2, and K3) are generated. In some cases, two keys may be
the same (K1 = K2), but for maximum security, three distinct keys are recommended.
2. Encryption: The plaintext message is encrypted using a three-step process. First, the message is
encrypted using the first key (K1) and the DES algorithm. Then, the resulting ciphertext is decrypted
using the second key (K2) and the DES algorithm. Finally, the intermediate plaintext is encrypted again
using the third key (K3) and the DES algorithm. The output is the final ciphertext.
3. Decryption: To decrypt the ciphertext, the process is reversed. The ciphertext is first decrypted using
the third key (K3) and the DES algorithm. The resulting intermediate ciphertext is then decrypted using
the second key (K2) and the DES algorithm. Finally, the intermediate plaintext is encrypted again using
the first key (K1) and the DES algorithm, resulting in the original plaintext message.
Q6. What is Multicasting? Describe the following Multicast Transport Protocol Concepts.
a) Multicast addressing
b) MTP packet format
c) MTP’s QoS
 Multicasting refers to the transmission of data packets from one sender to multiple recipients in a
network. Unlike unicast communication, where data is sent from one sender to one specific recipient,
multicasting enables efficient and scalable communication to a group of receivers who are interested in
the same data.
In a multicast transmission, the sender sends a single copy of the data, which is then replicated and
delivered to multiple recipients simultaneously. This approach is more bandwidth-efficient compared to
unicast, where the sender would have to send individual copies of the data to each recipient.
a) Multicast addressing:
 Multicast addressing is a method used in computer networks to identify and target multicast groups. In
multicast communication, a single data packet is sent from a sender to a specific group of recipients
who have expressed interest in receiving the data. Multicast addressing allows the sender to designate
the recipients and deliver the data efficiently to the intended group.
Some key concepts of multicast addressing are –
1. IP Multicast Address
2. Multicast Group
3. Class D Address Range
4. Address Assignment
5. Scoping
6. IPv6 Multicast
b) MTP packet format
 The MTP (Message Transfer Part) is a protocol used in telecommunications networks for signaling and
message transfer between network elements. It is part of the Signaling System 7 (SS7) protocol suite.
MTP defines the format of the packets exchanged between signaling points in the network.
General overview of the MTP Level 3 packet format –
1. MTP Level 3 Header:
 Signalling Link Selection (SLS): A unique identifier used to differentiate signalling links
between two signalling points.
 Service Indicator (SI): Indicates the type of signalling message being transported.
 2. MTP Level 3 Payload:
 Signalling Data Units (SDUs): The actual signalling messages being transported. The SDUs
contain various parameters and information specific to the signalling message, such as
routing information, message type, and parameters specific to the network protocol being
used (e.g., ISUP, SCCP).
3. Error Checking:
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): A checksum used for error detection and validation
of the MTP packet.
c) MTPs QoS:
 MTP (Message Transfer Part) is a protocol within the Signaling System 7 (SS7) suite used for signaling
and message transfer in telecommunications networks. Unlike protocols such as IP that have explicit
Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms, MTP does not have inherent QoS features.

The primary purpose of MTP is to ensure reliable and efficient transport of signaling messages between
signaling points in the SS7 network. It focuses on the timely delivery of signaling information rather
than specifying QoS parameters such as bandwidth allocation, delay, or packet loss.

However, the QoS requirements for signaling messages carried by MTP are indirectly influenced by the
underlying network infrastructure and the SS7 network design. The overall QoS experienced by the
signaling messages will depend on factors such as network capacity, link utilization, congestion
management mechanisms, and the performance of the underlying transport technologies.