NETWORKING – 2017

1.(a) What is broadcasted network?

> A broadcasted network is a type of computer network where data packets are sent from a single sender to all
connected recipients. Its primary purpose is to efficiently disseminate information or data to multiple devices
simultaneously.
(b) What is circuit switching?
> Circuit switching is a network communication method where a dedicated communication path or circuit is established
between two devices for the entire duration of a conversation. The key characteristic of circuit switching is the exclusive
use of this dedicated path, ensuring a consistent and constant connection between the communicating parties.
(c) What is QPSK?
> QPSK stands for Quadrature Phase Shift Keying. Its primary application in communication systems is to modulate
digital signals by varying the phase of the carrier wave to represent multiple symbols or data bits, thus allowing for more
efficient data transmission over a communication channel.
(d) What is TDM? Give an example.
> TDM stands for Time Division Multiplexing. In telecommunications, TDM is a method of transmitting multiple signals or
data streams over a single communication channel by allocating each signal a specific time slot. For example, in a T1 line,
voice calls from multiple users are combined and transmitted as discrete time slices, allowing simultaneous
communication over the same channel without interference.
(e) What is the difference between bit rate and baud rate?
> Bit rate and baud rate are two distinct concepts in digital communication:
1. Bit Rate: Bit rate refers to the number of bits transmitted per unit of time over a communication channel. It
represents the actual data transfer rate and is measured in bits per second (bps). For example, a network connection
with a bit rate of 1000 bps can transmit 1000 bits of data in one second.
2. Baud Rate: Baud rate, on the other hand, measures the number of signal or symbol changes transmitted per second.
It represents the rate at which the signal on the communication channel changes its state. Baud rate is measured in
baud (Bd) or symbols per second (bauds). In some cases, the baud rate is equal to the bit rate, but in modulation
schemes like QPSK, where multiple bits are encoded into a single symbol, the baud rate can be lower than the bit rate.
For instance, a 1000 bps QPSK signal might have a baud rate of 500 bauds, as each symbol represents 2 bits.
In summary, the key difference is that bit rate measures the actual data transfer rate, whereas baud rate measures the
rate of signal changes or symbols transmitted over the channel, which may not always directly correspond to the bit
rate.
(f) What is service access point?
> A Service Access Point (SAP) in computer networking is a unique identifier or address within a communication protocol
stack that allows different layers or entities to communicate with each other. It serves as an interface point for the
exchange of data and control information between the upper-layer and lower-layer protocols.
(g) What is connection oriented service?
> A connection-oriented service in networking is a communication service that establishes a dedicated, reliable, and
sequenced connection between two devices before data transfer begins. Its key characteristic is the assurance of data
integrity and delivery in the correct order, similar to a telephone call where a connection is established before the
conversation starts.
(h) Compare between TCP/IP model and OSI model.
> Both the TCP/IP model and the OSI model are reference models for networking, but a key difference is that the TCP/IP
model is based on real-world protocols, while the OSI model is a conceptual framework.
(i) What is Nyquist's theorem?
> Nyquist's theorem states that the maximum data rate of a digital communication system is twice the bandwidth of the
channel. It is significant because it provides a theoretical foundation for determining the data rate at which digital signals
can be transmitted reliably without interference.
(j) What is character stuffing?
> Character stuffing is the process of adding special control characters to data frames to distinguish them from control
characters within the data. Its purpose is to ensure that data frames can be correctly delineated and identified within a
stream of characters, enhancing synchronization and error detection in communication.
(k) Compare between LAN and WAN.
> A key difference between LANs and WANs is their geographical scope. LANs typically cover a smaller, localized area like
a single building or campus, while WANs span larger geographic regions, often connecting LANs across cities or even
countries.
(l) Draw the wave form in manchester encoding of following data 101101.
>
2. (a) Write the functions of session layer, presentation layer and datalink layer of OSI model. ( 6+3+3+4=16)
> 1. Session Layer (Layer 5):
 Establishment, Management, and Termination of Sessions: The Session Layer is responsible for establishing,
managing, and terminating communication sessions between two devices. A session is a logical connection
between two applications, and this layer helps in initiating and closing these sessions.
 Dialog Control: It manages the flow of information between two devices, ensuring that data is properly
organized into conversations or dialogs, with synchronized communication.
 Synchronization: Ensures that data exchange is coordinated and synchronized, preventing issues like data
collision.
 Checkpointing and Recovery: Manages checkpoints during data transmission, allowing for recovery in case of a
failure.
 Session Establishment and Authentication: Handles the authentication and authorization of sessions between
applications.

2. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

 Data Translation: Translates data between the application layer and lower layers by handling data format and
character code translations. It ensures that data from one system can be understood by another.
 Encryption and Decryption: Provides encryption and decryption services to secure data transmission.
 Data Compression: Compresses and decompresses data to reduce bandwidth usage during transmission.
 Syntax Processing: Handles syntax and format issues between different systems to ensure compatibility.
 Data Representation: Converts data between different formats (e.g., EBCDIC to ASCII) to facilitate
interoperability.

3. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

 Framing: Divides data into frames for transmission over the physical medium. Each frame contains a header and
trailer for synchronization and error checking.
 Addressing: Assigns unique MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to devices on a local network, enabling the
delivery of frames to the correct recipient.
 Error Detection and Correction: Detects and, in some cases, corrects errors that may occur during data
transmission.
 Flow Control: Manages the flow of data between devices to prevent congestion and ensure efficient data
transfer.
 Access Control: Controls access to the physical medium, ensuring that only one device can transmit at a time in
shared or half-duplex communication.
 Media Arbitration: Resolves conflicts when multiple devices attempt to transmit simultaneously on a shared
medium.
 Acknowledgment and Retransmission: Provides mechanisms for acknowledging received frames and
requesting retransmission of lost or corrupted frames.

In summary, the Session Layer manages and controls communication sessions, the Presentation Layer handles data
translation and format issues, and the Data Link Layer is responsible for framing, addressing, error detection, and access
control in local network communications. Each layer plays a critical role in ensuring reliable and secure data
transmission within the OSI model.
(b) Compare between computer network and distributed system.

> A computer network and a distributed system are both concepts related to interconnected computing environments,
but they serve distinct purposes:

Computer Network:
1. Definition: A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices, such as computers, servers, and
peripherals, that are linked together to enable communication and resource sharing.
2. Focus: The primary focus of a computer network is efficient data communication and resource sharing, often
across larger distances.
3. Key Aspect: Computer networks emphasize the establishment of connectivity and the transmission of data
between devices, with protocols like TCP/IP being fundamental for communication.
Distributed System:
1. Definition: A distributed system is a network of independent computers that work together as a single system,
sharing resources and processing tasks in a coordinated manner.
2. Focus: The main emphasis of a distributed system is to provide a unified computing environment, where
multiple computers collaborate to achieve a common goal, such as parallel processing or fault tolerance.
3. Key Aspect: Distributed systems focus on seamless integration of hardware and software resources, often
requiring complex coordination algorithms and middleware for communication and synchronization.

In summary, a computer network is primarily concerned with connecting devices and facilitating data exchange, while a
distributed system is more focused on leveraging the collective power of multiple computers to accomplish complex
tasks efficiently and effectively.

(c) Suppose a computer network with 5 layers where application layer generates a message of m bytes
and each layer adds h bytes header. What fraction of network bandwidth is wasted by all layers?
>To calculate the fraction of network bandwidth wasted by all layers due to headers, we need to consider the total
overhead introduced by headers across all layers. Let's break this down step by step:
1. Application Layer: The application layer generates a message of m bytes.
2. Transport Layer: This layer adds its own header to the message. So, the total size of the message at this point is
(m + h) bytes.
3. Network Layer: The network layer adds its header, making the total size (m + 2h) bytes.
4. Data Link Layer: Here, the data link layer includes its header, resulting in a total size of (m + 3h) bytes.
5. Physical Layer: Finally, the physical layer may introduce some additional framing or signaling overhead, making
the total size (m + nh) bytes, where 'n' represents the cumulative header size introduced by all layers.

Now, let's calculate the fraction of network bandwidth wasted by headers:

 The original message size is 'm' bytes.
 The total message size after all layers have added their headers is (m + nh) bytes.

The fraction of network bandwidth wasted due to headers is given by:

Fraction wasted = (Total overhead due to headers) / (Total message size after headers)

Fraction wasted = [(m + nh) - m] / (m + nh)

Now, we can express this as a fraction:

Fraction wasted = (nh) / (m + nh)

This formula represents the fraction of network bandwidth that is wasted by all layers due to the headers they add.

So, the fraction of network bandwidth wasted by all layers is (nh) / (m + nh).
(d) What is network topology? Discuss any one network topology.

> Network Topology:

Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout or arrangement of interconnected devices (nodes) in a
computer network. It defines how devices are connected to each other and how data is transmitted between them.
Network topology plays a crucial role in determining the efficiency, reliability, and scalability of a network. There are
several types of network topologies, and each has its advantages and disadvantages.

Star Topology:

One network topology that can be discussed is the "Star Topology." In a star topology, all devices (computers, printers,
servers, etc.) are connected to a central hub or switch. The central hub acts as a mediator for data communication. Here
are some key points about the star topology:
 1. Central Hub: In a star topology, the central hub or switch is the focal point of the network. All devices connect
directly to this central point.
2. Easy Management: Star topologies are relatively easy to manage because each device is connected directly to
the central hub. This makes it straightforward to add or remove devices from the network without disrupting
other connections.
3. Fault Tolerance: If one device or cable fails in a star topology, it doesn't affect the rest of the network. Only the
malfunctioning device loses connectivity, ensuring fault tolerance.
4. Scalability: Star topologies are easily scalable. You can add more devices by simply connecting them to the
central hub.
5. Performance: The performance of a star network can be good, especially if the central hub has high-speed
capabilities. However, the network's overall performance can be impacted if the central hub becomes a
bottleneck due to heavy traffic.
6. Cost: Implementing a star topology can be costlier than some other topologies, as it requires more cabling (each
device connects directly to the central hub).

In summary, network topology defines how devices are interconnected in a network, and one of the common
topologies is the star topology. It offers advantages such as easy management, fault tolerance, and scalability, but it may
be more expensive to set up initially. The choice of network topology depends on factors like the organization's
requirements, budget, and expected network traffic.
3. (a) Discuss transmission characteristics of optical fibre cable and microwave in details. (8+3+2+3=16)
> Transmission Characteristics of Optical Fiber Cable:

Optical fiber cables are a key technology for long-distance and high-speed data transmission. They use light signals to
transmit data, offering several important transmission characteristics:
1. High Bandwidth: Optical fibers provide an exceptionally high bandwidth. This means they can carry a large
amount of data simultaneously, making them suitable for transmitting high-definition video, large files, and
massive amounts of data in telecommunications networks.
2. Low Attenuation: Attenuation refers to the loss of signal strength as it travels through the medium. Optical
fibers have very low attenuation, which means that light signals can travel over long distances without
significant signal degradation. This makes optical fibers ideal for long-haul communications.
3. Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Unlike traditional copper cables, optical fibers are immune to
electromagnetic interference. This makes them ideal for use in environments where EMI is a concern, such as
near power lines or in industrial settings.
4. Security: Optical fibers are inherently secure because they do not emit electromagnetic radiation that can be
intercepted or tapped into easily. This makes them more difficult to eavesdrop on compared to traditional
copper cables.
5. Light Speed Transmission: Light signals travel at near the speed of light in a vacuum, which is much faster than
electrical signals in copper cables. This high-speed transmission reduces latency and makes optical fibers
suitable for applications where speed is critical.
6. Thin and Lightweight: Optical fiber cables are thin and lightweight compared to copper cables, which makes
them easier to install and manage. They are also less prone to physical damage.
7. Longevity: Optical fibers have a long lifespan, often exceeding 25 years with minimal maintenance. This makes
them a cost-effective choice over the long term.
8. Secure Transmission: Optical fibers are difficult to tap into without physically accessing the cable. This enhances
data security and privacy.

Transmission Characteristics of Microwave:

Microwave communication uses radio waves with short wavelengths for data transmission. It has its own set of
transmission characteristics:
1. Line-of-Sight Communication: Microwave communication is typically line-of-sight, meaning there should be a
clear, unobstructed path between the transmitting and receiving antennas. This limits its use in areas with
geographical obstacles like hills and buildings.
2. High Frequency: Microwave frequencies typically range from 1 GHz to 300 GHz. These high frequencies allow
for high data transmission rates.
3. Low Attenuation: Microwaves experience relatively low attenuation in the Earth's atmosphere, especially at
higher frequencies. This makes them suitable for long-distance communication links.
 4. Reliability: Microwave communication is known for its reliability, as it is less susceptible to weather-related
disruptions (e.g., rain fade) compared to satellite communication.
5. Low Latency: Microwave links offer low latency, which is crucial for applications like voice communication and
high-frequency trading.
6. Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint: Microwave can be used in point-to-point links (between two specific
locations) or point-to-multipoint (one sender to multiple receivers) configurations.
7. Vulnerable to Weather: While microwaves are less affected by weather than satellite communication, heavy
rain and fog can still attenuate the signal. Proper network design and redundancy are needed to mitigate these
issues.
8. Security: Microwave communication can be susceptible to eavesdropping if not properly secured. Encryption
and secure equipment are necessary for data security.

In summary, optical fiber cables offer high bandwidth, low attenuation, security, and immunity to EMI, making them
suitable for high-speed and long-distance data transmission. Microwave communication, on the other hand, relies on
radio waves with line-of-sight requirements, high frequencies, and low latency, making it useful for various applications,
especially in situations where laying physical cables is impractical or expensive. Each technology has its own advantages
and limitations, and the choice depends on specific requirements and constraints.

(b) If a signal with 8 states is sent over 4KHz fibre cable channel, what is maximum data rate?
> The maximum data rate can be calculated using the Nyquist theorem formula:
Maximum Data Rate (R) = 2 × Bandwidth × log2(Number of Signal States)
Given: Bandwidth (B) = 4 kHz Number of Signal States = 8
Plugging in the values: R = 2 × 4 kHz × log2(8) R = 2 × 4 kHz × 3 (since log2(8) = 3) R = 24 kbps
So, the maximum data rate for a signal with 8 states sent over a 4 kHz fiber cable channel is 24 kbps.

(c) What is noise? How thermal noise can be measured?

> Noise refers to unwanted or random variations in a signal that can disrupt or degrade the quality of information being
transmitted or received. It can result from various sources such as electrical interference, environmental factors, or
intrinsic properties of electronic components.
Measuring thermal noise can be done using specialized equipment like a spectrum analyzer. This process involves
connecting the device or circuit of interest to the spectrum analyzer, shielding it from external interference, setting the
frequency range, and analyzing the noise floor on the spectrum analyzer to determine the level of thermal noise.
Thermal noise is typically quantified in units like decibels per hertz (dB/Hz) or decibels relative to a reference (dBm/Hz)
to express its power density at a specific frequency.

(d) What do you mean by simplex, duplex and half duplex mode of data transfer? Explain with examples.
> Simplex Mode: Simplex mode is a unidirectional mode of data transfer where data flows in only one direction, from a
sender to a receiver. In this mode, communication is one-way, and the receiver cannot send data back to the sender. It's
similar to a "one-way street" for data transmission.
Example of Simplex Mode: Television Broadcast: When you watch television, the data (TV signals) is transmitted from
the broadcasting station to your TV set. You can receive and display the information, but your TV cannot send any data
back to the station.
Duplex Mode: Duplex mode allows for bidirectional data transfer, meaning data can flow in both directions
simultaneously. It enables full communication between two devices, allowing them to send and receive data
independently at the same time.

Example of Duplex Mode: Phone Conversation: When you have a phone conversation, both you and the person you're
talking to can speak and listen at the same time. It's a duplex communication mode because data (your voices) flows in
both directions simultaneously.

Half-Duplex Mode: Half-duplex mode also supports bidirectional data transfer, but unlike full-duplex, it allows data to
flow in both directions, but not simultaneously. In half-duplex mode, devices can either send or receive data at any
given moment, but not both at the same time.

Example of Half-Duplex Mode: Walkie-Talkies: When using walkie-talkies, you need to press a button to transmit and
release it to receive. While you're speaking, you can't listen to the other person, and vice versa. This is an example of
half-duplex communication, as both parties can send and receive, but not at the same time.
In summary, simplex mode is unidirectional (one-way) data transfer, duplex mode is bidirectional with simultaneous
transmission in both directions, and half-duplex mode is bidirectional but allows data flow in only one direction at any
given moment. The choice of mode depends on the specific requirements of the communication system and the devices
involved.

4.(a) Write different advantages of using LAN. (3+3+5+2+3=16)

> (a) Advantages of Using LAN:
1. Resource Sharing (3 marks): LANs allow multiple users to share resources such as printers, files, and internet
connections, reducing equipment costs and enhancing efficiency.
2. High Data Transfer Rates (3 marks): LANs provide high data transfer rates, enabling fast and efficient
communication between connected devices.
3. Centralized Data Management (5 marks): LANs facilitate centralized data management and backup, making it
easier to secure, organize, and retrieve information.
4. Scalability (2 marks): LANs can be easily expanded by adding more devices or nodes to accommodate the
growing needs of an organization or network.
5. Collaboration and Communication (3 marks): LANs promote collaboration among users, allowing them to share
information and communicate more effectively through emails, messaging, and file sharing.

(b) Classify different types of LAN.

> (b) Types of LAN:

LANs can be classified into several types, including:

1. Ethernet LAN (Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet): Uses a bus or star topology and is the most common
type of LAN.
2. Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi): Utilizes wireless access points to connect devices without physical cables.
3. Token Ring LAN: Uses a token-passing protocol for data transfer, ensuring orderly communication.
4. Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI): Uses optical fiber cables and provides high-speed data transfer.
5. Power-Line Communication (PLC): Transmits data through electrical wiring within a building.

(c) Discuss the frame format of 802.3 LAN.

>(c) Frame Format of 802.3 LAN:

The frame format of 802.3 LAN (Ethernet) typically consists of the following components:
 Preamble: A 7-byte pattern (10101010) followed by a one-byte start frame delimiter (10101011) to signal the
start of the frame.
 Destination Address: A 6-byte field specifying the MAC address of the intended recipient.
 Source Address: A 6-byte field indicating the MAC address of the sender.
 Type or Length: A 2-byte field that either specifies the type of data (e.g., IP, ARP) or the length of the frame.
 Data: Variable-length field containing the actual data to be transmitted.
 Frame Check Sequence (FCS): A 4-byte CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) used for error detection.

(d) Compare between ethernet and token ring LAN.

> Ethernet employs CSMA/CD, has common topologies like bus and star, and is widely used due to its simplicity and
scalability. Token Ring utilizes token passing, features a ring topology, and offers consistent performance with built-in
fault tolerance, but is less prevalent and has limited scalability.
(e) At a transmission rate of 10 MbPS and propagation speed of 100m/usec, to how many meters of
cable is I-bit delay in a ring interface equivalent?
>(e) I-bit Delay in a Ring Interface:

To calculate the length of cable equivalent to a 1-bit delay in a ring interface, you can use the formula:

Cable Length (meters)=Propagation Speed (meters/second)Transmission Rate (bits/second)Cable Length (meters)=Trans

mission Rate (bits/second)Propagation Speed (meters/second)
Given: Propagation Speed = 100 meters/microsecond (100m/µs) Transmission Rate = 10 Mbps (10 million bits/second)

Plug these values into the formula:

Cable Length=100 m/µs10,000,000 bits/second=0.01 metersCable Length=10,000,000bits/second100m/µs=0.01meters

So, a 1-bit delay in a ring interface with a transmission rate of 10 Mbps and a propagation speed of 100m/µs is
equivalent to 0.01 meters (or 1 centimeter) of cable length.

5. (a) Discuss HDLC protocol in details. (7+4+3+2=16)

> HDLC Protocol:

High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a widely used data link layer (Layer 2) protocol that provides reliable and
efficient communication over various network types. It serves as the basis for several other protocols, including SDLC
(Synchronous Data Link Control) and PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol). Here are the key aspects of HDLC:

1. Frame Structure (7 marks): HDLC frames consist of the following components:

 Flag Delimiters: Frames begin and end with flag sequences (01111110) to indicate the frame
boundaries.
 Address Field: Specifies the destination address.
 Control Field: Contains control information, such as frame type (data, acknowledgment, supervisory),
flow control, and error control.
 Information Field: Carries the actual data.
 Frame Check Sequence (FCS): Provides error detection to ensure data integrity.
 Frame Address Field (FRA): Used for addressing in multi-point configurations.
 Frame Control Information (FCI): Includes additional control information.
2. Modes of Operation (4 marks): HDLC operates in three primary modes:
 Normal Response Mode (NRM): Used in point-to-point links with a primary station and a secondary
station.
 Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM): Suitable for multi-point configurations where all stations have
equal roles.
 Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM): Designed for multi-point configurations with a primary station
and multiple secondary stations.
3. Flow Control (3 marks): HDLC supports flow control mechanisms to manage the rate of data transmission
between the sender and receiver. It uses acknowledgments, windowing, and the "ready to send" (RTS) and
"clear to send" (CTS) signals to regulate data flow.
4. Error Detection (2 marks): HDLC employs Frame Check Sequence (FCS) to detect errors in transmitted frames.
The FCS value is computed at the sender and checked at the receiver to identify any data corruption during
transmission.

(b) Write different advantages and disadvantages of packet switching technique over circuit switching
technique.

>(b) Advantages and Disadvantages of Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching:

Advantages of Packet Switching:

 Efficiency (3 marks): Packet switching is highly efficient as network resources are shared dynamically. It can
transmit multiple data streams simultaneously over the same network, optimizing bandwidth usage.
 Scalability (3 marks): Packet switching networks are inherently scalable. New connections can be established
without dedicated resources, making it suitable for growing traffic demands.
 Resilience (3 marks): Packet switching networks are more resilient to failures. If one path or link fails, packets
can be rerouted through alternate paths, ensuring continued communication.
 Cost-Effective (3 marks): Packet switching is cost-effective because it maximizes the use of network resources
and allows for efficient utilization of infrastructure.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching:

 Variable Latency (3 marks): Packet switching introduces variable latency as packets can take different paths
through the network. This can impact real-time applications like voice and video.
 Potential for Packet Loss (3 marks): Due to the dynamic nature of packet switching, there is a risk of packet
loss, which can affect data integrity. Protocols like TCP mitigate this issue but introduce additional overhead.
 Complex Routing (3 marks): Managing packet-switched networks, especially at a large scale, can be complex
due to the need for efficient routing algorithms and congestion management.
 Overhead (3 marks): Packet switching adds overhead to each packet, including header information and error-
checking, which can reduce the effective bandwidth utilization.

(c) Compare between HDLC and BSC protocol.

> Comparison between HDLC and BSC Protocol:

Aspect HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) BSC (Binary Synchronous Communication)

Layer of Operation Data Link Layer (Layer 2) Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

Synchronization Synchronous Synchronous

Frame Types Supports multiple frame types Typically uses one frame type

Error Detection Includes Frame Check Sequence (FCS) Uses checksum for error detection

Addressing Supports various addressing schemes Typically uses simple address format

Operation Modes NRM, ABM, ARM (various modes) Typically operates in one mode

Efficiency Efficient for various network types Suitable for specific applications
 Aspect HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) BSC (Binary Synchronous Communication)

Usage Used in diverse network environments Historically used for mainframe access

(d) What will be the output after bit stuffing in following data?
1011111110
>Bit Stuffing in "1011111110":

Bit stuffing is a technique used to ensure that a long sequence of 1s does not cause synchronization problems in data
transmission. According to the HDLC bit stuffing rule, a "0" is inserted after every sequence of five consecutive "1s."

So, when we apply bit stuffing to "1011111110," it becomes:

"101111011110"

6. (a) What do you mean by "error detection"? Give an example. (2+2+6+3+3= 16)
>(a) Error Detection:

Error detection is a process in data communication where methods or techniques are employed to determine whether
errors have occurred during the transmission or storage of data. It helps identify if any bits of data have been altered,
lost, or corrupted during the transfer. Error detection does not correct errors but serves to notify the sender or receiver
of their presence so that appropriate actions can be taken.

Example: Parity Bit is a simple error detection method. In even parity, an additional bit (parity bit) is added to a group of
data bits such that the total number of 1s (including the parity bit) is always even. If an odd number of bits are altered
during transmission, the parity check will fail, indicating an error.

(b) What do you mean by error correction? Give an example.

> (b) Error Correction:

Error correction is a process in data communication where methods or techniques are used to not only detect errors
but also to correct them automatically. It involves adding redundant information to the data before transmission and
using this information at the receiver to identify and correct errors. Error correction techniques are more complex than
error detection and are especially valuable in applications where data accuracy is critical.

Example: Hamming Code is an error correction method. It adds redundant bits to the data, allowing the receiver to
detect and correct single-bit errors and detect double-bit errors. Hamming codes are widely used in computer memory
systems.

(c) Write CRC checksum algorithm for detection of error.

> CRC Checksum Algorithm:

The Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is an error-detection algorithm that uses polynomial division to check for errors in
data. Here's a simplified overview of the CRC checksum algorithm:

1. Choose a fixed-length binary divisor (often called the polynomial) of "n" bits. The divisor is typically represented
in binary form.
 2. Append "n-1" zeroes to the end of the data to be sent.
3. Perform binary polynomial division on the extended data using the divisor as the divisor.
4. The remainder obtained from the division (a binary number of "n-1" bits) is the CRC checksum.
5. Send both the original data and the CRC checksum to the receiver.
6. At the receiver's end, the received data and the received CRC checksum are subjected to the same polynomial
division.
7. If the remainder is zero, no errors are detected. If the remainder is nonzero, errors are detected, and the data is
considered corrupted.

(d) Find the remainder, when you divide 101111 by 101 in modulo 2 arithmetic.
>
(e) What is the difference between synchronous and asynchronous transmission.

> Difference Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission:

Synchronous Transmission:

 In synchronous transmission, data is sent in a continuous stream, and both sender and receiver must be
synchronized with a common clock signal.
 Timing is critical, and data is sent in fixed, predefined chunks or frames.
 Start and stop bits are not used.
 Typically used in high-speed, reliable communication systems.
 Examples include Ethernet, SONET, and synchronous serial communication.

Asynchronous Transmission:

 In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one character at a time without the need for a shared clock signal.
 Each character is sent with start and stop bits to frame it, allowing for variable-length data frames.
 Timing does not need to be as precise as in synchronous transmission.
 Well-suited for lower-speed communication and where flexibility in data framing is required.
 Examples include RS-232 serial communication and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM).

7. Write notes (any two):

(a) MAN
> Certainly, here's a note on Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of network that bridges the gap between Local Area Networks (LANs)
and Wide Area Networks (WANs) in terms of geographical coverage. Here are some key characteristics and points about
MANs:

1. Geographic Coverage:

 A MAN typically covers a metropolitan or city-sized area, which can range from a few kilometers to tens of
kilometers in size.
 It is larger in scope than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.

2. Purpose and Usage:

 The primary purpose of a MAN is to interconnect multiple LANs and other network resources within a specific
metropolitan region.
 MANs are often used by organizations, educational institutions, and government entities that have multiple
branches or offices within the same city.
3. Technologies:

 Various communication technologies can be used to establish MANs, including fiber optics, Ethernet, SONET
(Synchronous Optical Networking), and wireless connections.
 These technologies allow for high-speed data transfer and internet connectivity within the metropolitan area.

4. Key Applications:

 Interconnecting Branch Offices: MANs are frequently used to connect branch offices or campuses of an
organization, allowing them to share resources and data efficiently.
 City-Wide Connectivity: MANs support city-wide Wi-Fi networks, providing internet access to residents and
businesses.
 Educational and Government Institutions: Universities and government agencies use MANs to link multiple
campuses and offices for data sharing and communication.

5. Scalability:

 MANs are designed to be scalable, allowing for the addition of new network nodes, offices, or users as the
organization or network's needs grow.

6. Data Transfer Speeds:

 MANs provide high data transfer speeds, making them suitable for applications requiring the rapid exchange of
data and information.

7. Examples:

 An example of a MAN is a city-wide network connecting various government offices, schools, and libraries
within a metropolitan area.
 Another example is a business organization with multiple branch offices across a city, all connected through a
MAN to share data, applications, and internet access.

In summary, a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) serves as the networking infrastructure that links various LANs and
network resources across a city or metropolitan region. It plays a crucial role in facilitating communication, data
exchange, and resource sharing among different entities within the same geographic area.

(b) BSC protocol

>Binary Synchronous Communication (BSC) Protocol:

Binary Synchronous Communication (BSC) is a character-oriented data link layer protocol that was developed by IBM. It
played a significant role in early computer and mainframe systems for data communication and remote terminal access.
Below are important points to understand about the BSC protocol:

1. Character-Oriented:

 BSC operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and is character-oriented. This means that it
processes data in units of characters or bytes rather than individual bits.

2. Frame Structure:

 BSC frames data using a start and stop character, framing each character in a data stream. This framing allows
for the identification and separation of individual characters within the data.
3. Flow Control and Synchronization:

 BSC uses control characters to manage data flow and maintain synchronization between the sender and
receiver. Control characters help in starting and stopping data transmission and provide mechanisms for flow
control.

4. Error Detection:

 To ensure data integrity during transmission, BSC employs a checksum mechanism. A checksum is calculated
and transmitted along with the data. The receiver performs a similar calculation and compares the received
checksum to the calculated one to detect errors.

5. Full-Duplex Operation:

 BSC operates in full-duplex mode, allowing for simultaneous data transmission and reception. This means that
both the sender and receiver can transmit and receive data independently.

6. Historical Significance:

 BSC has historical significance in the development of data communication protocols. It was widely used in the
early days of computing and played a crucial role in enabling remote access to mainframe computers.

7. Replacement by Modern Protocols:

 While BSC was instrumental in its time, it has largely been replaced by more advanced and efficient data link
layer protocols like High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).

8. Use Cases:

 BSC was used in a variety of applications, including mainframe computer connections, remote terminal access,
and early networked systems.

In summary, Binary Synchronous Communication (BSC) was a character-oriented data link layer protocol developed by
IBM for early data communication. It used framing, flow control, error detection, and full-duplex operation to enable
reliable communication in the early days of computing. While it has been largely replaced by modern protocols, it holds
historical significance in the evolution of data communication.

(c) PSK and QPSK

>Phase Shift Keying (PSK) and Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK):

1. Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

 Modulation Technique: PSK, which stands for Phase Shift Keying, is a digital modulation technique used in
communication systems to transmit digital data by varying the phase of the carrier signal.
 Basic Idea: In PSK modulation, the phase of the carrier wave is shifted to represent different symbols or bits.
Each phase shift corresponds to a specific symbol.
 Variants: There are different variations of PSK, with Binary PSK (BPSK) being the simplest. In BPSK, there are two
possible phase shifts: 0 degrees and 180 degrees, which correspond to binary 0 and binary 1, respectively.
 Applications: PSK modulation is widely used in various communication systems, including satellite
communication, wireless networks (Wi-Fi), and digital television broadcasting. It is known for its efficiency in
terms of spectral bandwidth usage.
 Advantages: PSK is efficient and robust in noisy environments. It allows for higher data rates compared to
amplitude modulation techniques.
  Disadvantages: It's sensitive to phase noise and interference. In some variants, like BPSK, it doesn't provide high
data rates as QPSK or higher-order PSK.

2. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK):

 Modulation Technique: QPSK, which stands for Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, is an extension of PSK
modulation and is used for transmitting digital data.
 Basic Idea: In QPSK modulation, there are four possible phase shifts: 0 degrees, 90 degrees, 180 degrees, and
270 degrees. These phase shifts are used to represent two bits of information per symbol.
 Symbol Encoding: Each phase shift corresponds to a unique combination of two bits. For example, 00 might
correspond to 0 degrees, 01 to 90 degrees, 10 to 180 degrees, and 11 to 270 degrees.
 Applications: QPSK is commonly used in communication systems where maximizing data rates in limited
bandwidth is essential. It's employed in satellite communication, digital modems, and some wireless standards
like GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications).
 Advantages: QPSK offers higher data rates compared to BPSK while maintaining spectral efficiency. It provides a
good balance between data rate and robustness in noisy channels.
 Disadvantages: QPSK is still sensitive to phase noise and interference, and it may not be as efficient as higher-
order PSK schemes in terms of spectral usage.

In summary, PSK and QPSK are modulation techniques used in digital communication systems to encode and transmit
digital data by varying the phase of the carrier signal. While PSK is efficient and straightforward, QPSK extends this
concept to represent two bits per symbol, making it suitable for applications where maximizing data rates in limited
bandwidth is important. Both PSK and QPSK have found widespread use in various communication technologies.

(d) WAN
>Wide Area Network (WAN):

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a type of computer network that spans a large geographic area, often encompassing
multiple cities, regions, countries, or even continents. It serves as the vital infrastructure for connecting various Local
Area Networks (LANs), Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs), and other networked devices across long distances. Here
are key points to understand about WANs:

1. Geographic Coverage:

 WANs cover extensive geographical areas, making them suitable for connecting LANs and MANs separated by
significant distances.
 WANs can span from a few kilometers to thousands of kilometers, depending on the specific network's
requirements.

2. Connectivity:

 The primary purpose of WANs is to provide connectivity between geographically dispersed locations. This
includes connecting branch offices, data centers, remote facilities, and even individual users.

3. Technologies:

 WANs utilize various technologies and communication mediums for data transmission over long distances.
These technologies include:
 Leased Lines: Dedicated point-to-point connections, often provided by telecommunications companies.
 Fiber Optics: High-speed optical fiber cables used for transmitting data over long distances with minimal
loss.
 Satellite Links: Communication via satellites orbiting the Earth, often used for remote and global
connectivity.
 Microwave Links: High-frequency radio waves for point-to-point communication.
  Internet Backbone: WANs often rely on the global internet infrastructure for worldwide connectivity.

4. Network Topology:

 WANs can have various topologies, including point-to-point, star, mesh, and hybrid configurations, depending
on the specific requirements of the network.

5. Protocols and Standards:

 WANs operate using a variety of network protocols and standards, including TCP/IP, MPLS (Multiprotocol Label
Switching), and Frame Relay, to facilitate data communication over long distances.

6. Internet as a WAN:

 The global internet itself can be considered the largest WAN. It connects millions of networks and users
worldwide, providing a vast infrastructure for data exchange and communication.

7. Network Management:

 Managing and maintaining WANs can be complex, requiring careful planning, monitoring, and security measures
to ensure reliable and secure communication over long distances.

8. Use Cases:

 WANs are essential for businesses and organizations with multiple branch offices or facilities. They allow for the
sharing of resources, data, applications, and services among geographically dispersed locations.
 WANs also enable remote access for telecommuting, cloud computing, and global collaboration.

9. Cost and Complexity:

 WANs can involve significant costs, both in terms of infrastructure and ongoing operation. They require
specialized hardware, configuration, and maintenance.
 Complex routing and redundancy mechanisms are often employed to ensure high availability and fault
tolerance.

In conclusion, a Wide Area Network (WAN) is a critical component of modern communication and data exchange,
connecting geographically dispersed entities and enabling global connectivity. It forms the backbone for organizations
with distributed operations and plays a pivotal role in today's interconnected world.