UNIT-I

Introduction to Computer
Computer network:-
 Computer networks can be defined as an inter-connection of autonomous
computers.
 Two computers are said to be inter connected when they are able to exchange
information.
Layer Architecture
 Layer architecture simplifies the network design.
 It is easy to debug network applications in a layered architecture network.
 The network management is easier due to the layered architecture.
 Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.
 The protocol defines the format of the data being exchanged, and the control
and timing for the handshake between layers.
Advantages of layered architecture:-
 Layers only created when a different level of abstraction needed.
 Layers perform well defined function.
 Layer functions chosen with international standards in mind.
 Layer boundaries chosen to minimize information flow across boundaries
 Number of layers chosen to handle the various distinct functions one per layer,
but with not too many layers.
OSI MODEL:-
 Open System Inter Connection model was developed by ISO( Internet
Standard for Organization)
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is a set of internationally recognized,
non-proprietary standards for networking and for operating system involved
in networking functions
 The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from
application programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium
(such as wire) to another application programme located on another network.
 The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information
between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more
manageable problems.
 This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as
layering.
OSI Reference Model: 7 Layers: -
 The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers
reduces complexity.
 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.
 Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other
computers.
 The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2,
and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network.
 The upper four layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session—
Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications.
 Data is encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the
layers before network transit.
The Physical Layer: -
 The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one
node to the next node.
 Provides physical connection between the computers.
 Provides physical interface for transmission of information
 The physical layer defines the type of representation (how 0’s & 1’s are
changed to signals)
 It Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another on a
physical communication medium.
 It covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural - aspects for
physical communication.
The Data Link Layer: -
 Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over the physical
layer interface.
 It is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next node.
 A frame is a bit sequence that starts and finishes with a certain (unique) bit
pattern.
 It breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassembles the received frames.
 It creates and detects the frame boundaries.
 Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and retransmission
scheme.
 Implement flow control.
 Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast communication.
 Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication.
 Guarantees that the delivered data is correct, but not that all data is delivered.
The Network Layer: -
 It is responsible for the delivery of packets from the original source to the final
destination.
 Implements routing of frames (packets) through the network.
 Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
 Handles congestion in the network.
 Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks
(Internetworking).
 The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets
to accommodate different media.
The Transport Layer: -
 The transport layer is responsible for process to process delivery of the entire
message.
 Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the exchange of
data between two processes in different computers.
  Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.
 Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
 Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
 Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.
 Provides for the connection management.
 Multiplex multiple connections over a single channel.
The following layers do not have a direct counterpart in most computer
networks. They exist since the OSI model was designed by the large telecom
companies who then envisioned a future where lots of functionality was located in the
networks and the endpoints were pretty dumb terminals, probably not much smarter
than a telephone.

The Session Layer:-

 It is the network dialogue controller.
 It was designed to establish & maintain & synchronize the interaction between
communicating devices.
 Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the
two end systems. It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called
sessions) between applications.
 This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on an end-user’s
request.
 Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by this layer.
 Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection.
 This layer provides services like dialogue discipline which can be full duplex
or half duplex.
 Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such that if a failure
of some sort occurs between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted from
the last checkpoint.

The Presentation Layer:-

 It was designed to handle the syntax & semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
 For outgoing messages, it converts data into a generic format for network
transmission; for incoming messages, it converts data from the generic
network format to a format that the receiving application can understand
 It was designed for data translation, encryption, decryption & compression.
 Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be exchanged
between the two communicating entities.
 Many protocol suites do not include a Presentation Layer.

The Application Layer:-

 Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level
of OSI model.
 Application layer contains management functions to support distributed
applications.
 Provides a set of interfaces for sending and receiving applications to gain
access to and use network services, such as: networked file transfer, message
handling and database query processing.
 Examples of application layer are applications such as file transfer, electronic
mail, remote login etc.
OSI in Action:-
A message begins at the top application layer and moves down the OSI layers
to the bottom physical layer.
As the message descends, each successive OSI model layer adds a header to it.
A header is layer-specific information that basically explains what functions
the layer carried out.
Conversely, at the receiving end, headers are striped from the message as it
travels up the corresponding layers.
The TCP/IP internet model
-------------------------
Application Layer
Application programs using the network
Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
Management of end-to-end message transmission,
error detection and error correction
Network Layer (IP)
Handling of datagrams : routing and congestion
Data Link Layer
Management of cost effective and reliable data delivery,
access to physical networks

Physical Layer
Physical Media
Layers in the TCP/IP Internet environment:-
 There might be several different transport layer protocols, e.g., TCP, UDP and
XTP.
 There might be several different network interfaces, e.g., Ethernet, ProNet,
point-to-point nets, etc. A router connects several, possibly different, physical
networks.
 There is only one IP protocol in an internet, and only one IP process on each
host in the internet TCP/IP and the operating system
Differences to the OSI-model:-
 OSI (and X25, which is an implementation of the OSI model) has link
security.
 TCP/IP has end-to-end security, the links are not reliable.
 In the OSI model, it supports both connection-less & connection oriented
communication in the network layer but connection oriented communication
in the transport layer.
 In TCP/IP, it supports connection less communication in the network layer &
it supports both connection-less & connection oriented communication in the
transport layer.
 OSI was designed before its protocols came into existence.
 TCP/IP is a description of protocols.
 TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application
layer.
 TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network
access layer.
 TCP/IP appears to be a simpler model and this is mainly due to the fact that it
has fewer layers.
 TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model- This is mainly due to the
fact because TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the internet was
developed therefore it mainly gains creditability due to this reason.  Where as
in contrast networks are not usually built around the OSI model as it is merely
used as a guidance tool.
 The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP only has
4 layers.
Network - communication system for connecting end-systems.

End-system - anything that communicates on a network ;) Certainly computers are

end-systems. Network devices such as routers and gateways are also end-systems.
Some people envision a future in which nearly all consumer electronics and
appliances will be end systems (refrigerator, microwave, heating system, etc).

Inter-network - connection of two or more distinct (possible dissimilar) networks.

Usually requires some kind of network device to facilitate the connection.

Protocol - a specification for format of exchange of information between two end-

systems.

 Layers may provide Connection oriented service or Connectionless service to

the upper layers.
 The user is generally most concerned about which service that is given end-to-
end, but the same alternatives may in principle be provided by any layers.
 Connection oriented service: like e.g., the telephone.
1. Establish a connection (dial and get an answer)
2. Communicate over the connection (speak)
3. Delete the connection (hang up)
 Connectionless service:
A complete address must be put on each message, e.g., like on
letters (snail-mails).

 Novell Netware:-

 Novell Netware is a very popular PC networking system, and uses a

proprietary protocol stack based on Xerox Network System (XNS)
 Physical and data link layers can be chosen from various industry standards
including Ethernet, IBM token ring, etc.
 Has an unreliable connectionless inter-network protocol called IPX, like IP but
with 10 byte addresses instead of 4 bytes?
 Has a connection–oriented protocol called NCP (network core protocol)
providing user data transport and other services
 A Novell NetWare IPX packet contains Checksum, Packet length, Transport
control, Packet type, Destination address, Source address, and Data.

ARPANET (Advanced Research projects agency network):-

 It is a small network of connected computers

 the Arpanet (precursor to the Internet) became a reality in 1969

 it connected computers at four universities: UCLA, UCSB, SRI, and Utah

 it employed dedicated cables, buried underground

 the data transfer rate was 56K bits/sec, roughly same as dial-up services today
  the Arpanet demonstrated that researchers at different sites could
communicate, share data, and run software remotely

 ARPANET has 213 hosts. A new host is added approximately once every 20
days.

Internet:-

 Internet is a network of networks that consists of millions of private and public,

academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are
linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless connections, and other
technologies.
 the term “Internet” was coined in recognition of the similarities between the NSF
Net (national science foundation) and the interstate highway system

 backbone connections provided fast communications between principal

destinations, analogous to interstate highways

 connected to the backbone were slower transmission lines that linked secondary
destinations, analogous to state highways

 local connections were required to reach individual computers, analogous to city

and neighborhood roads

 Internet Society is an international nonprofit organization (founded in 1992)

 it maintains and enforces standards, ensuring that all computers on the Internet are
able to communicate with each other

 it also organizes committees that propose and approve new Internet-related

technologies and software

 the Internet carries a vast array of information resources and services, most
notably the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW)
and the infrastructure to support electronic mail, in addition to popular services
such as online chat, file transfer and file sharing, online gaming, and Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP) person-to-person communication via voice and video.

Categories of networks: -
LAN - Local Area Network: -

 A network that connects systems those are physically close (less than 1 mile).
 Typically, LANS are high-speed multi-access networks, for example Ethernet
or token-ring.

 It provides high speed and multi access.

 Allow resource sharing between computers

 It supports bus, star & ring topologies.

MAN - Metropolitan Area Network: -

 They are smaller than a WAN and larger than a LAN.

 Examples include our campus-wide network.

 Uses services provided by a network service provider. (Tel. Company).

 Many Tel. Company provide a popular MAN service called SMDS (Switched
Multi-megabit Data Services

WAN - Wide Area Network: -

 A network that connects systems those are physically far apart. Also known as a
"long haul network".
 They are typically slower than LANs and point-to-point. Often based on
telephone lines and/or satellite communication.

 It is slower than LAN.

 It is less reliable than LAN.

 The connection of individual computers or LANs over a large area (country,

world).

 User using a telephone line to connect to an ISP (Internet Service Provider) is

using a WAN.
Transmission Media:-

 It is the physical path between the transmitter & receiver.

 The transmission media & physical layer is as follows:

Classes of transmission media

• Guided media:- Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from
one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic
cable
• Guided Media, Some thing physically, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic cable.

• Twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable use metallic (copper).

• Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accepts and transports signals in the
form of light.

Twisted Pair cable:-

 Twisted pair cable consists of a pair of insulated wires twisted together.

 It is a cable type used in telecommunication for very long time.
  Cable twisting helps to reduce noise pickup from outside sources and crosstalk
on multi-pair cables.

 Twisted pair cable is good for transferring balanced differential signals.

 The practice of transmitting signals differentially dates back to the early days of
telegraph and radio.

 The advantages of improved signal-to-noise ratio, crosstalk, and ground bounce

that balanced signal transmission brings are particularly valuable in wide
bandwidth and high fidelity systems.

 By transmitting signals along with a 180 degree out-of-phase complement,

emissions and ground currents are theoretically canceled.

 This eases the requirements on the ground and shield compared to single ended
transmission and results in improved EMI performance.

 The most commonly used form of twisted pair is unshielded twisted pair (UTP).

 It is just two insulated wires twisted together.

 Any data communication cables and normal telephone cables are this type.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) differs from UTP in that it has a foil jacket that
helps prevent crosstalk and noise from outside source.

 In data communications there is a cable type called FTP (foil shielded pairs)
which consists of four twisted pair inside one common shield (made of
aluminum foil).

Coaxial Cable:-

 Coaxial Cable has a single copper conductor a plastic layer provides

insulation. Coaxial has a central core conductor of solid copper enclosed in an
insulating sheath.
 Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable

 It is used for cable tv networks & Ethernet LANs.

Different coaxial cable designs are categorized by their radio government (RG)
rating. Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, thickness,
and type of inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of
the outer casing.

Categories of coaxial cables

Optical fiber cable:-

 Optical Fiber is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of
light.
 Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances
than coaxial and twisted pair.

 It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This
capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as
video conferencing and interactive services.

 The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is

difficult to install.

 Light, a form of electromagnetic energy, travels at 300,000 kilometers/second.

The speed decreases as the medium through which the light travels becomes
denser

 Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic
core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference
in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.
 Information is encoded onto a beam of light as a series of on-off flashes that
represent 1 and 0 bits.

Unguided media:-

 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical

conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication

Radio waves:-

 Electro magnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz to 1 GHz are

called as radio waves.
 Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems

 It provides Low data rate for digital communication.

 Radio waves can penetrate walls

Microwaves:-

 Electro magnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 1 GHz to 300 GHz are
called as micro waves
 Microwaves are used for uni-cast communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs.

 Can not penetrate walls

 high data rate

 Requires permission from authorities

Infrared waves:-
  Electro magnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 300 GHz to 1THz are
called as infrared waves
 Can not penetrate walls

 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area

using line-of-sight propagation

Switching:-

 A switched network consists of a series of inter linked nodes called switches.

 When information has to go over a switch in the communications system,
there are several choices of how to switch the information.

 Switching network is classified into 3 types.

 Circuit switched networks

 Packet switched networks

 Message switched networks

Circuit switching:

 A circuit could be set up, causing no delay between switches, but causing
setup time.
 It is made up of set of switches connected by physical links, in which each link
is divided into n channels.
 It takes place at the physical layer.

Message switching:

 Involves sending an entire message from one switch to the next before
forwarding is possible.

Packet switching:

 In which a message is cut into several smaller fixed-sized packets, thus

reducing the wait time at each switch when compared to message switching
 Packet switching is classified into 2 types
 Data gram networks
 Virtual circuit networks
 In data gram network, each packet is treated independently of all others.
 A virtual circuit network is a cross between a circuit switched network & data
gram network.
Synchronous communication:-
A transmission method that requires a constant timing relationship
between the sender & the receiver.
Asynchronous communication:-
Transfer of data with start & stop bits & a variable time interval between
data units.
Narrow band ISDN:-

 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) services offer data transmission

services in addition to the normal voice services, so that information relevant
to a call can be

o Accessed at the same time as the call is answered, and

o It can be accessed on the same line
 ISDN can provide a combination of voice and data to the user.
 The standardization group was eager to offer the new, high speed services to
the world, but the process of constructing standards took so long that by the
time ISDN became widely available, the technology was obsolete.
 Narrow band ISDN is a user to user digital communication.
 It provides integration of different services like call forwarding, call blocking
& media (speech, text, image etc).
Broad band ISDN:-
 It is the further development of N-ISDN.
 It is based on transmission & routing technology.
 The switching technology used in this is ATM which sends fixed-sized cells of
information over a "digital virtual circuit."
 Broadband ISDN provides a service at a rate of 155 Mbps, which is likely to
suffice for a while (compared to N-ISDN, which is already obsolete)
ATM:-

 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is the cell relay protocol designed by the
ATM & adopted by the ITU-T
 ITU-T --- International telecommunication union & T- Telecommunication
standardization sector.
 Cell is a small fixed size block of information.
 ATM can handle real time transmission.
 ATM allows high speed connection.
 ATM uses asynchronous time division multiplexing that is why it is called as
ATM
ATM Architecture:-
 ATM architecture has 2 types of interfaces
 UNI- user to network interface
 NNI- network to network interface
 UNI:- it is an interface between user & an ATM switch.
 NNI:- it is an interface between 2 ATM switches.
 The architecture is shown below:
 The devices which are accessed by the user are called end points.
 These end points are connected to switches inside the network through the
UNI interface.
 Connection between 2 end points is accomplished through transmission paths
(TP), virtual paths (VP) & virtual circuits (VC).
 Transmission path is the physical connection between end-point to a switch or
between 2 switches.
 TP is divided into several virtual paths.
 A virtual path provides a connection or a set of connections between 2
switches.
 Cell network are based on virtual circuits.
 Example:- there are 2 switches in 2 cities . to connect 2 switches in 2 cities ,
A TP is the set of all highways that directly connects the 2 cities, each high way
is a virtual path & the lanes of each high way is a virtual circuit.

 ATM uses packet switching instead of circuit switching, and B-ISDN cannot
run over the existing wires, so B-ISDN will require a massive overhaul of the
existing telecommunications hardware infrastructure.
