Case study on any one layer of OSI model

 What is OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection)?

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is a reference model for how applications
communicate over a network. This model focuses on providing a visual design of
how each communications layer is built on top of the other, starting with the
physical cabling, all the way to the application that's trying to communicate with
other devices on a network.

A reference model is a conceptual framework for understanding relationships. The

purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide technology vendors and developers
so the digital communications products and software programs they create can
interoperate and to promote a clear framework that describes the functions of a
networking or telecommunications system that's in use.

Most vendors involved in telecommunications try to describe their products and

services in relation to the OSI model. This helps them differentiate among the
various transport protocols, addressing schemes and communications packaging
methods. And, although it's useful for guiding discussion and evaluation, the OSI
model is theoretical in nature and should be used only as a general guide. That's
because few network products or standard tools keep related functions together in
well-defined layers, as is the case in the OSI model. The Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite, for example, is the most widely used
network protocol, but even it doesn't map cleanly to the OSI model.

 History of the OSI model

In the 1970s, technology researchers began examining how computer systems
could best communicate with each other. Over the next few years, several
competing models were created and published to the community. However, it
wasn't until 1984 when the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
took the best parts of competing networking reference models to propose OSI as a
way to finally create a framework that technology companies around the world
could use as the basis of their networking technologies.
From ISO's perspective, the easiest way to create a conceptual model was to
organize the models into different abstraction layers required to organize and send
data between computing systems. Looking inside each abstracted layer to see the
details shows one part of this network communication process. Each layer can be
thought of as a separate communication module or piece of the puzzle. But, to
actually accomplish the goal of sending data from one device to another, each
module must work together.

 How the OSI model works

Information technology (IT) networking professionals use OSI to model or
conceptualize how data is sent or received over a network. Understanding this is a
foundational part of most IT networking certifications, including the Cisco
Certified Network Associate (CCNA) and CompTIA Network+ certification
programs. As mentioned, the model is designed to break down data
transmission standards, processes and protocols over a series of seven layers, each
of which is responsible for performing specific tasks concerning sending and
receiving data.

The main concept of OSI is that the process of communication between two
endpoints in a network can be divided into seven distinct groups of related
functions, or layers. Each communicating user or program is on a device that can
provide those seven layers of function.

In this architecture, each layer serves the layer above it and, in turn, is served by
the layer below it. So, in a given message between users, there will be a flow of
data down through the layers in the source computer, across the network and then
up through the layers in the receiving computer. Only the application layer at the
top of the stack doesn't provide services to a higher-level layer.

The seven layers of function are provided by a combination of applications,

operating systems (OSes), network card device drivers, networking hardware and
protocols that enable a system to transmit a signal over a network through various
physical mediums, including twisted-pair copper, fiber optics, Wi-Fi or Long-Term
Evolution (LTE) with 5G.
  7 layers of the OSI model
What is the function of each layer of the OSI model? The seven Open Systems
Interconnection layers are the following.

 Layer 7. The application layer

The application layer enables the user -- human or software -- to interact with the
application or network whenever the user elects to read messages, transfer files or
perform other network-related tasks. Web browsers and other internet-connected
apps, such as Outlook and Skype, use Layer 7 application protocols.

Layer 6. The presentation layer

The presentation layer translates or formats data for the application layer based on
the semantics or syntax the application accepts. This layer also handles the
encryption and decryption that the application layer requires.

 Layer 5. The session layer

The session layer sets up, coordinates and terminates conversations between
applications. Its services include authentication and reconnection after an
interruption. This layer determines how long a system will wait for another
application to respond. Examples of session layer protocols include X.225 and
Zone Information Protocol (ZIP).

 Layer 4. The transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for transferring data across a network and
provides error-checking mechanisms and data flow controls. It determines how
much data to send, where it gets sent and at what rate. TCP within the TCP/IP suite
is the best-known example of the transport layer. This is where the
communications select TCP port numbers to categorize and organize data
transmissions across a network.

 Layer 3. The network layer

The primary function of the network layer is to move data into and through other
networks. Network layer protocols accomplish this by packaging data with correct
network address information, selecting the appropriate network routes and
forwarding the packaged data up the stack to the transport layer. From a TCP/IP
perspective, this is where IP addresses are applied for routing purposes.

 Layer 2. The data-link layer

The data-link, or protocol layer, in a program handles moving data into and out of
a physical link in a network. This layer handles problems that occur as a result of
bit transmission errors. It ensures that the pace of the data flow doesn't overwhelm
the sending and receiving devices. This layer also permits the transmission of data
to Layer 3, the network layer, where it's addressed and routed.

The data-link layer can be further divided into two sublayers. The higher layer,
which is called logical link control (LLC), is responsible for multiplexing, flow
control, acknowledgement and notifying upper layers if transmit/receive (TX/RX)
errors occur.

The media access control sublayer is responsible for tracking data frames using
MAC addresses of the sending and receiving hardware. It's also responsible for
organizing each frame, marking the starting and ending bits and organizing timing
regarding when each frame can be sent along the physical layer medium.

 Layer 1. The physical layer

The physical layer transports data using electrical, mechanical or procedural
interfaces. This layer is responsible for sending computer bits from one device to
another along the network. It determines how physical connections to the network
are set up and how bits are represented into predictable signals as they're
transmitted either electrically, optically or via radio waves.
 The 7 layers
of the OSI model
 Cross-layer functions
Cross-layer functions, or services that may affect more than one layer, include the
following:

 security service telecommunication as defined by the International

Telecommunication Union Standardization Sector (ITU-T) X.800
recommendation;
  management functions that enable the configuration, instantiation,
monitoring and terminating of the communications of two or more
entities;

 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS), which operates at an OSI model

layer that lies between the Layer 2 data-link layer and the Layer 3
network layer -- MPLS can carry a variety of traffic, including Ethernet
frames and IP packets;

 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) translates IPv4 addresses (OSI

Layer 3) into Ethernet MAC addresses (OSI Layer 2); and

 domain name system (DNS), which is an application layer service that's

used to look up the IP address of a domain name.
 Pros and cons of the OSI model
The OSI model has a number of advantages, including the following:

 It's considered a standard model in computer networking.

 The model supports connectionless, as well as connection-oriented,

services. Users can take advantage of connectionless services when they
need faster data transmissions over the internet and the connection-
oriented model when they're looking for reliability.

 It has the flexibility to adapt to many protocols.

 The model is more adaptable and secure than having all services bundled
in one layer.

The disadvantages of the OSI model include the following:

 It doesn't define any particular protocol.

 The session layer, which is used for session management, and the
presentation layer, which deals with user interaction, aren't as useful as
other layers in the OSI model.

 Some services are duplicated at various layers, such as the transport and
data-link layers.
  Layers can't work in parallel; each layer must wait to receive data from
the previous layer.
 OSI model vs. TCP/IP model
The OSI reference model describes the functions of a telecommunication or
networking system, while TCP/IP is a suite of communication protocols used to
interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP and OSI are the most broadly
used networking models for communication.

The OSI and TCP/IP models have similarities and differences. The main similarity
is in their construction, as both use layers, although the OSI model consists of
seven layers, while TCP/IP consists of just four layers.

Another similarity is that the upper layer for each model is the application layer,
which performs the same tasks in each model but may vary according to the
information each receives.

The functions performed in each model are also similar because each uses a
network and transport layer to operate. The OSI and TCP/IP model are mostly used
to transmit data packets, although they each use different means and paths to reach
their destinations.

Additional similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP models include the following:

 Both are logical models.

 Both define standards for networking.

 They each divide the network communication process in layers.

 Both provide frameworks for creating and implementing networking

standards and devices.

 They enable one manufacturer to make devices and network components

that can coexist and work with the devices and components made by
other manufacturers.

 Both divide complex functions into simpler components.

Differences between the OSI and TCP/IP models include the following:

 OSI uses three layers -- application, presentation and session -- to define

the functionality of upper layers, while TCP/IP uses only the application
layer.

 OSI uses two separate layers -- physical and data-link -- to define the
functionality of the bottom layers, while TCP/IP uses only the link layer.

 OSI uses the network layer to define the routing standards and protocols,
while TCP/IP uses the internet layer.

Next: Explore 12 common network protocols all network engineers should

know here.