WHAT IS OSI MODEL?

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer systems
use to communicate over a network. It was the first standard model for network
communications, adopted by all major computer and telecommunication companies in the early
1980s

The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP model. However, the OSI
7-layer model is still widely used, as it helps visualize and communicate how networks operate,
and helps isolate and troubleshoot networking problems.

OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major computer and telecom companies,
and was adopted by ISO as an international standard in 1984.

7. Application Layer

The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It
provides protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful
data to users. A few examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).

6. Presentation Layer

The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two devices should
encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The
presentation layer takes any data transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for
transmission over the session layer.

5. Session Layer

The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It is
responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being
transferred, and closing them when communication ends. The session layer can also set
checkpoints during a data transfer—if the session is interrupted, devices can resume data
transfer from the last checkpoint.

4. Transport Layer

The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into “segments” on
the transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end,
turning it back into data that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out
flow control, sending data at a rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving device,
and error control, checking if data was received incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.

3. Network Layer

The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network packets,
and reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering
the best path across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically
Internet Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two physically-connected
nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to
destination. This layer is composed of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies
network protocols, performs error checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access
Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and define permissions to
transmit and receive data.
 1. Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between network
nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the
devices, and is responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and
1s, while taking care of bit rate control.

ADVANTAGES OF OSI MODEL

The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:

 Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.

 Understand and communicate the process followed by components communicating across a
network. 
 Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing an issue and focusing
efforts on that layer.

The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and networking software vendors:

 Create devices and software that can communicate with products from any other vendor,
allowing open interoperability
 Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
 Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates – for example, only at the
application layer, or across the stack.
 The Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is older than the OSI model and was
created by the US Department of Defense (DoD). A key difference between the models is that
TCP/IP is simpler, collapsing several OSI layers into one:

 OSI layers 5, 6, 7 are combined into one Application Layer in TCP/IP

 OSI layers 1, 2 are combined into one Network Access Layer in TCP/IP – however TCP/IP does
not take responsibility for sequencing and acknowledgement functions, leaving these to the
underlying transport layer.

Other important differences:

 TCP/IP is a functional model designed to solve specific communication problems, and which is
based on specific, standard protocols. OSI is a generic, protocol-independent model intended to
describe all forms of network communication.
 In TCP/IP, most applications use all the layers, while in OSI simple applications do not use all
seven layers. Only layers 1, 2 and 3 are mandatory to enable any data communication.

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WHAT IS NETWORK TOPOLOGY?

A network administrator is responsible for maintaining and improving the performance of an
organization's computer network. They develop, implement and manage the layout or topology
of each network to enhance its function. If you work as a network administrator or are pursuing
a career in this field, then you might be interested in learning about different network topology
types. In this article, we explain what network topology is, list seven types of configurations and
discuss the key features of network topology to help you choose the right setup for different
circumstances.

Network topology refers to the way different computers, devices or nodes connect to each other
in a communication network. It describes their physical arrangement and explains the logical
flow of information throughout the network. A computer network topology can consist of one
physical topology and several logical topologies.

A physical topology explains how computers, devices or nodes connect with each other in a
network based on their location. It involves assessing the physical layout of network cables and
workstations. Conversely, a logical topology explains how data flows from one device to another
based on network protocols. It assesses the way devices communicate with each other
internally. Therefore, network topology defines the virtual shape, layout and structure of a
network from both a physical and logical viewpoint.

TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGY

1. Point-to-point network topology

Point-to-point network topology is the simplest method. This type of network topology involves
connecting two nodes or devices using a common link. The two devices could be two
computers, servers, routers or switches connected to each other with a cable. Point-to-point
network topology is common in computer networking, computer architecture and
telecommunications systems. Some of the advantages of using point-to-point network topology
include:

 High bandwidth and speed

 Low latency
 Easy maintenance

2. Bus network topology

Bus network topology is a foundational method that many network administrators use to connect
all of the devices or nodes to one primary cable with various drop lines and taps. Drop lines are
the cables that connect to the primary cable, also known as the bus, while taps are the
individual connectors. This creates one channel for communication throughout the network.
When someone uses their computer to send a message through this type of network, all of the
connected computers are aware of this action.

However, only the receiver of the message can accept it by verifying its address, which is
attached to the data frame. The rest of the computers in the bus network topology reject the
message automatically. Once the message reaches its destination, a terminator removes this
data from the communication line to prevent data flow disruption and signal bounce. This setup
is often an excellent option for small networks because each computer in the network works
independently while having access to the network's full capabilities. Using bus network topology
offers the following benefits:

 Easy installation and implementation

 Minimal cabling
 Cost efficiency

3. Ring network topology

Ring network topology consists of two primary point-to-point links that connect one device to two
more devices located on each side of it. This creates a ring of devices that data can flow
through until it reaches its target device. In this configuration, the way messages pass from one
device to another is circular and unidirectional. Each device or computer in the ring has access
to the message for a fixed amount of time to assist with the transmission. When the message
reaches its destination, the receiver removes the data. Some of the advantages of using ring
network topology include:

 Easy installation
 Minimal cabling required
 Reduced data collision

4. Star network topology

Star network topology is the most common configuration. In this layout, each device or node
connects to a central network hub. Devices use this central hub to communicate with each other
indirectly. If a device wants to send or receive a message, it must first contact the hub to act as
a middleware between devices. Once the hub understands what type of message the device
wants to send, it transmits it via broadcast or unicast to the designated receivers.

To establish star network topology, network administrators connect each device to the hub
using one input-output port and one cable. The main reason star network topology is so popular
is because it improves network security by preventing data from passing through every device.
Some of the other advantages of using star network topology include:

 Centralized control
 Easy scalability and reconfiguration
 Cost-efficiency

5. Mesh network topology

Mesh network topology involves creating a dedicated point-to-point link between each device in
a network. This allows data to transmit directly between two devices without flowing through
other devices in the same network. There are two primary types of mesh network topologies.
The first is a full mesh network topology. In this configuration, each node connects to every
other node within the network.

The second is a partial mesh network topology. In this layout, some of the nodes may not be
connected to every single node within the network. The links between nodes in both types of
mesh network topologies are typically simplex links, which means the data only moves in one
direction. However, some network administrators may replace two simplex links with duplex
links to allow data to flow between two nodes in both directions simultaneously. Some of the
advantages of using mesh network topology include:

 Fast communication
 More privacy and better security
 Decreased congestion on channels

6. Tree network topology

Tree network topology connects star networks by integrating bus networks to create a parent-
child hierarchy. In this configuration, each node is either directly or indirectly connected to the
primary bus cable. In order to accomplish this, network administrators divide the network into
segments, which makes them easier to maintain. Each segment consists of a primary hub that
connects all of the sub-hubs. Some of the advantages of using tree network topology include:

 Extended distance network coverage

 Limited data loss
 Increased number of direct and indirect nodes

7. Hybrid network topology

Hybrid network topology combines at least two other network topologies. This type of
configuration is popular because it allows network administrators to create network topologies
that are practical and meet the unique needs of each organization. For example, a network
administrator might use a bus network topology to house both a star network topology and a
ring network topology by using drop lines and taps to connect with them.

This makes it easy for network administrators to select the best features of each type of network
topology. It also allows them to customize network topologies for different departments within an
organization to improve the flow of data and increase security as needed. Some of the
advantages of using hybrid network topology include:

 Increased volume of nodes

 Improved flexibility
 Increased reliability

Choosing the right network topology can improve data efficiency, reduce operational costs and
optimize resource allocation. Understanding what features to focus on when comparing different
network topology types can help you make an informed decision. Here are some of the key
features of network topology that may vary depending on the configuration you select:

 Nodes: In networking, nodes refer to connection points, redistribution points and

communication endpoints.
 Cables: The physical network topology consists of several types of cables and
equipment, including coaxial cables, twisted pair cables and optical fiber cables.
 Hub and switch: The hub and switch connect multiple devices in a network, receive
messages and transmit them to the correct nodes or devices.
 Router: A router analyzes, receives and transmits information between different IP
networks by identifying the correct IP addresses of source and destination hosts.
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NAME: JOHN PAUL P. ALCALA PROF: SIR PAUL JOHN SAN ANDRES
YEAR & SECTION: 3 CPE B SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORK and SECURITY