CNS Question bank

Unit 1

What is a computer network ? what are its advantages ?

Computing devices connected by link for exchange of data and sharing of hardware & software
resources with each other.
Components of computer network:

• Message : eg. Text, numbers, pictures,audio, video

• Sender/receiver: minimum two entities are requied ;
eg: computers, telephone,mobile phone , IP camera, printer ,TV etc
• Tx medium: eg. TP,Coax, FOC, radio waves
• Protocol : set of rules

Advantage of network
A) Sharing of computing resources ( H/W & S/W)
• Resource sharing – using network-connected peripheral devices like printers, scanners
and copiers, or sharing common software between multiple users. So saves money.
• Sharing a single internet connection – Instead of having separate internet connection to
every device . So saves money.
• Increasing storage capacity – by having network-attached storage devices shared by all
devices.
B) Sharing of information
• File sharing – you can easily share data between different users,
• centralized network administration: thus less IT support is required
• one centralized database : You can reduce errors and improve consistency :because
all staff work from information Stored at single place

Describe types of networking.

Local area network (LAN)
• is privately owned and connects the devices in a single office or building, or campus .
LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
•

• The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star
• Example of protocol : wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, popularly known as WiFi

A metropolitan area network (MAN)

is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside a
town or a city.

• example of a MAN: is the part of the telephone company network that can provide a
high-speed DSL line to the customer.
• Another example is the cable TV network can also be used for connection to the Internet
in addition to TV channels
• example of Protocols : IEEE 802.16 popularly known as WiMAX.
Wide are network (WAN)
• Spans over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the
whole world
Personal area network (PAN)
Owned by a single person for communicating between different devices such as PC, keyboard,
mouse, printer , sound box etc

BAN (Body area network)

Is the sensors attached to monitor various parameters of the body and measured values are sent to
a PC .

Compare LAN . MAN, WAN

 LAN MAN WAN
Means Local area network Metropolitan area Wide area network
network
Ownership Private Private or public Private or public
coverage (Few km ) ( Few 10s of km ) (100s of km)
Used for Personal use , Office , Town , city Country , continent , world
schools, hospitals etc
Topology Bus , star , ring Switched network Switched network
Networking Least moderate high
cost
Network NIC, switch , Access Modem , router Modem , router, gateway
devices used point for wireless
Eg of 802.3 (ethernet) IEEE 802.16 i.e. ATM, FDDI ,SONET ,
protocols 802.11 ( wireless) ( WiMAX ) HDLC, PPP
used X.25, DSL , DQDB

List & explain Design issues for the Network layers.

The following are the design issues for the layers:

Reliability: making a network that operates correctly even when it is made up of
unreliable components.
Addressing: There are multiple processes running on one machine. Every layer
needs a mechanism to identify senders and receivers.
Error Control: physical communication circuits are not perfect. Many error
detecting and error correcting codes are available. Both sending and receiving ends
must agree to use any one code.
Flow Control: If there is a fast sender at one end sending data to a slow receiver,
then there must be flow control mechanism to control the loss of data by slow
receivers. There are several mechanisms used for flow control such as increasing
buffer size at receivers, slow down the fast sender, and so on.
Multiplexing and De-multiplexing: If the data has to be transmitted on
transmission media separately, it is inconvenient or expensive to setup separate
connection for each pair of communicating processes. So, multiplexing is needed
in the physical layer at sender end and de-multiplexing is need at the receiver end.
Scalability: When network gets large, new problem arises. Thus scalability is
important so that network can continue to work well when it gets large.
Routing: When there are multiple paths between source and destination, only one
route must be chosen. routing algorithms, has to choose optimized route to the
destination.
Confidentiality and Integrity: . Mechanisms that provide confidentiality defend
against threats like eavesdropping. Mechanisms for integrity prevent faulty
changes to messages through authentication and cryptography.
Define network software .

Network software
is defined as a wide range of software that streamlines the operations, design, monitoring, and
implementation of computer networks
Traditional networks were hardware-based and comprised elements such as routers and switches
with embedded software.
Functions of network software
• User management allows administrators to add or remove users from the network.
• File management lets administrators decide the location of data storage and control user
access to that data.
• Access enables users to allow uninterrupted access to network resources.
• Network security systems assist administrators in looking after security and preventing
data breaches.

What is protocol?
protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
It represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices
may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese. our human protocol, there are specific
messages we send, and specific actions we take in response to the received reply messages or
other events.
Eg .

Examples of protocols used in networking : 802.3 ( Ethernet) .802.11( WiFi).802.16 ( WiMax)

TCP , IP etc

Explain ISO OSI model wrt list of functions of each layer, addresses used in each layer ,
three examples of protocols in each layer

International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the standard for network communications
called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was introduced in the 1977
Open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture or changing it. i.e. interoperable
OSI is not protocol but a model .

It has 7 layers .
Each layer has a set of functions different from other layers.
Layer 1,2,3 are called network support layers deals with physicaly moving of data from one
device to next.
Layers 5,6,7 are called host or user support layers allows interoperability among different
software systems.
Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface which defines which services the lower
layer gives to the upper layer.
At each layer a header is added as data units from upper layers are moved from upper layers to
lower at sender ( Tx) side

Headers and trailers are used( interpreted) by corresponding layer in receiver (Rx) and then they
removed before passing the data to upper layer
Functions of each layer

The physical layer:

is responsible for movements of individual bits( in form of signals) from one node to the next. It
converts data to signals (electromagnetic) at sender side and vice versa at receiver side.
Various related functions are : the electrical and physical specifications for device ( interface
and Tx medium) such as the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, encoding(Manchester
etc), modulation , data rate, simplex/duplex, point to point/ multipoint, topology(bus/star etc)
Eg of devices : All devices connected to network have Physical layer .
The data link layer

is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next node. ( i.e. hop to hop)

Related Functions of DLL:

1. Framing : converts bits received from NL into frames
2. Physical addressing: receiver’s MAC ( physical) address is added by sender in frame
3. Flow control: if Rx speed is less than TX , Tx is told by Rx to slow down
4. Error control : Rx detects/corrects errors by using error detection & correction protocols
( for damaged, duplicate or lost frames)
5. Access control: in case of common link between many devices, access to link can be
given to only one device at a time
DLL is split in two sub layers : LLC and MAC
LLC ( logical link control ) does 1 to 4 of above functions
MAC ( media access control ) does 5th function
Eg of devices : All devices connected to network have data link layer .
Eg. of protocols: 802.3 , 802.11 , Bluetooth etc

The network layer

is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host(node) to the
destination host(node) connected in different networks
Here each device is given address called IP address.
Related Functions of NL
1. Logical addressing: ( DLL uses physical address, but across different networks a logical
address is required) which is called Internet Protocol (IP) address
2. Routing: protocols to decide to which path a packet has to be sent so that it reaches RX
3. Connection model: connection-oriented and connectionless communication
Eg of devices : router , gateway , end devices ( PC, laptop , mobile phone etc)

Eg. of protocols : IP , ICMP , IGMP, ARP

The transport layer

is responsible for the delivery of entire message from one process (application ) to another.
Here each process is given address called port address

Analogy :

A letter( message) to one particular person (process) , out of many persons

living in same house ( destination host i.e. computer)

Related Functions of Transport layer

1. Segmentation and reassembly: Segmentation of message at TX and reassembly at Rx.
 2. Connection control : connection oriented or connectionless.
3. Flow control : similar to DLL but here it is source to destination. In DLL it is hop to hop
( node to node)
4. Error control: similar to DLL but here it is process to process, In DLL it is hop to hop.
To make sure entire message arrives at Rx without error( loss, duplication, damage)
Eg of protocols used at TL
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• SCTP

The session layer :

manages the session between source & destination processes ( applications)

Related Functions of session layer

1. controls the dialogues (connections) between computers.
2. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote
application.
3. Authentication( user name , password)
4. full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation,
5. Permissions ( read only , modify , delete )
6. Session restoration (check pointing and recovery)
Eg . of protocols : PAP ( password authentication protocol )
SMPP ( Short Message Peer-to-Peer )
RPC ( Remote Procedure Call Protocol )

The Presentation Layer

1. Translation :for different syntax and semantics. It takes care of syntactical
differences in data representation within the end systems ( source and destination host).
Eg. 1) the conversion of an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file
2) issues of string representation - whether they use the Pascal method (an integer
length field followed by the specified amount of bytes) or the C/C++ method (null-
terminated strings, i.e. “this is a string\0").
2. Encryption : for privacy
3. Compression : to reduce data size before sending
Eg . of protocols : EBCDIC, ASCII , SSL, HTTP/ HTML (agent), FTP (server), Telnet,

The Application Layer

• When a software applications wants to connect with other application , this layer that
implement a communicating component.
Eg when using MS word if you need online help , or to open link embedded in document , its
communication component takes over.
Services of Application Layer
File transfer access & mamangement ( FTAM)
 Mail services
Directory services : information about various objects
Eg : email application such as gmail , outlook , chrome browser, skype etc.
Eg of protocols : FTP , POP , HTTP, SMTP , X.400 . X.500
Summary
L Functions Address data unit Device Examples
ay used
er

A Allow access to N/W ,Helps URL APDU computer HTTP,

Application that need to FTP,
communicate to other nodes DNS,
eg. email, remote file access X.400
& transfer, website access
P Translation , Encryption , -- -- computer telnet,
Compression X.25
PAD,
S Session mgmt ( start, -- message computer PAP,RPC
manage, stop),Authentication ,SMPP
, Permissions
Session restoration
T Process to process delivery, Port address, segment computer TCP, UDP
Segmentation and reassembly (16 bit)
, Connection control , Flow
control , Error control
N Source to destination Logical (IP) Packet Router, IP ,
delivery, Routing , address gateway ICMP,
Connection model (32 bit) IGMP,
D Node to Node delivery, Physical Frame NIC, 802.11,
Framing , Flow control , Error (MAC) switch 802.3
control , Access control address, (48 (ethernet)
bit)
P Convert data to signal and -- Bit NIC, hub 802.11,
vice versa , electrical and ,repeater SONET,
mechanical specifications of 10baseT,
Tx media , encoding, mux X.25
,data rate
Explain TCP/IP model
The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as TCP/IP) is the set of communications
protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks.
It is named from two of the most important protocols in it: the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols defined in
this standard.
It was first used in ARPANET ( by U.S. defense) ,to connect military networks.
So it was robust to failures & flexible to connect different types of networks.
Then it was given to govt. agencies & Universities and then being used in internet.

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed before the OSI model & used in internet.

Internet layer

Internet layer Uses internetworking protocol (IP )

It also has other protocols such as ICMP,IGMP,ARP,RARP to support IP.
1. IP: does delivery of packets from source to destination system
IP is Connection less & Unreliable
Connection less means : The packets are sent from sender to receiver without making
connection first . It also means packets of same message are sent via different paths ( routes).
Unreliable means: IP does not do error checking whether packet has reached the RX without
any error .
So All error checking is done by TCP
2. ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol :used by computers' operating systems to send
error messages . eg a requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be
reached etc.
3. The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to manage the membership of
Internet Protocol multicast groups.
4. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used for finding a host's (physical/MAC) address
when only its Internet Layer (logical/IP) address is known.
5. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) used by a host computer to obtain its Internet
Protocol (IPv4) address when it has only its physical address , but RARP is now obsolete and
replaced by DHCP which has more features.

Transport layer

The protocols in this layer are TCP , UDP & SCTP

1. Transmission control protocol(TCP)

the TCP makes delivery from a process in source system to a process in destination system.
for example a Web browser and a Web server.

functions of TCP :
• connection oriented ,
• Reliable ( provides error control)
• ordered delivery ( sequencing of segments at Receiver).
• Flow control the rate at which data are exchanged and to reduce network traffic
congestion.
applications of TCP : email , browsing

2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Is simplified version of TCP
• Connection less
• Unreliable
applications of UDP :
the Domain Name System (DNS), streaming media applications such as IPTV, Voice over IP
(VoIP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) and many online games.
3. SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
developed for newer application eg VoIP . It combines UDP and TCP’s best features.
is message-oriented whereas TCP is stream-oriented. SCTP can handle multiple simultaneous
streams and multiplexed streams where TCP can handle only a single stream of data per
connection

compare TCP & UDP

TCP
Transmission control protocol
Protocol used in transport layer
connection oriented ,
Reliable
Slower
Supports only unicast ( one to one)
applications of TCP : email , browsing
UDP
User Datagram Protocol
Protocol used in transport layer
Connection less
Unreliable
Faster
Supports unicast , multicast ( one to many ) &
broadcast ( one to all)
Use : Domain Name System (DNS), streaming
media applications such as IPTV, Voice over
IP (VoIP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol
(TFTP) and many online games
Compare ISO-OSI with TCP/IP

ISO-OSI
It has 7 layers ( APSTNDP)
Developed by ISO in 1977
OSI is a reference used as a guidance tool.
More commonly used as teaching aid.
Follows vertical approach.
(Corresponding Layers communicate)
The model came first, and the protocols
later
OSI is a reference model as a guidance
tool. More commonly used as teaching
aids.
defines services, interfaces and protocols
very clearly
TCP/IP
It has 4 layers (ATIN)
Presentation & session layer combined with
application layer. Data link & physical layer are
combined as host to network layer( or network
access layer )
Derived from ARPANET in 1960s & already being
used in internet
TCP/IP model is, implementation of the OSI
model.
Follows horizontal approach. (Adjacent Layers
communicate)
The protocols came first, and the model later was
really just a description of the existing protocols.
TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the
OSI model.
services, interfaces and protocols are not clearly
defined

Describe various addresses used in networking wrt name of layer where it is used , size , how to
find address , how to modify address etc

Four levels of address are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:

physical address IP address Port address

also called as ( MAC address) also called logical address

Used at data link layer
It is assigned to node
( PC, laptop , router etc)
It is 48 bit
Eg 07:01:02:01:2C:4B
Can be found by using
command : ipconfig /all
as Used at network layer
It is assigned to node
( PC, laptop , router etc)
It is 32 bit
Eg 192.168.1.2
Can be found by using
command : ipconfig /all
Used at transport layer
It is assigned to process
(program) which is
communicating
It is 16 bit
eg 753
Can be found by using
command : netstat

Specific address
It is just another representation for IP address . Since it is Difficult for us to remember IP address
which consists of just numbers, so they are represented by user-friendly address.
Eg: www.abc.com
When we enter this URL , it is converted back to IP for actual communication , Which is done
by DNS

What is a topology ? explain its two subtypes. OR

explain operation of various physical topologies with number of links required ,
advantages, disadvantages etc.

Topology
(In Greek language , topos means "place", and logis means "study")
Topology is the mathematical study of shapes.
Two basic categories of network topologies :
1) physical topologies
2) logical topologies.

Physical topology: refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. The topology of a network
is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices(usually called
nodes)to one another.

Logical topology : is the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next. It has
no relation which physical topology is being used

A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology.

Summary & Comparison table of topologies

Mesh Bus Ring Star

Logical
Figure below Figure below Figure below Figure below
diagram
Every node All nodes are
Every node is connected to All nodes
connected to two connected to a
every other node by connected via
other nodes to central device either
separate link common link
form a ring hub or switch
No. of 1 common link
N(N-1) /2 N N
links and N drop lines
Only that path down
Link or Whole network Whole network . when switch is
Only that path down
node break down down down whole N/W
down
cost Most costly Least cost moderate moderate
Most fast since dedicated Least speed since
Speed moderate moderate
paths in two nodes collisions
Whole network is
Failure of
Rest of the network is not Whole network is Whole network is down only when
link or
affected down down central hub/switch is
node
down
1) telephone exchanges,
earlier version of IBMs token ring
2) As a backbone most commonly
Use ethernet LAN but LAN , Now
connecting the main used in LANs
now obsolete obsolete
computers of all networks
Combination of any of these topologies is called Hybrid topology, Which combines advantages of these.
physical topologies

Bus star

Ring Mesh

Hybrid topology ( Bus & star)

logical topologies

What is a transmission media? Draw its taxonomy

Transmission media is anything that can carry info from source to destination in form of EM
signal. Different media has different properties and used for particular applications

Summary / comparison of guided transmission media:

Co axial Twisted pair Fiber optic cable
Diagram Figure 3 Figure 3 Figure 3
Signal sent in form Electrical Electrical light
of
Structure Made of copper, outer Made of Aluminium, Made of glass or plastic ,
conductor in form of braid two twisted wires density of outer cladding is
less than inner core
Signal flow Both directions Both directions Only one direction , so two
FOC required for full duplex
Frequency range ( Moderate ( 500 MHz) Least ( 1MHz ) High ( 186 to 370 THz)
bandwidth )
Speed based on In Mbps, more than UTP 10, 100,200,600 In Gbps
subtype Mbps
Used in topology Bus Star Star , point to point
Sub types Thick , thin UTP , STP Multimode , single mode
Cost Moderate Least most
Noise immunity High Least Highest
Distance in 9 km 2 Km More than 40 Km
repeaters
Use In analog telephone LAN Cable TV , LAN, MAN,
&LAN But now replaced WAN
by UTP or FOC

UTP & STP

Co axial

Fiber optic cable

Summary / Comparison of transmission media ( wireless / unguided )

Radio Microwave Infrared

Range of freq: 3KHz to 1GHz 1 to 300GHz 300 GHz to 400 THz

Propagates in Ground & Sky Line of sight Line of sight

Distance ( based on Long; few hundred Moderate ;50 to 80km Short ;few meters
frequency used) Km

Obstacles Pass through they are reflected by metal; they Can’t Pass through
Obstacles pass through glass, paper, Obstacles
plastic, and similar materials;
and they are absorbed by foods.
Applications in AM , FM radio, TV, Mobile telephones, Remotes for gadgets
wireless sea ,police , military WiFi ( WLAN ), Bluetooth like TV, mouse,
,aviation keyboard, printer etc
communication
communication
Explain twisted pair media wrt subtypes, operation, range of frequencies, attenuation ( loss) ,
delay & repeater spacing

See above tables

Explain co-axial media wrt subtypes, operation, range of frequencies, attenuation ( loss) , delay
& repeater spacing

See above tables

Explain fiber optic cable media wrt subtypes, operation, range of frequencies, attenuation ( loss) ,
delay & repeater spacing

See above tables

Explain wireless media used for communication.

See above tables

List the name of the frequency range & their applications of EM spectrum.

What is a Network Architecture?

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and transmission media.
Network architecture refers to the way network devices and services are structured to serve the
connectivity needs of devices.
The two types of network architectures
1. peer-to-peer also called P2P and
2. client/server also called tiered ( multi levelled)
3. Hybrid

Characteristics of Network Architecture

Fault Tolerance to recover quickly from faults
Scalability. expand quickly to support new devices and applications without impacting the
performance
Quality of Service (QoS). dependable, measurable, and guaranteed quality,
Security
Explain various Network Architecture types.
Network Architecture types:
1. Client-Server
2. Peer To Peer
3. Hybrid
The Client-server model :
In which the server hosts( stores), delivers, and manages most of the resources and services
requested by the client.

In the client-server architecture, when the client computer sends a request for data to the server
through the internet, the server accepts the requested process and deliver the data packets
requested back to the client. Clients do not share any of their resources with server.
Servers provides various services to the client that include access for specific applications,
storage of data, sharing of files & the computing power of the server
Examples of Client-Server Model are web server ,Email server ,file server, DNS , etc.
How the browser interacts with the servers ?
There are few steps to follow to interact the server with a client.
• User enters the URL(Uniform Resource Locator) of the website or file. The Browser then
requests the DNS(DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM) Server.
• DNS Server lookup for the address of the WEB Server.
• DNS Server responds with the IP address of the WEB Server.
• Browser sends over an HTTP/HTTPS request to WEB Server’s IP (provided by DNS
server).
• Server sends over the necessary files of the website.
• Browser then renders the files and the website is displayed. This rendering is done with
the help of DOM (Document Object Model) interpreter, CSS interpreter and JS Engine
collectively known as the JIT or (Just in Time) Compilers.
Advantages of Client-Server model:
• Centralized system with all data in a single place.
• Cost efficient because less maintenance cost.
• The capacity of the Client and Servers can be changed separately.
Disadvantages of Client-Server model:
• Clients are attacked by viruses, Trojans and worms if present in the Server
• Server can be affected by Denial of Service (DOS) attacks.
• Data packets may be spoofed ( modified ) during transmission by hackers
• Phishing or capturing login credentials or other useful information of the user are
common and MITM(Man in the Middle) attacks are common.
Client-Server Architecture Types:
• 1 Tier Architecture
• 2 Tier Architecture
• 3 Tier Architecture
• N Tier Architecture
1 Tier Architecture:
• This architecture contains all types of settings on a single device
2 Tier Architecture:
In this the user interface is on the client device and the related database is stored on the server
device.
3 Tier Architecture:
A middleware lies in between the client and the server machines
• Presentation layer (Users’ Tier) in client machine
• Application layer (Business Tier) in the middleware
• Database Tier (Data Tier) in server machine
N Tier Architecture:
• The approach is also named “Multi-tier architecture”.
This architecture has each function as an isolated layer

A peer-to-peer (P2P) architecture

• consists of a decentralized network of peers –
• peers means the nodes that act both as clients and servers.
• There is no centralized server.
• P2P networks distribute the workload between peers, and all peers contribute and
consume resources within the network without the need for a centralized server.
uses of P2P architecture: File sharing , Instant messaging , Voice Communication , Collaboration
, High Performance Computing
eg. Napster, BitTorrent, Skype, Bitcoin
Advantages
Less cost since no central server & no network operating system
More reliable since no single point of failure (i.e. no server) so can survive attacks
Disadvantages :
If one peer is infected with a virus and uploads a chuck of the file that contains the virus, it can
quickly spread to other peers.
large number of users who use resources shared by other nodes, but who do not share anything
themselves. These type of free riders are called the leechers.
For mobile devices it can be difficult for users to contribute to the network without draining
battery life and using up mobile data.
Hybrid networks
are the networks that are based on both peer-to-peer & client-server relationship.
• Hybrid networks use the best features of workgroups in peer-to-peer networks & performance,
security and reliability of server-based networks.
• Hybrid networks provide all of the centralized services of servers, but also allow users to share
and manage their own resources within the workgroup
application : instant messaging.

Describe switch
It is layer 2 device ( Data link layer & physical layer).
Used to connect PCs to form a LAN in star topology.
switch has many ports (each station is connected to one port) .

There is a dedicated link between PC & switch . therefore run in full duplex with no collisions.
Subtypes : Unmanaged & managed
Unmanaged : No settings of switch can be changed ( plug & play)
managed : settings can be changed such as Turn particular port ON or OFF, Link speed and
duplex settings, VLAN setting etc.

Describe bridge
It is layer 2 device ( Data link layer & physical layer)
It divides LAN into two or more segments & we get more BW per segment.
Eg

In single segment , frame sent by one station travels in whole network ( one collision domain) ,
but bridge limits it to individual segments( many collision domains) thus further increasing
improved speed.
Bridge has filtering capability
It either forwards or drops a frame depending upon destination address .i.e. if destination is on
same side from where frame came, it drops and if not ,then it is forwarded to other side.

Bridge will forward frame from source in segment1 to segment 2 if destination is in segment2
else blocks it . Similarly Bridge will forward frame from source in segment2 to segment 1 if if
destination is in segment 1 else blocks it.
Subtypes :
Transparent bridging : self learning based on traffic
Source route bridging: source machines tell the bridge where to forward a frame. But not used
now a days.
Now a days bridges are replaced by switches.

Explain Router
It is a three layer device also called as 3 layer switch.
which connects LANs and WANs in the internet. (LAN to Wan or WAN to WAN)
It forwards the packets based on their logical addr(IP addr) and routing table.

Routers can connect to different media

Router structure
It has 4 parts
1. i/p ports 2. o/p ports 3. Processor 4. switching fabric

The routing table consists of at least three information fields:-

network id: i.e. the destination network id and not the destination host id
cost: i.e. the cost of metric chosen ( eg delay , throughput, number of hops ) of the path
through which the packet is to be sent
next hop: The next hop, or gateway, is the address of the next station to which the packet is to
be sent on the way to its final destination

The tracert command displays all the routes from your station to station with specified IP or
domain name eg tracert google.com
Netstat (network statistics) is a command line tool for monitoring network connections both
incoming and outgoing as well as viewing routing tables, interface statistics etc.
Subtypes of routers:
SOHO : small offices and home offices.
Subscriber Edge Router: Located at the edge of the subscriber's network,
Inter-provider Border Router: Interconnecting ISPs
Core router: A router that is within the middle or in the backbone of the
LAN network rather than at its periphery

Explain Gateway
Also called as protocol converter.
Works at all 7 layers of OSI or 4 layers of TCP/IP
But the gateway can connect two networks having different protocols 9 (e.g. AppleTalk to
TCP/IP)
A gateway can be implemented in hardware, software or both, but they are usually implemented
by software installed within a computer or router
Thus gateway converts one protocol stack into another. i.e. equipped for interfacing with
another network that uses different protocols, by performing the required protocol
conversions.
In the network for an company, a computer server acting as a gateway node is also does
additional functions as a proxy server and a firewall server.
Some people use the terms router and gateway interchangeably ( Which is wrong)

Compare Bridge & hub

Bridge
Layer in OSI layer 2 ( data link layer)
model but with few ports
connects two LANs or two
segments of same LAN ,
Basic function/
gives more BW to each
application
station by increasing the
number of collision domains
transparent , source routing,
Subtypes
remote bridges
Switch
layer 2 ( data link layer) with more
ports ( one port for each station )
Connects stations of same LAN,
There
is one collision domain per station (
each station has dedicated individual
connection to switch.)
i) Unmanaged , managed
ii) smart, enterprise, store & forward
&
cut through

Compare router & gateway

Router Gateway
Has functions of
which layers of layer 3 Layer 7
OSI model
protocol conversion when
routing of packets from source
basic function connecting two networks which
to destination station
are using different protocols
Subscriber Edge Router, Inter
Subtypes provider Border Router & Core ---
router
proxy server , firewall server ,
other
--- NAT ( network address
applications
translation)

Access point (AP)

AP is a networking hardware device that allows other WiFi devices to connect to a wired
network
An access point is a device that creates a wireless local area network, or WLAN, usually in an
office or large building. An access point connects to a wired router, switch, or hub via an
Ethernet cable, and projects a Wi-Fi signal to a designated area.
IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN called IEEE 802.11,
The standard defines two kinds of services:
1. the basic service set (BSS) and
2. the extended service set (ESS).

A BSS without an AP is called an ad hoc network;

a BSS with an AP is called an infrastructure network.

ESS

Access point supports both standards ethernet ( to connect to wired switch )& Wifi ( to connect
to wireless devices

Subtypes of AP
◼ Standalone access point
provides the same functionality as a switch in the wired network.
◼ Multifunction Access Point
is the combination of many devices, so no need to buy separate devices. Eg .wireless router
which combines an access point, a regular Ethernet switch and a router.

What is Line Coding Scheme?

Data need to converted to electromagnetic signal before sending through to transmission media.
When digital data is converted to digital signal , it is called as line coding.

At sender digital data is converted to digital signal by encoder.

At receiver dig signals is converted to dig data by decoder.

Explain Manchester coding

In this Data is represented by change in signal level (i.e., transitions) rather than levels

It is more reliable , because detection of transition is easier than level detection.

In Manchester , bit 0 is encoded as transition from positive to negative level and bit 1 is encoded
as transition from negative to positive level

Advantages : receiver can easily synchronise , since each bit has a compulsory transistion. (self
clocking)
Disadvantage: There is at least one transition per bit time so bandwidth of Manchester and
differential Manchester is 2 times that of other codings which use level
Application : used in standard Ethernet ( 10 Mbps)
Explain Differential Manchester
In this Data is represented by change in signal level (i.e., transitions) rather than levels
Rule :
▪ if next bit is 1 , no inversion
▪ if next bit is 0 , there is inversion

Advantages : receiver can easily synchronise , since each bit has a compulsory transistion. (self
clocking)
Disadvantage: There is at least one transition per bit time so bandwidth of Manchester and
differential Manchester is 2 times that of other codings which use level

Draw waveforms for 000111for Manchester and differential Manchester coding

Find the data if it was sent by using Manchester coding

Find the data if it was sent by using Differential Manchester coding

What is spread spectrum ?
It is a technique in which original spectrum ( bandwidth) of signal is spread for provide
protection against eavesdropping and jamming.
Eavesdropping means Listen( tapping ) to a channel without authorization .
Jamming means sending noise signal which mixes with original signal sent on channel ,
because of which the receiver is not able to get original signal.

There are two types of spread spectrum

Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
Applications of SS : Used in wireless LAN and WANs

Explain DSSS.
It is Direct sequence spread spectrum . it is type of spread spectrum used for provide protection
against eavesdropping and jamming.

message bits are modulated by a pseudorandom bit sequence known as a spreading sequence.
Also known as a chip.
Eg here one station is assigned a chip 10110111000 . Data is converted to polar format ( bit 1 is
positive voltage & bit 0 is -negative voltage ) and multiplied by chip. Since in one bit period
there are 11 chips bits, the spread signal has 11 times the rate of original signal rate and hence
the BW too.

Application of DSSS:
1. code-division multiple access (CDMA) method,
2. the IEEE 802.11b specification used in Wi-Fi networks, and
3. the Global Positioning System ( GPS)
 Explain FHSS
frequency-hopping spread spectrum
It is type of spread spectrum used for provide protection against eavesdropping and jamming.
It transmits radio signals by rapidly changing the carrier frequency among many distinct
frequencies occupying a large spectral band. The changes are controlled by a code known to only
to transmitter and receiver.

Suppose we decide to have 8 hopping frequencies.

So M is 8 and it requires 3 bit pattern to identify each freq.
Pseudorandom code generator generates 8 different 3 bit patterns randomly . Which is then
repeated after 8 hoppings.
Eg. First 3 bit code generated is 101 , so freq selected from table is 700 Khz. Second generated is
111 , so it selects freq: 900KHz and so on.
These frequencies are used to modulate original signal. Thus generated spread signal hops
around from carrier to carrier as shown .

signals are difficult to intercept since the frequency-hopping pattern is not known to any one
other than transmitter and receiver.
Application :
1.Bluetooth uses FHSS which hops between 79 different 1 MHz-wide channels.
2. in military radio app