Topic No.

OSI and TCP/IP Model

Deepak Chopade

Computer Network?

A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (nodes) that use a common network protocol to share resources with each other over a network medium.

Why Computer Network?

To share information or receive a service via a network, group members must be able to communicate with each other

Communication Model

Communication Model

Source

Generates data to be transmitted Converts data into transmittable signals Carries data Converts received signal into data Takes incoming data

Transmitter Transmission System Receiver Destination

Classification of Computer Networks

Wired, Wireless and Fiber Optic Networks LANs, MANs and WANs Circuit Switched, Packet Switched and Virtual Circuit Switched Networks Access, Distribution and Core Networks

Classification of Computer Networks

Architecture
Common LAN architectures: Ethernet IEEE 802.3, Token Ring, and FDDI.

Access Possibilities
shared-media networks switching networks

Transmission Technology
Broadcast links Point-to-point links

Types of Networks

Local Area Networks (LANs)

Local Area Networks are privately-owned networks within a small area, usually a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers. Since it is restricted in size, that means their data transmission time can be known in advance, and the network management would be easier. LAN characteristics are determined by Topologies MAC (Medium Access Control) Transmission media Size of coverage

LAN

Motivations for Local Area Networking

Local area networks are usually privately owned with limited coverage, this means that the underlying network technologies and network services may be freely selected. This leads to network architectures markedly different from those of Wide Area Networks. The growing demand for local area networks is due to technical, economic and organizational factors:
Cost

reductions through sharing of information and databases, resources and network services. Increased information exchange between different departments in an organization, or between individuals. The trend to automate communication and manufacturing process. Increasing number and variety of intelligent data terminals, PCs and workstations.

Various Local Area Networks

A local area network is a small group of interconnected workstations and associated devices that share the resources within a small geographic area. Usually, a local area network may serve as few as several users or many more. The nowadays main local area network technologies are: Ethernet (Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10G Ethernet) Hipper LAN Token ring ATM LAN FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) Wireless LAN There are also some other technologies such as 100VG, token bus but those are almost obsolete.

LAN Approaches
There are two methods of networking computers together, 1) Peer-to-Peer 2) Client-Server. The proper method to use depends on the requirements.

Peer-to-Peer Networking

It offers a quick way to tie all your resources and people together. Users can access information from and share it directly with others in the network. Users can easily share files and directories in a peer-to-peer network

Peer-to-Peer Networking

Client/Server Networking

Clients are connected to a centralized server. The server provides centralized security, backup, and recover capability and controls access to sensitive files and expensive peripherals. A dedicated server improves data integrity, because the most current version of a document will be saved in one location. This type of network requires a network operating system.

Client/Server Model with Dedicated Servers

Client/Server Model with a General Server

LAN Selections - Wired

Application domains

Office automation Universities/hospitals Factory automation Star Closed systems ISO

ds Standar bodies

Ring Bus Hub/tree

IEEE
NBS

Wired LAN

ECMA Fiber optic

Coax ial cable

EIA

Twisted pair Carrier band

CSM

A/CD

Headend Thin-wire Thick-wire CATV EIA: Electrical Industries Association (USA) ECMA: European Computer Manufacturers Association NBS: National Bureau of Standards RF modem

IEEE LAN Standards

802.1

Higher LAN Protocols 802.2 Logical link control (LLC) 802.3 CSMA/CD (Ethernet) 802.4 Token Bus 802.5 Token Ring 802.6 Metropolitan area network 802.7 Broadband technical advisory 802.8 Fiber optic technical advisory (Obsolete) 802.9 Integrated services LAN 802.10 Interoperable LAN Security 802.11 Wireless LAN 802.12 100 VG-AnyLAN 802.14 Cable-TV based broadband (Obsolete) 802.15 Wireless Personal Area Network 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (WiMAX)

Layers of LAN and OSI Model

OSI LAYERS LAN LAYERS

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical Higher layers Logical link control (LLC) Medium access control (MAC) Physical (PHY)

MAN

MAN
As we have seen, a local area network covers a room, a building or a campus. A metropolitan area network (MAN) covers a city or a region of a city. A wide area network (WAN) covers multiple cities, states, countries, and even the solar system.

Metropolitan Area Network Basics

MANs borrow technologies from LANs and WANs. MANs support high-speed disaster recovery systems real-time transaction backup systems interconnections between corporate data centers and internet service providers, and government, business, medicine, and education highspeed interconnections. Almost exclusively fiber optic systems

Metropolitan Area Network Basics

MANs have very high transfer speeds MANs can recover from network faults very quickly (failover time) MANs are very often a ring topology (not a star-wired ring) Some MANs can be provisioned dynamically

Figure 1-4

WAN

Wide Area Network Basics

WANs used to be characterized with slow, noisy lines. Today WANs are very high speed with very low error rates. WANs often follow a mesh topology.

Wide Area Network Basics

A station is a device that interfaces a user to a network. A node is a device that allows one or more stations to access the physical network and is a transfer point for passing information through a network. A node is often a computer, a router, or a telephone switch. The subnet (old terminology) or physical network is the underlying connection of nodes and telecommunication links.

WAN

Characteristics of WANs

Why WANs?
Federal Express package routing system. American Airlines reservation system. Amazon.com. Visa International payment process system. Any application system that is based on the Internet.

Internet

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private and public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast array of information resources and services, most notably the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW)

Internetwork (Internet)

Intranet

An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet Protocol technologies to securely share any part of an organization's information or operational systems within that organization. The term is used in contrast to internet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network within an organization. Sometimes the term refers only to the organization's internal website, but may be a more extensive part of the organization's information technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private websites and constitute an important component and focal point of internal communication and collaboration.

The OSI Model

An ISO (International standard Organization) that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. An open system is a model that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture (hardware or software). The OSI model is not a protocol; it is model for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable.

The OSI Model

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows for communication across all types of computer systems. The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers: (layer 1) physical layer (layer 2) data link (layer 3) network layer (layer 4) transport layer (layer 5) session layer (layer 6) presentation layer (layer 7) application layer

Peer-to-Peer Process

Within a single machine, each layer calls upon services of the layer just below it. Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4. Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine, by using a protocol (this is Peer-to-Peer Process). Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-peer process using protocols appropriate to a given layer.

Internet Layers (TCP/IP)

Interfaces between Layers

There is an interface between each pair of adjacent layers. This interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for the layer above it.

Physical Layer

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium. It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission occur.

The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.

Physical layer
The physical layer is concerned with the following: Physical characteristics of interfaces and media: The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between devices and the transmission media, including its type. Representation of the bits: the physical layer data consist of a stream of bits without any interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals electrical or optical-. The physical layer defines the type of encoding. Data rate: The physical layer defines the transmission rate, the number of bits sent each second.

Physical Layer

Line configuration: the physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the medium. Physical topology Transmission Mode

Data Link Layer

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link and is responsible for node-to-node delivery. It makes the physical layer appear error free to the upper layer (network layer).

The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next.

Node-to-node delivery

Functions of the data link layer

Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into data units called frames. Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the physical address of the sender (source address) and/or receiver (destination address) of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the senders network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects one network to the next.

Flow Control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver. Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer to the end of the frame. Access Control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any time.

Network Layer
The Network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet possible across multiple networks. If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different networks, there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.

Network Layer
Functions: Logical addressing. Routing

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the original source to the final destination.

Source-to-destination delivery

Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer, among other things, includes the logical address of the sender and receiver. Routing. When independent networks or links are connected together to create an internetwork (a network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or gateways) route or switch the packets to their final destination.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. The network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship between those packets. The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the process-toprocess level.

Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message from one process to another.

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

Functions of the transport layer

Port addressing:computer often run several processes (running programs) at the same time. Process-to-process delivery means delivery from a specific process on one computer to a specific process on the other. The transport layer header include a type of address called port address. The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.

Functions of the transport layer

Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided into transmittable segments, each having a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arrival at the destination. Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.

Functions of the transport layer

Flow control: the transport layer performs a flow control end to end. The data link layer performs flow control across a single link. Error control: the transport layer performs error control end to end. The data link layer performs control across a single link.

The session layer is the network dialog controller. It was designed to establish, maintain, and synchronize the interaction between communicating devices. The presentation layer was designed to handle the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between the two systems. It was designed for data translation, encryption, decryption, and compression. The application layer enables the user to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such electronic email, remote file access, WWW, and so on.

Application layer

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

Summary of duties

Internet Protocol (V4)

IP Packet Format IP Addressing (Classful) Different Classes of Addressing

IP Header

Fragmentation Flags
The next section contains three flags. The first flag is reserved for future use and is set to 0.

DF=0=may fragment DF=1=dont fragment 0 0 1 DF 2 MF

MF=0=last fragment MF=1=more fragments

Fragmentation Sample

IP Header Contd.,

1-ICMP,2 -IGMP,6-TCP,17-UDP

Maximum Transmission Unit

Every hardware technology specification includes the definition of the maximum size of the frame data area called the maximum transmission unit (MTU) Any datagram encapsulated in a hardware frame must be smaller than the MTU for that hardware

MTU and Heterogeneous Networks

An internet may have networks with different MTUs Suppose downstream network has smaller MTU than local network?
Net 1 (MTU = 1500) Net 2 (MTU = 1000)

H1

H2

IP Addressing
IP addresses are 32 bits long. They are represented as four octets in dotted decimal format.

233.14.17.0

The IP address has two components: The network ID The host ID

Layer 3 Addresses

Network ID assigned by ARIN (www.iana.org) identifies the network to which a device is attached may be identified by one, two, or three of the first three octets

Host ID assigned by a network administrator identifies the specific device on that network may be identified by one, two, or three of the last three octets

IP Address Classes

IP addresses are divided into 5 classes, each of which is designated with the alphabetic letters A to E. Class D addresses are used for multicasting. Class E addresses are reserved for testing & some mysterious future use.

IP Address Classes
32 bit address represented as 8 bit dotted decimals different class addresses reserve different amounts of bits for the network and host portions of the address Network & Host Representation By IP Address Class
Class
Class A Class B Class C Network

Octet1
Network Network

Octet2
Host Network Network

Octet3
Host Host Network

Octet4
Host Host Host

IP Address Classes

The 5 IP classes are split up based on the value in the 1st octet:

Number of Hosts

The maximum number of hosts vary for each class. Class A has 16,777,214 available hosts (224 2) Class B has 65,534 available hosts (216 2) Class C has 254 available hosts (28 2)

The first address in each network is reserved for the network address and the
last address is reserved for the broadcast address.

Address Layout

Reserved and Available Address

Class A Address or Range 0.0.0.0 1.0.0.0 through 126.0.0.0 127.0.0.0 128.0.0.0 128.1.0.0 through 191.254.0.0 191.255.0.0 192.0.0.0 192.0.1.0 through 223.255.254 223.255.255.0 224.0.0.0 through 239.255.255.255 240.0.0.0 through 255.255.255.254 255.255.255.255 Status Reserved Available Reserved Reserved Available Reserved Reserved Available Reserved Multicast group addresses Reserved Broadcast

D E

IP Address Class Exercise Answers

Address 10.2.1.1 128.63.2.100 201.222.5.64 192.6.141.2 130.113.64.16 256.241.201.10 Class A B C C B Nonexistent Network 10.0.0.0 128.63.0.0 201.222.5.0 192.6.141.0 130.113.0.0 Host 0.2.1.1 0.0.2.100 0.0.0.64 0.0.0.2 0.0.64.16

How severe is the IPv4 address depletion problem?

There is a shortage of available IPv4 addresses in many areas of the planet. Unequal distribution of available IPv4 addresses during the last decade Europe and South America, even if they have been allocated a sufficient number of IPv4 addresses, are going to face the same problem by the time new terminals will join the Internet. Some examples are: 3rd generation mobile phones, electronics devises, sensors, home appliances, transportation vehicles, airplanes, etc.

Does IPv6 enhance the Internet security in the data communications?

RFC2460 Internet Protocol Version 6 Specifications notes that Authentication and Encapsulation Security Payload SP extensions headers should be supported by the IPv6 hosts
The use of the above headers is not compulsory. Similar functionality is supported from IPv4 Security

The avoidance of NAT/PAT in the IPv6 world improve the e2e security in data transfers. Security in the IPv6 networks is questionable not because of the protocol limitations but due to administrators inexperience. IPv6 protocols, techniques and transition mechanisms may arise security problems in the future.

Does End User privacy is in danger in an IPv6 world?

An IPv6 end systems may automatically create its IPv6 address based on its MAC address and the route advertisement. MAC address is always the same and thus the suffix of the IPv6 address remains the same. RFC3041 Privacy Extensions tries to sort this out allowing hosts to change IPv6 address while connected

The use of IP-based authentication may become tricky. DoS attacks are more difficult to be traced.

Does IPv6 traffic experience more delays than IPv4 traffic?

New hardware/software is designed to switch IPv6 packets as fast as IPv4 traffic Obsolete hardware or software could impose performance penalties to IPv6 traffic compared to IPv4 traffic.

The use of tunnels is gradually minimized in the networks leading to more efficient and stable routing topologies. More and more dual stack applications are designed to use IPv6 before fall back to IPv4. Problems may arise if the IPv6 connectivity is broken. QoS Support in IPv6 header Two header fields; Traffic Class (8-bit) and Flow Label (20-bit) The QoS provisioning means much more than few bits at the IP4/6 packet headers, such as service provisioning, monitoring and SLA/SLS verification, admission control and policy enforcement, etc.

Is IPv6 technology mature?

Latest operating systems support IPv6 protocols, most of them by default. Network equipment vendors support all the IPv6 functionality that is needed for a typical network. Large scale IPv6 deployments have become a reality. IPv6 services are offered in the telecommunication market.

Why IPv6? (Theoretical Reasons)

Only compelling reason:

more IP addresses!

for billions of new users (Japan, China, India,) for billions of new devices (mobile phones, cars, appliances,) for always-on access (cable, xDSL, ethernet-to-the-home,) for applications that are difficult, expensive, or impossible to operate through NATs (IP telephony, peer-to-peer gaming, home servers,) to phase out NATs to improve the robustness, security, performance, and manageability of the Internet

IPv4 Header Details

VersionIndicates the format of the IP header. This field = 4 for IPv4 Header Length-The length of the internet header in 32 bit words, and thus points to the beginning of data. Type of Service-An indication of the abstract parameters of the quality of service desired for the packet. Length-The total length of the datagram, measured in octets, includinginternet header and data. Identification-A value assigned by the sender to aid in reassembling the fragments of a datagram. FlagsVarious control flags. FragOffset-Field indicating where in the datagram this fragment belongs. It is measured in units of 64 bits. Time to LiveField indicating the maximum time the datagram is allowed to remain in the internet system. Protocol-Field indicating the next level protocol used in the data portion of the internet datagram. HDR Checksum-A checksum on the header only. Since some header fields are modified (e.g., time to live), this is recomputed and verified at each point that the internet header is processed. Source Address32 bit IPv4 source address. Destination Address32 bit IPv4 destination address. OptionsA variable length grouping of zero or more option values. Padding-This variable length field ensures the internet header ends on a 32 bit boundary. The padding is zero.

IPv6 Header Details

Version4-bit Internet Protocol version number = 6. Traffic Class-8-bit traffic class field. Flow Label-20-bit flow label. Payload Length-16-bit unsigned integer. Length of the IPv6 payload, i.e., the rest of the packet following the IPv6 header, in octets. Next Header8-bit selector. Identifies the type of header immediately following the IPv6 header. Uses the same values as the IPv4 Protocol field [RFC-1700 et seq.]. Hop Limit-8-bit unsigned integer. Decremented by 1 by each node that forwards the packet. The packet is discarded if Hop Limit is decremented to zero. Source Address128-bit address of the originator of the packet. Destination Address128-bit address of the intended recipient of the packet (possibly not the ultimate recipient, if a Routing header is present)

IPv6 Header compared to IPv4 Header

Ver." Trafc" Class" Flow Label" Hop" Limit" Type of" Ver." Hdr" Service" Len" Identication" Time to" Protocol" Live" Source Address" Destination Address" Options..." Total Length" Flg" Fragment" Offset" Header" Checksum" Next" Payload Length" Header"

Source Address"

Destination Address"

shaded elds have no equivalent in the" other version" IPv6 header is twice as long (40 bytes) as" IPv4 header without options (20 bytes)"

IPv6 Address Representation

Preferred Form Compressed Form Mixed Form Preferred Form

x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x 'x'sare the hexadecimal values of the eight 16-bit pieces of the address. It is not necessary to place leading zeros in a field.

Examples:
FEDC:BA98:7654:3210:FEDC:BA98:7654:3210 1080:0:0:0:8:800:200C:417A

IPv6 Address Representation

Compressed Form

x:x::x:x The use of "::" indicates one or more groups of 16 bits of zeros. The "::" can only appear once in an address.

Examples:
1080:0:0:0:8:800:200C:417A = 1080::8:800:200C:417A 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 = ::1

Mixed Form

x:x:x:x:x:x:d.d.d.d xsare the hexadecimal values of the six high-order 16-bit pieces of the address. dsare the decimal values of the four low-order 8-bit pieces of the address (standard IPv4 representation).

Examples:
0:0:0:0:0:0:13.1.68.3 0:0:0:0:0:FFFF:129.144.52.38

Thank You