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Learning Objectives
• What is a theory of mind?
• How is it assessed?
CHAPTER 13 • What developmental changes occur in the
acquiring of a theory of mind and what factors
SOCIAL COGNITION AND MORAL affect its emergence?
DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 13: Social Cognition and Moral

Development
• Social Cognition: Ability to Understand
psychological differences in others
– Adopt others’ perspectives
• Theory of Mind: False Belief Task
– Where will Sally look for marble when she
returns? (See next slide)
– Used to predict and explain human
behavior before 4 yrs of age
• “He wanted to…” “He intended to…” • The false belief task involving Sally and Anne. The child who has developed a theory of
mind should say that Sally will look in the basket based on her false belief that the marble is
there. The child who fails this false belief task says that Sally will look in the box (where the
child knows the marble has been moved).

Developing a Theory of Mind Nature and Nurture

• Nature: Theory of mind proved adaptive
• Attentive parents – Functioning in a social group
• Joint attention • Gain resources and survive
• Pretend play • Bargaining, conflict resolution,
• Imitation cooperation
• Social experiences • Nurture: Acquiring language and interaction
• Talking about mental states – Having siblings, sensitive parents
• Sensitivity to feelings of others – Using mental states to explain behavior
• “How do you think she felt?”

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Person Perception
• Psychological Traits Observed
– Used to explain behavior
– By about age 7 or 8
• Understanding Personality
– Through adolescence
– Used to evaluate others
Perspectives on Moral Development
• Three components of morality
– Cognitive: Distinguish right from wrong
– Behavioral: Act accordingly (Prosocial)
– Affective: Feel pride and guilt or shame
• Empathy:
• A vicarious experience
• Most are motivated to avoid negative
emotions
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
• Piaget’s Views
– Premoral Period: Not moral beings
– Heteronomous morality: Ages 6-10
• Believe in rules from parents
• Consequences/amount of damage
– Autonomous morality: At ages10-11
• Rules are agreements – not absolutes
• Intention >important than consequences
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Role-Taking Skills
• The ability to adopt another’s perspective
– Moving away from egocentrism
– Essential in thinking about moral issues
• Beginning of empathy – about age 2
• 3-6 yr olds – egocentric
• Age 12+: multiple perspectives
• Socially isolated older adults’ decline related
to processing speed
Psychoanalytic Theory
• Superego: Conscience
– Oedipus Complex
– Internalization of parental morals
• Emotion important in morality
• Responsive parenting important
• Gender differences unsupported
Kohlberg: Reasoning about Moral Dilemmas
• Preconventional: Egocentric
– Punishment and obedience
– Instrumental hedonism
• Conventional: Consideration of Others
– Good boy/girl morality
– Authority/social order maintaining
• Postconventional: Consideration of All
– Morality of contract
– Individual principles of conscience
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Should I drive through that red light? Social Learning Theory

YES
Preconventional
Stage 1: I won’t get caught
Stage 2: I want to get home
Conventional
Stage 3: Everyone does it
Stage 4: I’ve got homework
Postconventional
Stage 5: It’s a stupid law
Stage 6: No harm will be done
NO
I might get caught
I’m not in a hurry
I’m a good person
It’s against the law
I’m a good citizen
Someone might get hurt
• Bandura: Cognitive Self-Regulation
– Anticipation of consequences to self
– Actually apply consequences to self
• Moral Disengagement
– No self condemnation for immoral acts
– Bad acts = Bad behavior must be learned
– “He’s really a good boy anyway.”
• Situational context important

Evolutionary Theory Early Moral Training

• Aspects that are universal
• Morality has been adaptive • Children internalize moral standards
• Altruistic traits aid survival • By 18-24 mo. learn through experiences to:
– Reciprocity is key – Associate negative emotions with violating
rules (relationship w/parent important)
– Humans repay good deeds
– Humans revenge bad deeds – Exert self-control when tempted
• Humans evolved to empathy and morality • Prosocial behavior by age 2 (and earlier)
• Chimpanzee research: Find empathy, • Punishment must always be accompanied by
cooperation, but not altruism an explanation

Intentions and Rules: Research

• Piaget: Consequences versus Intentions

– 3 yr. olds can judge intention
– Theory of mind: “I didn’t mean it!”
• Piaget: questioning rules
– Moral rules by age 2½
– Adult rules often questioned

• Age differences in appreciation that both giving into temptation and resisting temptation can
make a person feel both good and bad about what he or she has done.

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Raising Moral Children

• Social Learning Theory

– R+ moral behavior
– Punish immoral behavior
– Model moral behavior
• Hoffman: Three Approaches to Discipline
– Love withdrawal: negative effects
– Power assertion: moral immaturity
– Induction: related to moral maturity

Temperament and Moral Development The Adolescent

• Fearful, inhibited children • Changes in Moral Reasoning

– Become more fearful when reprimanded
– Use gentle discipline
• Fearless, uninhibited children
– Relationship with parent important
• “Goodness of fit”
• What works for one child may not for another
– Shift to conventional reasoning
– Identity includes moral and values
• Two Kinds of Antisocial Youth
– Temporary in adolescence
– Chronic/seriously aggressive
• Less empathy for distress of others
• Little remorse for criminal behavior

Dodge’s Social Information-Processing

Model
• Individual’s reaction to frustration, anger
– Not simply social cues
– Deficient information processing
– For most, accuracy improves with age
– Aggressive kids show a bias toward
attributing hostile intent/motive
– Also choose aggressive response
– Rejection, abuse in upbringing

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Patterson’s Coercive Family Environments
• Ineffective parenting in childhood
• Family members in power struggle
• Try to control each other coercively
– Threatening, hitting, even abuse
• Unpleasant aggressive child
– Performs poorly in school
– Disliked by other children
• Chooses aggressive peer group
The Adult
• Postconventional reasoning is possible
• Stable through about age 75
• Important moral lessons learned in life
• Spirituality: Search for meaning in life
– Evident among reflective adults
• Religion: Little change even in old age
– Based on longitudinal studies
Kohlberg in Perspective
• Sequence supported
• Devalued parental influence not supported
• Emphasis on peer contributions supported
• Cultural bias
• Liberal bias
• Gender bias not supported
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Nature-Nurture
• Inherit predisposition for aggression
• Child behavior evokes coercive parenting
• Parenting strengthens aggression
• Less opportunity to learn emotional control
• Exposure to violence in society
• Lower SES: Violence to solve problems
• Both bullies and their victims more likely to
behave violently
Advanced Moral Reasoning
• Necessary Cognitive Skills
– Perspective-taking
– Formal operations
• Social Learning Experiences
– Interactions with parents
– Discussions with peers
– Higher education
– Democracy