SAMPLING

Why Sampling
Less Time Less Cost At times only feasible method More Accurate
Sampling & Non-sampling Errors Due to faulty sample Due to faulty tool of data collection Due to Investigators Due to Respondents Due to errors in processing and analysis of data

Response Errors
Characteristics of Interviewers, Interviewers Expectations. Asking Questions, Probing, Recording Answers, Cheating. Length of Questionnaire, Order of Questions, Question Structures, Question Content, Question Wording, Interviewer Instructions, Designated Respondents (are they informed). Place of Interview, Interest in Survey, Who is the Sponsor (for whom is it done).

How to increase response

(Reasons for N.R.: Address changed, Gone on long leave, Dead, Lost questionnaire, Forgot to reply, Not interested, Reluctant to answer) Follow-up request (reminder), send questionnaire again Give incentives - gift Enclose pre-paid reply envelopes Send Interviewers Send shorter version of questionnaire From the beginning use questionnaire and interviewers Substitute the dead, changed address and gone on long leave

Definitions - 1
Population: An aggregate of all the sampling units. Sampling Unit: A unit that takes part in sampling procedure. Unit of Enquiry (Unit of study): The unit about which data are to be collected. Sampling Frame: A complete list (existing or visualized) of all the sampling units in the population.

Sampling Frames
Voters List Census Slips List of Members of a Club, Association Roll Call Register of students in a School/College Attendance Register of Employees in an Office Sequence of products coming out of a machine A queue on Railway Station/Bus Station Vehicles running on a Road

Characteristics of a good Sampling Frame

Relevant (No irrelevant units) No Omission No Duplication Up to date (Recent) Correct (name, telephone number, sex, age, education, occupation, addresses etc.)

Definitions - 2
Random Sampling: A procedure that is governed by the laws of probability. It is a procedure in which the chances of selection of the units is known. Non-random Sampling: A procedure that is not governed by the laws of probability. Simple Random Sampling: A procedure in which all the units in the population have an equal chance of being selected in the sample.

Sampling Procedures - 1
Random (Probability)
Simple Random (with and without replacement) Systematic Random Sampling (Circular Systematic) Stratified Sampling (reduction in variance of estimate) Cluster Sampling (systematic is a case of single cluster) Multistage Sampling (Sub-sampling/Area Sampling) Multiple sampling (double, triple etc.) Sequential Sampling PPS (Self Weighting Design) Replicated Sampling/Inter-penetrated sub-samples

Sampling Procedures - 2
Non-probability
Purposive/Judgement sampling - suitable for in-depth case studies Quota sampling - suitable for representation of varieties, not suitable for estimation Snow-ball sampling - suitable for unidentifiable populations

Use of Random Number Tables

Some concepts - 1
Error: Difference between population value and estimated value. Error = | - x | Accuracy: Degree to which estimated value is equal to population value. Bias: Tendency of sample to favour units with particular values from the population. Bias = | - m | Variance of Estimate: Tendency of the estimate to take different values for different samples.

Some Concepts - 2
Precision: Degree of consistency (homogeneity) in the variance of the estimate. Efficiency: Ratio of variances of the estimates for the two sampling designs. Design A is more efficient than design B if variance of estimate of design A is smaller than the variance of estimate of design B. Variance of estimate for design B Effi. of design A = ------------------------------------------Variance of estimate for design A

Some Concepts - 3
Consistent Estimate: An estimate which has an identical mathematical formula as the formula for the population parameter which it estimates. Unbiased Estimate: An estimate which is likely to be more closer to the value of the parameter it estimates.

Factors Affecting Sample Size

Size of Population (N) Accuracy required in the estimates (Error tolerable) (d) Level of confidence required (Z) Variance of the variable under study (S) 2 2 Z S Initial sample size n = ------- (Assuming large population) 2 d

Final sample size = (N*n)/(N + n)

Sampling Distribution - 1
It could be for any statistic/estimate - such as mean, SD, correlation etc. It is the frequency distribution of the values of the statistic/estimate when all possible samples of a given size with a given random sampling procedure are drawn from the population. For Normal populations the sampling distribution of statistic mean is Normal with mean equal to the population mean and the s.d. equal to W/(1/n-1/N).

Sampling Distribution - 2
Sampling distribution of mean is Normal Sampling distribution of SD is F or G2 Sampling distribution of p is Normal Sampling distribution of correlation r is F or t

Standard Error of Estimate (Replicated sampling / Interpenetrating sub-samples) Confidence Limits

Determination of s and d to be substituted in Sample Size Formula

s from Earlier studies s from Pilot survey s by using Steins method of sampling in two phases d as absolute value or as a percent of the statistic to be estimated Z or t for 90 %, 95% or 99%

Allocation of total sample in Strata

Proportional allocation: Total sample is distributed in the strata in proportion to the size of each stratum. (self weighting sample) Optimum allocation: Total sample is distributed in the strata in proportion to the variance of each stratum.

Ratio Estimate
Y = Total of Study variable (values are not known - to be estimated). X = Total of Auxiliary variable (values are known for each unit). The ratio y/ x found in the random sample is expected to be true for the total population. If sum of study variable is y for corresponding x then total Y is equal to ( y/ x)*X.