THEISRAELLOBBYANDU.S.FOREIGNPOLICY JohnJ.Mearsheimer DepartmentofPoliticalScience UniversityofChicago StephenM.Walt JohnF.KennedySchoolofGovernment HarvardUniversity March2006 RWP06011 ThetwoauthorsofthisWorkingPaperaresolelyresponsiblefortheviews expressedinit.Asacademicinstitutions,HarvardUniversityandthe UniversityofChicagodonottakepositionsonthescholarshipofindividual faculty,andthisarticleshouldnotbeinterpretedorportrayedasreflectingthe officialpositionofeitherinstitution.

AneditedandreworkedversionofthispaperwaspublishedintheLondonReviewof BooksVol.28,No.6(March23,2006),andisavailableonlineatwww.lrb.co.uk

THEISRAELLOBBYANDU.S.FOREIGNPOLICY U.S.foreignpolicyshapeseventsineverycorneroftheglobe.Nowhereisthis truerthanintheMiddleEast,aregionofrecurringinstabilityandenormous strategicimportance.Mostrecently,theBushAdministrationsattemptto transformtheregionintoacommunityofdemocracieshashelpedproducea resilientinsurgencyinIraq,asharpriseinworldoilprices,andterrorist bombingsinMadrid,London,andAmman.Withsomuchatstakeforsomany, allcountriesneedtounderstandtheforcesthatdriveU.S.MiddleEastpolicy. TheU.S.nationalinterestshouldbetheprimaryobjectofAmericanforeign policy.Forthepastseveraldecades,however,andespeciallysincetheSixDay Warin1967,thecenterpieceofU.S.MiddleEastpolicyhasbeenitsrelationship withIsrael.ThecombinationofunwaveringU.S.supportforIsraelandthe relatedefforttospreaddemocracythroughouttheregionhasinflamedAraband IslamicopinionandjeopardizedU.S.security. ThissituationhasnoequalinAmericanpoliticalhistory.WhyhastheUnited Statesbeenwillingtosetasideitsownsecurityinordertoadvancetheinterests ofanotherstate?Onemightassumethatthebondbetweenthetwocountriesis basedonsharedstrategicinterestsorcompellingmoralimperatives.Aswe showbelow,however,neitherofthoseexplanationscanaccountforthe remarkablelevelofmaterialanddiplomaticsupportthattheUnitedStates providestoIsrael. Instead,theoverallthrustofU.S.policyintheregionisduealmostentirelyto U.S.domesticpolitics,andespeciallytotheactivitiesoftheIsraelLobby.Other specialinterestgroupshavemanagedtoskewU.S.foreignpolicyindirections theyfavored,butnolobbyhasmanagedtodivertU.S.foreignpolicyasfarfrom whattheAmericannationalinterestwouldotherwisesuggest,while simultaneouslyconvincingAmericansthatU.S.andIsraeliinterestsare essentiallyidentical.1 Inthepagesthatfollow,wedescribehowtheLobbyhasaccomplishedthisfeat, andhowitsactivitieshaveshapedAmericasactionsinthiscriticalregion. GiventhestrategicimportanceoftheMiddleEastanditspotentialimpacton

others,bothAmericansandnonAmericansneedtounderstandandaddressthe LobbysinfluenceonU.S.policy. Somereaderswillfindthisanalysisdisturbing,butthefactsrecountedhereare notinseriousdisputeamongscholars.Indeed,ouraccountreliesheavilyonthe workofIsraelischolarsandjournalists,whodeservegreatcreditforshedding lightontheseissues.WealsorelyonevidenceprovidedbyrespectedIsraeliand internationalhumanrightsorganizations.Similarly,ourclaimsaboutthe LobbysimpactrelyontestimonyfromtheLobbysownmembers,aswellas testimonyfrompoliticianswhohaveworkedwiththem.Readersmayrejectour conclusions,ofcourse,buttheevidenceonwhichtheyrestisnotcontroversial. THEGREATBENEFACTOR SincetheOctoberWarin1973,WashingtonhasprovidedIsraelwithalevelof supportdwarfingtheamountsprovidedtoanyotherstate.Ithasbeenthe largestannualrecipientofdirectU.S.economicandmilitaryassistancesince1976 andthelargesttotalrecipientsinceWorldWarII.TotaldirectU.S.aidtoIsrael amountstowellover$140billionin2003dollars.2Israelreceivesabout$3billion indirectforeignassistanceeachyear,whichisroughlyonefifthofAmericas foreignaidbudget.Inpercapitaterms,theUnitedStatesgiveseachIsraelia directsubsidyworthabout$500peryear.3Thislargesseisespeciallystriking whenonerealizesthatIsraelisnowawealthyindustrialstatewithapercapita incomeroughlyequaltoSouthKoreaorSpain.4 IsraelalsogetsotherspecialdealsfromWashington.5Otheraidrecipientsget theirmoneyinquarterlyinstallments,butIsraelreceivesitsentireappropriation atthebeginningofeachfiscalyearandthusearnsextrainterest.Mostrecipients ofAmericanmilitaryassistancearerequiredtospendallofitintheUnited States,butIsraelcanuseroughlytwentyfivepercentofitsaidallotmentto subsidizeitsowndefenseindustry.Israelistheonlyrecipientthatdoesnothave toaccountforhowtheaidisspent,anexemptionthatmakesitvirtually impossibletopreventthemoneyfrombeingusedforpurposestheUnitedStates opposes,likebuildingsettlementsintheWestBank. Moreover,theUnitedStateshasprovidedIsraelwithnearly$3billiontodevelop weaponssystemsliketheLaviaircraftthatthePentagondidnotwantorneed, whilegivingIsraelaccesstotopdrawerU.S.weaponrylikeBlackhawk helicoptersandF16jets.Finally,theUnitedStatesgivesIsraelaccessto

intelligencethatitdeniesitsNATOalliesandhasturnedablindeyetowards Israelsacquisitionofnuclearweapons.6 Inaddition,WashingtonprovidesIsraelwithconsistentdiplomaticsupport. Since1982,theUnitedStateshasvetoed32UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil resolutionsthatwerecriticalofIsrael,anumbergreaterthanthecombinedtotal ofvetoescastbyalltheotherSecurityCouncilmembers.7ItalsoblocksArab stateseffortstoputIsraelsnucleararsenalontheInternationalAtomicEnergy Agencysagenda.8 TheUnitedStatesalsocomestoIsraelsrescueinwartimeandtakesitsside whennegotiatingpeace.TheNixonAdministrationresuppliedIsraelduringthe OctoberWarandprotectedIsraelfromthethreatofSovietintervention. Washingtonwasdeeplyinvolvedinthenegotiationsthatendedthatwaraswell asthelengthystepbystepprocessthatfollowed,justasitplayedakeyrolein thenegotiationsthatprecededandfollowedthe1993OsloAccords.9Therewere occasionalfrictionsbetweenU.S.andIsraeliofficialsinbothcases,buttheUnited StatescoordinateditspositionscloselywithIsraelandconsistentlybackedthe Israeliapproachtothenegotiations.Indeed,oneAmericanparticipantatCamp David(2000)latersaid,fartoooften,wefunctioned...asIsraelslawyer.10 Asdiscussedbelow,WashingtonhasgivenIsraelwidelatitudeindealingwith theoccupiedterritories(theWestBankandGazaStrip),evenwhenitsactions wereatoddswithstatedU.S.policy.Moreover,theBushAdministrations ambitiousstrategytotransformtheMiddleEastbeginningwiththeinvasionof IraqisatleastpartlyintendedtoimproveIsraelsstrategicsituation.Apart fromwartimealliances,itishardtothinkofanotherinstancewhereonecountry hasprovidedanotherwithasimilarlevelofmaterialanddiplomaticsupportfor suchanextendedperiod.AmericassupportforIsraelis,inshort,unique. ThisextraordinarygenerositymightbeunderstandableifIsraelwereavital strategicassetoriftherewereacompellingmoralcaseforsustainedU.S. backing.Butneitherrationaleisconvincing. ASTRATEGICLIABILITY AccordingtotheAmericanIsraelPublicAffairsCommittees(AIPAC)website, theUnitedStatesandIsraelhaveformedauniquepartnershiptomeetthe growingstrategicthreatsintheMiddleEast....Thiscooperativeeffortprovides significantbenefitsforboththeUnitedStatesandIsrael.11Thisclaimisan 3

articleoffaithamongIsraelssupportersandisroutinelyinvokedbyIsraeli politiciansandproIsraelAmericans. IsraelmayhavebeenastrategicassetduringtheColdWar.12Byservingas AmericasproxyaftertheSixDayWar(1967),IsraelhelpedcontainSoviet expansionintheregionandinflictedhumiliatingdefeatsonSovietclientslike EgyptandSyria.IsraeloccasionallyhelpedprotectotherU.S.allies(likeJordans KingHussein)anditsmilitaryprowessforcedMoscowtospendmorebacking itslosingclients.IsraelalsogavetheUnitedStatesusefulintelligenceabout Sovietcapabilities. Israelsstrategicvalueduringthisperiodshouldnotbeoverstated,however.13 BackingIsraelwasnotcheap,anditcomplicatedAmericasrelationswiththe Arabworld.Forexample,theU.S.decisiontogiveIsrael$2.2billionin emergencymilitaryaidduringtheOctoberWartriggeredanOPECoilembargo thatinflictedconsiderabledamageonWesterneconomies.Moreover,Israels militarycouldnotprotectU.S.interestsintheregion.Forexample,theUnited StatescouldnotrelyonIsraelwhentheIranianRevolutionin1979raised concernsaboutthesecurityofPersianGulfoilsupplies,andhadtocreateitsown RapidDeploymentForceinstead. EvenifIsraelwasastrategicassetduringtheColdWar,thefirstGulfWar(1990 91)revealedthatIsraelwasbecomingastrategicburden.TheUnitedStates couldnotuseIsraelibasesduringthewarwithoutrupturingtheantiIraq coalition,andithadtodivertresources(e.g.,Patriotmissilebatteries)tokeepTel AvivfromdoinganythingthatmightfracturetheallianceagainstSaddam. Historyrepeateditselfin2003:althoughIsraelwaseagerfortheUnitedStatesto attackSaddam,PresidentBushcouldnotaskittohelpwithouttriggeringArab opposition.SoIsraelstayedonthesidelinesagain.14 Beginninginthe1990s,andespeciallyafter9/11,U.S.supportforIsraelhasbeen justifiedbytheclaimthatbothstatesarethreatenedbyterroristgroups originatingintheAraborMuslimworld,andbyasetofroguestatesthatback thesegroupsandseekWMD.ThisrationaleimpliesthatWashingtonshould giveIsraelafreehandindealingwiththePalestiniansandnotpressIsraelto makeconcessionsuntilallPalestinianterroristsareimprisonedordead.Italso impliesthattheUnitedStatesshouldgoaftercountriesliketheIslamicRepublic ofIran,SaddamHusseinsIraq,andBasharalAssadsSyria.Israelisthusseen asacrucialallyinthewaronterror,becauseitsenemiesareAmericasenemies. 4

Thisnewrationaleseemspersuasive,butIsraelisinfactaliabilityinthewaron terrorandthebroaderefforttodealwithroguestates. Tobeginwith,terrorismisatacticemployedbyawidearrayofpolitical groups;itisnotasingleunifiedadversary.Theterroristorganizationsthat threatenIsrael(e.g.,HamasorHezbollah)donotthreatentheUnitedStates, exceptwhenitintervenesagainstthem(asinLebanonin1982).Moreover, PalestinianterrorismisnotrandomviolencedirectedagainstIsraelorthe West;itislargelyaresponsetoIsraelsprolongedcampaigntocolonizethe WestBankandGazaStrip. Moreimportantly,sayingthatIsraelandtheUnitedStatesareunitedbyashared terroristthreathasthecausalrelationshipbackwards:rather,theUnitedStates hasaterrorismproblemingoodpartbecauseitissocloselyalliedwithIsrael, nottheotherwayaround.U.S.supportforIsraelisnottheonlysourceofanti Americanterrorism,butitisanimportantone,anditmakeswinningthewaron terrormoredifficult.15Thereisnoquestion,forexample,thatmanyalQaeda leaders,includingbinLaden,aremotivatedbyIsraelspresenceinJerusalemand theplightofthePalestinians.AccordingtotheU.S.9/11Commission,binLaden explicitlysoughttopunishtheUnitedStatesforitspoliciesintheMiddleEast, includingitssupportforIsrael,andheeventriedtotimetheattackstohighlight thisissue.16 Equallyimportant,unconditionalU.S.supportforIsraelmakesiteasierfor extremistslikebinLadentorallypopularsupportandtoattractrecruits.Public opinionpollsconfirmthatArabpopulationsaredeeplyhostiletoAmerican supportforIsrael,andtheU.S.StateDepartmentsAdvisoryGrouponPublic DiplomacyfortheArabandMuslimworldfoundthatcitizensinthese countriesaregenuinelydistressedattheplightofthePalestiniansandattherole theyperceivetheUnitedStatestobeplaying.17 AsforsocalledroguestatesintheMiddleEast,theyarenotadirethreattovital U.S.interests,apartfromtheU.S.commitmenttoIsraelitself.Althoughthe UnitedStatesdoeshaveanumberofdisagreementswiththeseregimes, WashingtonwouldnotbenearlyasworriedaboutIran,BathistIraq,orSyria wereitnotsocloselytiedtoIsrael.Evenifthesestatesacquirenuclear weaponswhichisobviouslynotdesirableitwouldnotbeastrategicdisaster fortheUnitedStates.NeitherAmericanorIsraelcouldbeblackmailedbya nucleararmedrogue,becausetheblackmailercouldnotcarryoutthethreat withoutreceivingoverwhelmingretaliation.Thedangerofanuclearhandoff 5

toterroristsisequallyremote,becausearoguestatecouldnotbesurethe transferwouldbeundetectedorthatitwouldnotbeblamedandpunished afterwards. Furthermore,theU.S.relationshipwithIsraelactuallymakesithardertodeal withthesestates.Israelsnucleararsenalisonereasonwhysomeofits neighborswantnuclearweapons,andthreateningthesestateswithregime changemerelyincreasesthatdesire.YetIsraelisnotmuchofanassetwhenthe UnitedStatescontemplatesusingforceagainsttheseregimes,becauseitcannot participateinthefight. Inshort,treatingIsraelasAmericasmostimportantallyinthecampaignagainst terrorismandassortedMiddleEastdictatorshipsbothexaggeratesIsraelsability tohelpontheseissuesandignoresthewaysthatIsraelspoliciesmakeU.S. effortsmoredifficult. UnquestionedsupportforIsraelalsoweakenstheU.S.positionoutsidethe MiddleEast.ForeignelitesconsistentlyviewtheUnitedStatesastoosupportive ofIsrael,andthinkitstoleranceofIsraelirepressionintheoccupiedterritoriesis morallyobtuseandahandicapinthewaronterrorism.18InApril2004,for example,52formerBritishdiplomatssentPrimeMinisterTonyBlairaletter sayingthattheIsraelPalestineconflicthadpoisonedrelationsbetweentheWest andtheArabandIslamicworlds,andwarningthatthepoliciesofBushand PrimeMinisterArielSharonwereonesidedandillegal.19 AfinalreasontoquestionIsraelsstrategicvalueisthatitdoesnotactlikealoyal ally.IsraeliofficialsfrequentlyignoreU.S.requestsandrenegeonpromises madetotopU.S.leaders(includingpastpledgestohaltsettlementconstruction andtorefrainfromtargetedassassinationsofPalestinianleaders).20Moreover, IsraelhasprovidedsensitiveU.S.militarytechnologytopotentialU.S.rivalslike China,inwhattheU.S.StateDepartmentInspectorGeneralcalledasystematic andgrowingpatternofunauthorizedtransfers.21AccordingtotheU.S.General AccountingOffice,Israelalsoconductsthemostaggressiveespionage operationsagainsttheU.S.ofanyally.22InadditiontothecaseofJonathan Pollard,whogaveIsraellargequantitiesofclassifiedmaterialintheearly1980s (whichIsraelreportedlypassedontotheSovietUniontogainmoreexitvisasfor SovietJews),anewcontroversyeruptedin2004whenitwasrevealedthatakey Pentagonofficial(LarryFranklin)hadpassedclassifiedinformationtoanIsraeli diplomat,allegedlyaidedbytwoAIPACofficials.23Israelishardlytheonly

countrythatspiesontheUnitedStates,butitswillingnesstospyonitsprincipal patroncastsfurtherdoubtonitsstrategicvalue.

ADWINDLINGMORALCASE Apartfromitsallegedstrategicvalue,Israelsbackersalsoarguethatitdeserves unqualifiedU.S.supportbecause1)itisweakandsurroundedbyenemies,2)it isademocracy,whichisamorallypreferableformofgovernment;3)theJewish peoplehavesufferedfrompastcrimesandthereforedeservespecialtreatment, and4)Israelsconducthasbeenmorallysuperiortoitsadversariesbehavior. Oncloseinspection,however,eachoftheseargumentsisunpersuasive.Thereis astrongmoralcaseforsupportingIsraelsexistence,butthatisnotinjeopardy. Viewedobjectively,Israelspastandpresentconductoffersnomoralbasisfor privilegingitoverthePalestinians. BackingtheUnderdog? Israelisoftenportrayedasweakandbesieged,aJewishDavidsurroundedbya hostileArabGoliath.ThisimagehasbeencarefullynurturedbyIsraelileaders andsympatheticwriters,buttheoppositeimageisclosertothetruth.Contrary topopularbelief,theZionistshadlarger,betterequipped,andbetterledforces duringthe194749WarofIndependenceandtheIsraelDefenseForces(IDF)won quickandeasyvictoriesagainstEgyptin1956andagainstEgypt,Jordan,and Syriain1967beforelargescaleU.S.aidbeganflowingtoIsrael.24Thesevictories offereloquentevidenceofIsraelipatriotism,organizationalability,andmilitary prowess,buttheyalsorevealthatIsraelwasfarfromhelplesseveninitsearliest years. Today,IsraelisthestrongestmilitarypowerintheMiddleEast.Itsconventional forcesarefarsuperiortoitsneighborsanditistheonlystateintheregionwith nuclearweapons.EgyptandJordansignedpeacetreatieswithIsraelandSaudi Arabiahasofferedtodosoaswell.SyriahaslostitsSovietpatron,Iraqhasbeen decimatedbythreedisastrouswars,andIranishundredsofmilesaway.The Palestiniansbarelyhaveeffectivepolice,letaloneamilitarythatcouldthreaten Israel.Accordingtoa2005assessmentbyTelAvivUniversitysprestigious JaffeeCenterforStrategicStudies,thestrategicbalancedecidedlyfavorsIsrael, whichhascontinuedtowidenthequalitativegapbetweenitsownmilitary capabilityanddeterrencepowersandthoseofitsneighbors.25Ifbackingthe underdogwereacompellingrationale,theUnitedStateswouldbesupporting Israelsopponents. 8

AidingaFellowDemocracy? AmericanbackingisoftenjustifiedbytheclaimthatIsraelisafellowdemocracy surroundedbyhostiledictatorships.Thisrationalesoundsconvincing,butit cannotaccountforthecurrentlevelofU.S.support.Afterall,therearemany democraciesaroundtheworld,butnonereceivesthelavishsupportthatIsrael does.TheUnitedStateshasoverthrowndemocraticgovernmentsinthepastand supporteddictatorswhenthiswasthoughttoadvanceU.S.interests,andithas goodrelationswithanumberofdictatorshipstoday.Thus,beingdemocratic neitherjustifiesnorexplainsAmericassupportforIsrael. TheshareddemocracyrationaleisalsoweakenedbyaspectsofIsraeli democracythatareatoddswithcoreAmericanvalues.TheUnitedStatesisa liberaldemocracywherepeopleofanyrace,religion,orethnicityaresupposed toenjoyequalrights.Bycontrast,IsraelwasexplicitlyfoundedasaJewishstate andcitizenshipisbasedontheprincipleofbloodkinship.26Giventhis conceptionofcitizenship,itisnotsurprisingthatIsraels1.3millionArabsare treatedassecondclasscitizens,orthatarecentIsraeligovernmentcommission foundthatIsraelbehavesinaneglectfulanddiscriminatorymannertowards them.27 Similarly,IsraeldoesnotpermitPalestinianswhomarryIsraelicitizensto becomecitizensthemselves,anddoesnotgivethesespousestherighttolivein Israel.TheIsraelihumanrightsorganizationBtselemcalledthisrestrictiona racistlawthatdetermineswhocanlivehereaccordingtoracistcriteria.28Such lawsmaybeunderstandablegivenIsraelsfoundingprinciples,buttheyarenot consistentwithAmericasimageofdemocracy. Israelsdemocraticstatusisalsounderminedbyitsrefusaltograntthe Palestiniansaviablestateoftheirown.Israelcontrolsthelivesofabout3.8 millionPalestiniansinGazaandtheWestBank,whilecolonizinglandsonwhich thePalestinianshavelongdwelt.Israelisformallydemocratic,butthemillions ofPalestiniansthatitcontrolsaredeniedfullpoliticalrightsandtheshared democracyrationaleiscorrespondinglyweakened. CompensationforPastCrimes AthirdmoraljustificationisthehistoryofJewishsufferingintheChristianWest, especiallythetragicepisodeoftheHolocaust.BecauseJewswerepersecutedfor

centuriesandcanonlybesafeinaJewishhomeland,manybelievethatIsrael deservesspecialtreatmentfromtheUnitedStates. ThereisnoquestionthatJewssufferedgreatlyfromthedespicablelegacyofanti Semitism,andthatIsraelscreationwasanappropriateresponsetoalongrecord ofcrimes.Thishistory,asnoted,providesastrongmoralcaseforsupporting Israelsexistence.ButthecreationofIsraelinvolvedadditionalcrimesagainsta largelyinnocentthirdparty:thePalestinians. Thehistoryoftheseeventsiswellunderstood.WhenpoliticalZionismbeganin earnestinthelate19thcentury,therewereonlyabout15,000JewsinPalestine.29 In1893,forexample,theArabscomprisedroughly95percentofthepopulation, andthoughunderOttomancontrol,theyhadbeenincontinuouspossessionof thisterritoryfor1300years.30EvenwhenIsraelwasfounded,Jewswereonly about35percentofPalestinespopulationandowned7percentoftheland.31 ThemainstreamZionistleadershipwasnotinterestedinestablishingabi nationalstateoracceptingapermanentpartitionofPalestine.TheZionist leadershipwassometimeswillingtoacceptpartitionasafirststep,butthiswasa tacticalmaneuverandnottheirrealobjective.AsDavidBenGurionputitinthe late1930s,Aftertheformationofalargearmyinthewakeoftheestablishment ofthestate,weshallabolishpartitionandexpandtothewholeofPalestine.32 Toachievethisgoal,theZionistshadtoexpellargenumbersofArabsfromthe territorythatwouldeventuallybecomeIsrael.Therewassimplynootherwayto accomplishtheirobjective.BenGurionsawtheproblemclearly,writingin1941 thatitisimpossibletoimaginegeneralevacuation[oftheArabpopulation] withoutcompulsion,andbrutalcompulsion.33OrasIsraelihistorianBenny Morrisputsit,theideaoftransferisasoldasmodernZionismandhas accompanieditsevolutionandpraxisduringthepastcentury.34 Thisopportunitycamein194748,whenJewishforcesdroveupto700,000 Palestiniansintoexile.35IsraeliofficialshavelongclaimedthattheArabsfled becausetheirleaderstoldthemto,butcarefulscholarship(muchofitbyIsraeli historianslikeMorris)havedemolishedthismyth.Infact,mostArableaders urgedthePalestinianpopulationtostayhome,butfearofviolentdeathatthe handsofZionistforcesledmostofthemtoflee.36Afterthewar,Israelbarredthe returnofthePalestinianexiles.

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ThefactthatthecreationofIsraelentailedamoralcrimeagainstthePalestinian peoplewaswellunderstoodbyIsraelsleaders.AsBenGuriontoldNahum Goldmann,presidentoftheWorldJewishCongress,IfIwereanArableaderI wouldnevermaketermswithIsrael.Thatisnatural:wehavetakentheir country....WecomefromIsrael,buttwothousandyearsago,andwhatisthat tothem?TherehasbeenantiSemitism,theNazis,Hitler,Auschwitz,butwas thattheirfault?Theyonlyseeonething:wehavecomehereandstolentheir country.Whyshouldtheyacceptthat?37 Sincethen,IsraelileadershaverepeatedlysoughttodenythePalestinians nationalambitions.38PrimeMinisterGoldaMeirfamouslyremarkedthatthere wasnosuchthingasaPalestinian,andevenPrimeMinisterYitzhakRabin,who signedthe1993OsloAccords,nonethelessopposedcreatingafullfledged Palestinianstate.39PressurefromextremistviolenceandthegrowingPalestinian populationhasforcedsubsequentIsraelileaderstodisengagefromsomeofthe occupiedterritoriesandtoexploreterritorialcompromise,butnoIsraeli governmenthasbeenwillingtoofferthePalestiniansaviablestateoftheirown. EvenPrimeMinisterEhudBarakspurportedlygenerousofferatCampDavidin July2000wouldonlyhavegiventhePalestiniansadisarmedanddismembered setofBantustansunderdefactoIsraelicontrol.40 EuropescrimesagainsttheJewsprovideaclearmoraljustificationforIsraels righttoexist.ButIsraelssurvivalisnotindoubtevenifsomeIslamic extremistsmakeoutrageousandunrealisticreferencestowipingitoffthe mapandthetragichistoryoftheJewishpeopledoesnotobligatetheUnited StatestohelpIsraelnomatterwhatitdoestoday. VirtuousIsraelisversusEvilArabs ThefinalmoralargumentportraysIsraelasacountrythathassoughtpeaceat everyturnandshowedgreatrestraintevenwhenprovoked.TheArabs,by contrast,aresaidtohaveactedwithgreatwickedness.Thisnarrativewhichis endlesslyrepeatedbyIsraelileadersandAmericanapologistssuchasAlan Dershowitzisyetanothermyth.41Intermsofactualbehavior,Israelsconduct isnotmorallydistinguishablefromtheactionsofitsopponents. IsraelischolarshipshowsthattheearlyZionistswerefarfrombenevolent towardsthePalestinianArabs.42TheArabinhabitantsdidresisttheZionists encroachments,whichishardlysurprisinggiventhattheZionistsweretryingto createtheirownstateonArablands.TheZionistsrespondedvigorously,and 11

neithersideownsthemoralhighgroundduringthisperiod.Thissame scholarshipalsorevealsthatthecreationofIsraelin194748involvedexplicit actsofethniccleansing,includingexecutions,massacres,andrapesbyJews.43 Furthermore,IsraelssubsequentconducttowardsitsArabadversariesandits Palestiniansubjectshasoftenbeenbrutal,belyinganyclaimtomorallysuperior conduct.Between1949and1956,forexample,Israelisecurityforceskilled between2,700and5000Arabinfiltrators,theoverwhelmingmajorityofthem unarmed.44TheIDFconductednumerouscrossborderraidsagainstits neighborsintheearly1950s,andthoughtheseactionswereportrayedas defensiveresponses,theywereactuallypartofabroaderefforttoexpandIsraels borders.IsraelsexpansionistambitionsalsoledittojoinBritainandFrancein attackingEgyptin1956,andIsraelwithdrewfromthelandsithadconquered onlyinthefaceofintenseU.S.pressure.45 TheIDFalsomurderedhundredsofEgyptianprisonersofwarinboththe1956 and1967wars.46In1967,itexpelledbetween100,000and260,000Palestinians fromthenewlyconqueredWestBank,anddrove80,000SyriansfromtheGolan Heights.47Itwasalsocomplicitinthemassacreof700innocentPalestiniansat theSabraandShatilarefugeecampsfollowingitsinvasionofLebanonin1982, andanIsraeliinvestigatorycommissionfoundthenDefenceMinisterSharon personallyresponsiblefortheseatrocities.48 IsraelipersonnelhavetorturednumerousPalestinianprisoners,systematically humiliatedandinconveniencedPalestiniancivilians,andusedforce indiscriminatelyagainstthemonnumerousoccasions.DuringtheFirstIntifida (19871991),forexample,theIDFdistributedtruncheonstoitstroopsand encouragedthemtobreakthebonesofPalestinianprotestors.TheSwedish SavetheChildrenorganizationestimatedthat23,600to29,900children requiredmedicaltreatmentfortheirbeatinginjuriesinthefirsttwoyearsofthe intifida,withnearlyonethirdsustainingbrokenbones.Nearlyonethirdofthe beatenchildrenwereagedtenandunder.49 IsraelsresponsetotheSecondIntifida(20002005)hasbeenevenmoreviolent, leadingHaaretztodeclarethattheIDFisturningintoakillingmachine whoseefficiencyisaweinspiring,yetshocking.50TheIDFfiredonemillion bulletsinthefirstdaysoftheuprising,whichisfarfromameasuredresponse.51 Sincethen,Israelhaskilled3.4PalestiniansforeveryIsraelilost,themajorityof whomhavebeeninnocentbystanders;theratioofPalestiniantoIsraelichildren killedisevenhigher(5.7to1).52Israeliforceshavealsokilledseveralforeign 12

peaceactivists,includinga23yearoldAmericanwomancrushedbyanIsraeli bulldozerinMarch2003.53 ThesefactsaboutIsraelsconducthavebeenamplydocumentedbynumerous humanrightsorganizationsincludingprominentIsraeligroupsandarenot disputedbyfairmindedobservers.AndthatiswhyfourformerofficialsofShin Bet(theIsraelidomesticsecurityorganization)condemnedIsraelsconduct duringtheSecondIntifadainNovember2003.Oneofthemdeclaredweare behavingdisgracefully,andanothertermedIsraelsconductpatently immoral.54 ButisntIsraelentitledtodowhateverittakestoprotectitscitizens?Doesntthe uniqueevilofterrorismjustifycontinuedU.S.support,evenifIsraeloften respondsharshly? Infact,thisargumentisnotacompellingmoraljustificationeither.Palestinians haveusedterrorismagainsttheirIsraelioccupiers,andtheirwillingnesstoattack innocentciviliansiswrong.Thisbehaviorisnotsurprising,however,because thePalestiniansbelievetheyhavenootherwaytoforceIsraeliconcessions.As formerPrimeMinisterBarakonceadmitted,hadhebeenbornaPalestinian,he wouldhavejoinedaterroristorganization.55 Finally,weshouldnotforgetthattheZionistsusedterrorismwhentheywerein asimilarlyweakpositionandtryingtoobtaintheirownstate.Between1944and 1947,severalZionistorganizationsusedterroristbombingstodrivetheBritish fromPalestine,andtookthelivesofmanyinnocentciviliansalongtheway.56 IsraeliterroristsalsomurderedU.N.mediatorCountFolkeBernadottein1948, becausetheyopposedhisproposaltointernationalizeJerusalem.57Norwerethe perpetratorsoftheseactsisolatedextremists:theleadersofthemurderplotwere eventuallygrantedamnestybytheIsraeligovernmentandoneofthemwas electedtotheKnesset.Anotherterroristleader,whoapprovedthemurderbut wasnottried,wasfuturePrimeMinisterYitzhakShamir.Indeed,Shamiropenly arguedthatneitherJewishethicsnorJewishtraditioncandisqualifyterrorism asameansofcombat.Rather,terrorismhadagreatparttoplayinourwar againsttheoccupier[Britain].58IfthePalestiniansuseofterrorismismorally reprehensibletoday,sowasIsraelsrelianceuponitinthepast,andthusone cannotjustifyU.S.supportforIsraelonthegroundsthatitspastconductwas morallysuperior.59

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Israelmaynothaveactedworsethanmanyothercountries,butitclearlyhasnot actedanybetter.Andifneitherstrategicnormoralargumentscanaccountfor AmericassupportforIsrael,howarewetoexplainit? THEISRAELLOBBY TheexplanationliesintheunmatchedpoweroftheIsraelLobby.Wereitnotfor theLobbysabilitytomanipulatetheAmericanpoliticalsystem,therelationship betweenIsraelandtheUnitedStateswouldbefarlessintimatethanitistoday. WhatIsTheLobby? WeusetheLobbyasaconvenientshorthandtermfortheloosecoalitionof individualsandorganizationswhoactivelyworktoshapeU.S.foreignpolicyin aproIsraeldirection.Ouruseofthistermisnotmeanttosuggestthatthe Lobbyisaunifiedmovementwithacentralleadership,orthatindividuals withinitdonotdisagreeoncertainissues ThecoreoftheLobbyiscomprisedofAmericanJewswhomakeasignificant effortintheirdailylivestobendU.S.foreignpolicysothatitadvancesIsraels interests.Theiractivitiesgobeyondmerelyvotingforcandidateswhoarepro Israeltoincludeletterwriting,financialcontributions,andsupportingproIsrael organizations.ButnotallJewishAmericansarepartoftheLobby,because Israelisnotasalientissueformanyofthem.Ina2004survey,forexample, roughly36percentofJewishAmericanssaidtheywereeithernotveryornot atallemotionallyattachedtoIsrael.60 JewishAmericansalsodifferonspecificIsraelipolicies.Manyofthekey organizationsintheLobby,likeAIPACandtheConferenceofPresidentsof MajorJewishOrganizations(CPMJO),arerunbyhardlinerswhogenerally supportedtheexpansionistpoliciesofIsraelsLikudParty,includingitshostility totheOsloPeaceProcess.ThebulkofU.S.Jewry,ontheotherhand,ismore favorablydisposedtomakingconcessionstothePalestinians,andafew groupssuchasJewishVoiceforPeacestronglyadvocatesuchsteps.61Despite thesedifferences,moderatesandhardlinersbothsupportsteadfastU.S.support forIsrael. Notsurprisingly,AmericanJewishleadersoftenconsultwithIsraeliofficials,so thattheformercanmaximizetheirinfluenceintheUnitedStates.Asoneactivist withamajorJewishorganizationwrote,itisroutineforustosay:Thisisour 14

policyonacertainissue,butwemustcheckwhattheIsraelisthink.Weasa communitydoitallthetime.62Thereisalsoastrongnormagainstcriticizing Israelipolicy,andJewishAmericanleadersrarelysupportputtingpressureon Israel.Thus,EdgarBronfmanSr.,thepresidentoftheWorldJewishCongress, wasaccusedofperfidywhenhewrotealettertoPresidentBushinmid2003 urgingBushtopressureIsraeltocurbconstructionofitscontroversialsecurity fence.63Criticsdeclaredthat,Itwouldbeobsceneatanytimeforthepresident oftheWorldJewishCongresstolobbythepresidentoftheUnitedStatestoresist policiesbeingpromotedbythegovernmentofIsrael. Similarly,whenIsraelPolicyForumpresidentSeymourReichadvisedSecretary ofStateCondoleezzaRicetopressureIsraeltoreopenacriticalbordercrossingin theGazaStripinNovember2005,criticsdenouncedhisactionasirresponsible behavior,anddeclaredthat,ThereisabsolutelynoroomintheJewish mainstreamforactivelycanvassingagainstthesecurityrelatedpolicies...of Israel.64Recoilingfromtheseattacks,Reichproclaimedthatthewordpressure isnotinmyvocabularywhenitcomestoIsrael. JewishAmericanshaveformedanimpressivearrayoforganizationstoinfluence Americanforeignpolicy,ofwhichAIPACisthemostpowerfulandwellknown. In1997,FortunemagazineaskedmembersofCongressandtheirstaffstolistthe mostpowerfullobbiesinWashington.65AIPACwasrankedsecondbehindthe AmericanAssociationofRetiredPeople(AARP),butaheadofheavyweight lobbiesliketheAFLCIOandtheNationalRifleAssociation.ANationalJournal studyinMarch2005reachedasimilarconclusion,placingAIPACinsecond place(tiedwithAARP)intheWashingtonsmusclerankings.66 TheLobbyalsoincludesprominentChristianevangelicalslikeGaryBauer,Jerry Falwell,RalphReed,andPatRobertson,aswellasDickArmeyandTomDeLay, formermajorityleadersintheHouseofRepresentatives.TheybelieveIsraels rebirthispartofBiblicalprophecy,supportitsexpansionistagenda,andthink pressuringIsraeliscontrarytoGodswill.67Inaddition,theLobbys membershipincludesneoconservativegentilessuchasJohnBolton,thelateWall StreetJournaleditorRobertBartley,formerSecretaryofEducationWilliam Bennett,formerU.N.AmbassadorJeanneKirkpatrick,andcolumnistGeorge Will.

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 SourcesofPower TheUnitedStateshasadividedgovernmentthatoffersmanywaystoinfluence thepolicyprocess.Asaresult,interestgroupscanshapepolicyinmany differentwaysbylobbyingelectedrepresentativesandmembersofthe executivebranch,makingcampaigncontributions,votinginelections,molding publicopinion,etc. Furthermore,specialinterestgroupsenjoydisproportionatepowerwhenthey arecommittedtoaparticularissueandthebulkofthepopulationisindifferent. Policymakerswilltendtoaccommodatethosewhocareabouttheissuein question,eveniftheirnumbersaresmall,confidentthattherestofthe populationwillnotpenalizethem. TheIsraelLobbyspowerflowsfromitsunmatchedabilitytoplaythisgameof interestgrouppolitics.Initsbasicoperations,itisnodifferentfrominterest groupsliketheFarmLobby,steelandtextileworkers,andotherethniclobbies. WhatsetstheIsraelLobbyapartisitsextraordinaryeffectiveness.Butthereis nothingimproperaboutAmericanJewsandtheirChristianalliesattemptingto swayU.S.policytowardsIsrael.TheLobbysactivitiesarenotthesortof conspiracydepictedinantiSemitictractsliketheProtocolsoftheEldersofZion. Forthemostpart,theindividualsandgroupsthatcomprisetheLobbyaredoing whatotherspecialinterestgroupsdo,justmuchbetter.Moreover,proArab interestgroupsareweaktononexistent,whichmakestheLobbystaskeven easier.68 StrategiesforSuccess TheLobbypursuestwobroadstrategiestopromoteU.S.supportforIsrael.First, itwieldssignificantinfluenceinWashington,pressuringbothCongressandthe ExecutivebranchtosupportIsraeldowntheline.Whateveranindividual lawmakerorpolicymakersownviews,theLobbytriestomakesupportingIsrael thesmartpoliticalchoice. Second,theLobbystrivestoensurethatpublicdiscourseaboutIsraelportraysit inapositivelight,byrepeatingmythsaboutIsraelanditsfoundingandby publicizingIsraelssideinthepolicydebatesoftheday.Thegoalistoprevent criticalcommentaryaboutIsraelfromgettingafairhearinginthepoliticalarena. ControllingthedebateisessentialtoguaranteeingU.S.support,becausea 16

candiddiscussionofU.S.IsraelirelationsmightleadAmericanstofavora differentpolicy. InfluencingCongress AkeypillaroftheLobbyseffectivenessisitsinfluenceintheU.S.Congress, whereIsraelisvirtuallyimmunefromcriticism.Thisisinitselfaremarkable situation,becauseCongressalmostnevershiesawayfromcontentiousissues. Whethertheissueisabortion,affirmativeaction,healthcare,orwelfare,thereis certaintobealivelydebateonCapitolHill.WhereIsraelisconcerned,however, potentialcriticsfallsilentandthereishardlyanydebateatall. OnereasonfortheLobbyssuccesswithCongressisthatsomekeymembersare ChristianZionistslikeDickArmey,whosaidinSeptember2002thatMyNo.1 priorityinforeignpolicyistoprotectIsrael.69Onewouldthinkthatthenumber 1priorityforanycongressmanwouldbetoprotectAmerica,butthatisnot whatArmeysaid.TherearealsoJewishsenatorsandcongressmenwhoworkto makeU.S.foreignpolicysupportIsraelsinterests. ProIsraelcongressionalstaffersareanothersourceoftheLobbyspower.As MorrisAmitay,aformerheadofAIPAC,onceadmitted,Therearealotofguys attheworkingleveluphere[onCapitolHill]whohappentobeJewish,who arewillingtolookatcertainissuesintermsoftheirJewishness.Theseare allguyswhoareinapositiontomakethedecisionintheseareasforthose senators.Youcangetanawfullotdonejustatthestafflevel.70 ItisAIPACitself,however,thatformsthecoreoftheLobbysinfluencein Congress.AIPACssuccessisduetoitsabilitytorewardlegislatorsand congressionalcandidateswhosupportitsagenda,andtopunishthosewho challengeit.MoneyiscriticaltoU.S.elections(astherecentscandalover lobbyistJackAbramoffsvariousshadydealingsremindsus),andAIPACmakes surethatitsfriendsgetstrongfinancialsupportfromthemyriadproIsrael politicalactioncommittees.ThoseseenashostiletoIsrael,ontheotherhand, canbesurethatAIPACwilldirectcampaigncontributionstotheirpolitical opponents.AIPACalsoorganizesletterwritingcampaignsandencourages newspapereditorstoendorseproIsraelcandidates. Thereisnodoubtaboutthepotencyofthesetactics.Totakebutoneexample,in 1984AIPAChelpeddefeatSenatorCharlesPercyfromIllinois,who,accordingto oneprominentLobbyfigure,haddisplayedinsensitivityandevenhostilityto 17

ourconcerns.ThomasDine,theheadofAIPACatthetime,explainedwhat happened:AlltheJewsinAmerica,fromcoasttocoast,gatheredtooustPercy. AndtheAmericanpoliticiansthosewhoholdpublicpositionsnow,andthose whoaspiregotthemessage.71AIPACprizesitsreputationasaformidable adversary,ofcourse,becauseitdiscouragesanyonefromquestioningitsagenda. AIPACsinfluenceonCapitolHillgoesevenfurther,however.Accordingto DouglasBloomfield,aformerAIPACstaffmember,Itiscommonformembers ofCongressandtheirstaffstoturntoAIPACfirstwhentheyneedinformation, beforecallingtheLibraryofCongress,theCongressionalResearchService, committeestafforadministrationexperts.72Moreimportantly,henotesthat AIPACisoftencalledupontodraftspeeches,workonlegislation,adviseon tactics,performresearch,collectcosponsorsandmarshalvotes. ThebottomlineisthatAIPAC,whichisadefactoagentforaforeigngovernment, hasastrangleholdontheU.S.Congress.73OpendebateaboutU.S.policy towardsIsraeldoesnotoccurthere,eventhoughthatpolicyhasimportant consequencesfortheentireworld.Thus,oneofthethreemainbranchesofthe U.S.governmentisfirmlycommittedtosupportingIsrael.AsformerSenator ErnestHollings(DSC)notedashewasleavingoffice,YoucanthaveanIsraeli policyotherthanwhatAIPACgivesyouaroundhere.74Smallwonderthat IsraeliPrimeMinisterArielSharononcetoldanAmericanaudience.When peopleaskmehowtheycanhelpIsrael,ItellthemHelpAIPAC.75 InfluencingtheExecutive TheLobbyalsohassignificantleverageovertheExecutivebranch.Thatpower derivesinpartfromtheinfluenceJewishvotershaveonpresidentialelections. Despitetheirsmallnumbersinthepopulation(lessthan3percent),theymake largecampaigndonationstocandidatesfrombothparties.TheWashingtonPost onceestimatedthatDemocraticpresidentialcandidatesdependonJewish supporterstosupplyasmuchas60percentofthemoney.76Furthermore, Jewishvotershavehighturnoutratesandareconcentratedinkeystateslike California,Florida,Illinois,NewYork,andPennsylvania.Becausetheymatterin closeelections,Presidentialcandidatesgotogreatlengthsnottoantagonize Jewishvoters. KeyorganizationsintheLobbyalsodirectlytargettheadministrationinpower. Forexample,proIsraelforcesmakesurethatcriticsoftheJewishstatedonotget importantforeignpolicyappointments.JimmyCarterwantedtomakeGeorge 18

Ballhisfirstsecretaryofstate,butheknewthatBallwasperceivedascriticalof IsraelandthattheLobbywouldopposetheappointment.77Thislitmustest forcesanyaspiringpolicymakertobecomeanovertsupporterofIsrael,whichis whypubliccriticsofIsraelipolicyhavebecomeanendangeredspeciesinthe U.S.foreignpolicyestablishment. Theseconstraintsstilloperatetoday.When2004presidentialcandidateHoward DeancalledfortheUnitedStatestotakeamoreevenhandedroleintheArab Israeliconflict,SenatorJosephLiebermanaccusedhimofsellingIsraeldownthe riverandsaidhisstatementwasirresponsible.78Virtuallyallofthetop DemocratsintheHousesignedahardhittinglettertoDeancriticizinghis comments,andtheChicagoJewishStarreportedthatanonymousattackersare cloggingtheemailinboxesofJewishleadersaroundthecountry,warning withoutmuchevidencethatDeanwouldsomehowbebadforIsrael.79 Thisworrywasabsurd,however,becauseDeanisinfactquitehawkishon Israel.80HiscampaigncochairwasaformerAIPACpresident,andDeansaid hisownviewsontheMiddleEastmorecloselyreflectedthoseofAIPACthanthe moremoderateAmericansforPeaceNow.Deanhadmerelysuggestedthatto bringthesidestogether,Washingtonshouldactasanhonestbroker.Thisis hardlyaradicalidea,butitisanathematotheLobby,whichdoesnottoleratethe ideaofevenhandednesswhenitcomestotheArabIsraeliconflict. TheLobbysgoalsarealsoservedwhenproIsraelindividualsoccupyimportant positionsintheexecutivebranch.DuringtheClintonAdministration,for example,MiddleEastpolicywaslargelyshapedbyofficialswithclosetiesto IsraelortoprominentproIsraelorganizationsincludingMartinIndyk,the formerdeputydirectorofresearchatAIPACandcofounderoftheproIsrael WashingtonInstituteforNearEastPolicy(WINEP);DennisRoss,whojoined WINEPafterleavinggovernmentin2001;andAaronMiller,whohaslivedin Israelandoftenvisitsthere.81 ThesemenwereamongPresidentClintonsclosestadvisorsattheCampDavid summitinJuly2000.AlthoughallthreesupportedtheOslopeaceprocessand favoredcreationofaPalestinianstate,theydidsoonlywithinthelimitsofwhat wouldbeacceptabletoIsrael.82Inparticular,theAmericandelegationtookits cuesfromIsraeliPrimeMinisterEhudBarak,coordinatednegotiatingpositions inadvance,anddidnotofferitsownindependentproposalsforsettlingthe conflict.Notsurprisingly,Palestiniannegotiatorscomplainedthattheywere

19

negotiatingwithtwoIsraeliteamsonedisplayinganIsraeliflag,andonean Americanflag.83 ThesituationisevenmorepronouncedintheBushAdministration,whoseranks includeferventlyproIsraelindividualslikeElliotAbrams,JohnBolton,Douglas Feith,I.Lewis(Scooter)Libby,RichardPerle,PaulWolfowitz,andDavid Wurmser.Asweshallsee,theseofficialsconsistentlypushedforpolicies favoredbyIsraelandbackedbyorganizationsintheLobby. ManipulatingtheMedia Inadditiontoinfluencinggovernmentpolicydirectly,theLobbystrivestoshape publicperceptionsaboutIsraelandtheMiddleEast.Itdoesnotwantanopen debateonissuesinvolvingIsrael,becauseanopendebatemightcauseAmericans toquestionthelevelofsupportthattheycurrentlyprovide.Accordingly,pro Israelorganizationsworkhardtoinfluencethemedia,thinktanks,and academia,becausetheseinstitutionsarecriticalinshapingpopularopinion. TheLobbysperspectiveonIsraeliswidelyreflectedinthemainstreammediain goodpartbecausemostAmericancommentatorsareproIsrael.Thedebate amongMiddleEastpundits,journalistEricAltermanwrites,isdominatedby peoplewhocannotimaginecriticizingIsrael.84Helists61columnistsand commentatorswhocanbecountedupontosupportIsraelreflexivelyand withoutqualification.Conversely,Altermanfoundjustfivepunditswho consistentlycriticizeIsraelibehaviororendorseproArabpositions. NewspapersoccasionallypublishguestopedschallengingIsraelipolicy,butthe balanceofopinionclearlyfavorstheotherside. ThisproIsraelbiasisreflectedintheeditorialsofmajornewspapers.Robert Bartley,thelateeditoroftheWallStreetJournal,onceremarkedthat,Shamir, Sharon,Bibiwhateverthoseguyswantisprettymuchfinebyme.85Not surprisingly,theJournal,alongwithotherprominentnewspaperslikeTheChicago SunTimesandTheWashingtonTimesregularlyruneditorialsthatarestrongly proIsrael.MagazineslikeCommentary,theNewRepublic,andtheWeekly StandardalsozealouslydefendIsraelateveryturn. EditorialbiasisalsofoundinpapersliketheNewYorkTimes.TheTimes occasionallycriticizesIsraelipoliciesandsometimesconcedesthatthe Palestinianshavelegitimategrievances,butitisnotevenhanded.Inhis memoirs,forexample,formerTimesexecutiveeditorMaxFrankelacknowledged 20

theimpacthisownproIsraelattitudehadonhiseditorialchoices.Inhiswords: IwasmuchmoredeeplydevotedtoIsraelthanIdaredtoassert.Hegoeson: FortifiedbymyknowledgeofIsraelandmyfriendshipsthere,Imyselfwrote mostofourMiddleEastcommentaries.AsmoreArabthanJewishreaders recognized,IwrotethemfromaproIsraelperspective.86 ThemediasreportingofnewseventsinvolvingIsraelissomewhatmoreeven handedthaneditorialcommentaryis,inpartbecausereportersstrivetobe objective,butalsobecauseitisdifficulttocovereventsintheoccupiedterritories withoutacknowledgingIsraelsactualbehavior.Todiscourageunfavorable reportingonIsrael,theLobbyorganizesletterwritingcampaigns, demonstrations,andboycottsagainstnewsoutletswhosecontentitconsiders antiIsrael.OneCNNexecutivehassaidthathesometimesgets6,000email messagesinasingledaycomplainingthatastoryisantiIsrael.87Similarly,the proIsraelCommitteeforAccurateMiddleEastReportinginAmerica (CAMERA)organizeddemonstrationsoutsideNationalPublicRadiostationsin 33citiesinMay2003,anditalsotriedtoconvincecontributorstowithhold supportfromNPRuntilitsMiddleEastcoveragebecamemoresympatheticto Israel.88BostonsNPRstation,WBUR,reportedlylostmorethan$1millionin contributionsasaresultoftheseefforts.PressureonNPRhasalsocomefrom IsraelsfriendsinCongress,whohaveaskedNPRforaninternalauditaswellas moreoversightofitsMiddleEastcoverage. ThesefactorshelpexplainwhytheAmericanmediacontainsfewcriticismsof Israelipolicy,rarelyquestionsWashingtonsrelationshipwithIsrael,andonly occasionallydiscussestheLobbysprofoundinfluenceonU.S.policy. ThinkTanksThatThinkOneWay ProIsraelforcespredominateinU.S.thinktanks,whichplayanimportantrole inshapingpublicdebateaswellasactualpolicy.TheLobbycreateditsown thinktankin1985,whenMartinIndykhelpedfoundWINEP.89Although WINEPplaysdownitslinkstoIsraelandclaimsinsteadthatitprovidesa balancedandrealisticperspectiveonMiddleEastissues,thisisnotthecase.90 Infact,WINEPisfundedandrunbyindividualswhoaredeeplycommittedto advancingIsraelsagenda. TheLobbysinfluenceinthethinktankworldextendswellbeyondWINEP. Overthepast25years,proIsraelforceshaveestablishedacommanding presenceattheAmericanEnterpriseInstitute,theBrookingsInstitution,the 21

CenterforSecurityPolicy,theForeignPolicyResearchInstitute,theHeritage Foundation,theHudsonInstitute,theInstituteforForeignPolicyAnalysis,and theJewishInstituteforNationalSecurityAffairs(JINSA).Thesethinktanksare decidedlyproIsrael,andincludefew,ifany,criticsofU.S.supportfortheJewish state. AgoodindicatoroftheLobbysinfluenceinthethinktankworldistheevolution oftheBrookingsInstitution.Formanyyears,itsseniorexpertonMiddleEast issueswasWilliamB.Quandt,adistinguishedacademicandformerNSCofficial withawelldeservedreputationforevenhandednessregardingtheArabIsraeli conflict.Today,however,Brookingssworkontheseissuesisconducted throughitsSabanCenterforMiddleEastStudies,whichisfinancedbyHaim Saban,awealthyIsraeliAmericanbusinessmanandardentZionist.91The directoroftheSabanCenteristheubiquitousMartinIndyk.Thus,whatwas onceanonpartisanpolicyinstituteonMiddleEastmattersisnowpartofthe chorusoflargelyproIsraelthinktanks. PolicingAcademia TheLobbyhashadthemostdifficultystiflingdebateaboutIsraeloncollege campuses,becauseacademicfreedomisacorevalueandbecausetenured professorsarehardtothreatenorsilence.Evenso,therewasonlymildcriticism ofIsraelinthe1990s,whentheOslopeaceprocesswasunderway.Criticismrose afterthatprocesscollapsedandArielSharoncametopowerinearly2001,andit becameespeciallyintensewhentheIDFreoccupiedtheWestBankinspring 2002andemployedmassiveforceagainsttheSecondIntifada. TheLobbymovedaggressivelytotakebackthecampuses.Newgroups sprangup,liketheCaravanforDemocracy,whichbroughtIsraelispeakersto U.S.colleges.92EstablishedgroupsliketheJewishCouncilforPublicAffairsand Hilleljumpedintothefray,andanewgrouptheIsraelonCampusCoalition wasformedtocoordinatethemanygroupsthatnowsoughttomakeIsraelscase oncampus.Finally,AIPACmorethantripleditsspendingforprogramsto monitoruniversityactivitiesandtotrainyoungadvocatesforIsrael,inorderto vastlyexpandthenumberofstudentsinvolvedoncampus...inthenational proIsraeleffort.93 TheLobbyalsomonitorswhatprofessorswriteandteach.InSeptember2002, forexample,MartinKramerandDanielPipes,twopassionatelyproIsrael neoconservatives,establishedawebsite(CampusWatch)thatposteddossierson 22

suspectacademicsandencouragedstudentstoreportcommentsorbehaviorthat mightbeconsideredhostiletoIsrael.94Thistransparentattempttoblacklistand intimidatescholarspromptedaharshreactionandPipesandKramerlater removedthedossiers,butthewebsitestillinvitesstudentstoreportallegedanti IsraelbehavioratU.S.colleges. GroupsintheLobbyalsodirecttheirfireatparticularprofessorsandthe universitiesthathirethem.ColumbiaUniversity,whichhadthelatePalestinian scholarEdwardSaidonitsfaculty,hasbeenafrequenttargetofproIsraelforces. JonathanCole,theformerColumbiaprovost,reportedthat,Onecanbesure thatanypublicstatementinsupportofthePalestinianpeoplebythepreeminent literarycriticEdwardSaidwillelicithundredsofemails,letters,andjournalistic accountsthatcallonustodenounceSaidandtoeithersanctionorfirehim.95 WhenColumbiarecruitedhistorianRashidKhalidifromtheUniversityof Chicago,Colesaysthatthecomplaintsstartedflowinginfrompeoplewho disagreedwiththecontentofhispoliticalviews.Princetonfacedthesame problemafewyearslaterwhenitconsideredwooingKhalidiawayfrom Columbia.96 Aclassicillustrationoftheefforttopoliceacademiaoccurredinlate2004,when theDavidProjectproducedapropagandafilmallegingthatfacultyin ColumbiaUniversitysMiddleEaststudiesprogramwereantiSemiticandwere intimidatingJewishstudentswhodefendedIsrael.97Columbiawasrakedover thecoalsinproIsraelcircles,butafacultycommitteeassignedtoinvestigatethe chargesfoundnoevidenceofantiSemitismandtheonlyincidentworthnoting wasthepossibilitythatoneprofessorhadrespondedheatedlytoastudents question.98Thecommitteealsodiscoveredthattheaccusedprofessorshadbeen thetargetofanovertintimidationcampaign. Perhapsthemostdisturbingaspectofthiscampaigntoeliminatecriticismof IsraelfromcollegecampusesistheeffortbyJewishgroupstopushCongressto establishmechanismsthatmonitorwhatprofessorssayaboutIsrael.99Schools judgedtohaveanantiIsraelbiaswouldbedeniedFederalfunding.Thiseffort togettheU.S.governmenttopolicecampuseshavenotyetsucceeded,butthe attemptillustratestheimportanceproIsraelgroupsplaceoncontrollingdebate ontheseissues. Finally,anumberofJewishphilanthropistshaveestablishedIsraelstudies programs(inadditiontotheroughly130JewishStudiesprogramsthatalready exist)soastoincreasethenumberofIsraelfriendlyscholarsoncampus.100NYU 23

announcedtheestablishmentoftheTaubCenterforIsraelStudiesonMay1, 2003,andsimilarprogramshavebeenestablishedatotherschoolslikeBerkeley, Brandeis,andEmory.Academicadministratorsemphasizethepedagogical valueoftheseprograms,butthetruthisthattheyareintendedingoodpartto promoteIsraelsimageoncampus.FredLaffer,theheadoftheTaub Foundation,makesclearthathisfoundationfundedtheNYUcentertohelp countertheArabic[sic]pointofviewthathethinksisprevalentinNYUs MiddleEastprograms.101 Insum,theLobbyhasgonetoconsiderablelengthstoinsulateIsraelfrom criticismoncollegecampuses.Ithasnotbeenassuccessfulinacademiaasithas beenonCapitolHill,butithasworkedhardtostiflecriticismofIsraelby professorsandstudentsandthereismuchlessofitoncampusestoday.102 TheGreatSilencer NodiscussionofhowtheLobbyoperateswouldbecompletewithoutexamining oneofitsmostpowerfulweapons:thechargeofantiSemitism.Anyonewho criticizesIsraeliactionsorsaysthatproIsraelgroupshavesignificantinfluence overU.S.MiddleEastpolicyaninfluencethatAIPACcelebratesstandsa goodchanceofgettinglabeledanantiSemite.Infact,anyonewhosaysthat thereisanIsraelLobbyrunstheriskofbeingchargedwithantiSemitism,even thoughtheIsraelimediathemselvesrefertoAmericasJewishLobby.Ineffect, theLobbyboastsofitsownpowerandthenattacksanyonewhocallsattentionto it.Thistacticisveryeffective,becauseantiSemitismisloathsomeandno responsiblepersonwantstobeaccusedofit. EuropeanshavebeenmorewillingthanAmericanstocriticizeIsraelipolicyin recentyears,whichsomeattributetoaresurgenceofantiSemitisminEurope. Wearegettingtoapoint,theU.S.AmbassadortotheEuropeanUnionsaidin early2004,whereitisasbadasitwasinthe1930s.103MeasuringantiSemitism isacomplicatedmatter,buttheweightofevidencepointsintheopposite direction.Forexample,inthespringof2004,whenaccusationsofEuropeananti SemitismfilledtheairinAmerica,separatesurveysofEuropeanpublicopinion conductedbytheAntiDefamationLeagueandthePewResearchCenterforthe PeopleandthePressshowedthatitwasactuallydeclining.104 ConsiderFrance,whichproIsraelforcesoftenportrayasthemostantiSemitic stateinEurope.ApollofFrenchcitizensin2002foundthat:89percentcould envisagelivingwithaJew;97percentbelievemakingantiSemiticgraffitiisa 24

seriouscrime;87percentthinkattacksonFrenchsynagoguesarescandalous; and85percentofpracticingFrenchCatholicsrejectthechargethatJewshavetoo muchinfluenceinbusinessandfinance.105Itisunsurprisingthattheheadofthe FrenchJewishcommunitydeclaredinthesummerof2003thatFranceisnot moreantiSemiticthanAmerica.106AccordingtoarecentarticleinHaaretz,the FrenchpolicereportthatantiSemiticincidentsinFrancedeclinedbyalmost50 percentin2005;andthisdespitethefactthatFrancehasthelargestMuslim populationofanycountryinEurope.107 Finally,whenaFrenchJewwasbrutallymurderedlastmonthbyaMuslimgang, tensofthousandsofFrenchdemonstratorspouredintothestreetstocondemn antiSemitism.Moreover,PresidentJacquesChiracandPrimeMinister DominiquedeVillepinbothattendedthevictimsmemorialserviceinapublic showofsolidaritywithFrenchJewry.108Itisalsoworthnotingthatin2002more JewsimmigratedtoGermanythanIsrael,makingitthefastestgrowingJewish communityintheworld,accordingtoanarticleintheJewishnewspaper Forward.109IfEuropewerereallyheadingbacktothe1930s,itishardtoimagine thatJewswouldbemovingthereinlargenumbers. Werecognize,however,thatEuropeisnotfreeofthescourgeofantiSemitism. NoonewoulddenythattherearestillsomevirulentautochthonousantiSemites inEurope(asthereareintheUnitedStates)buttheirnumbersaresmallandtheir extremeviewsarerejectedbythevastmajorityofEuropeans.Norwouldone denythatthereisantiSemitismamongEuropeanMuslims,someofitprovoked byIsraelsbehaviortowardsthePalestiniansandsomeofitstraightforwardly racist.110Thisproblemisworrisome,butitishardlyoutofcontrol.Muslims constitutelessthanfivepercentofEuropestotalpopulation,andEuropean governmentsareworkinghardtocombattheproblem.Why?Becausemost Europeansrejectsuchhatefulviews.111Inshort,whenitcomestoantiSemitism, EuropetodaybearshardlyanyresemblancetoEuropeinthe1930s. ThisiswhyproIsraelforces,whenpressedtogobeyondassertion,claimthat thereisanewantiSemitism,whichtheyequatewithcriticismofIsrael.112In otherwordscriticizeIsraelipolicyandyouarebydefinitionanantiSemite. WhenthesynodoftheChurchofEnglandrecentlyvotedtodivestfrom CaterpillarInconthegroundsthatCaterpillarmanufacturesthebulldozersused todemolishPalestinianhomes,theChiefRabbicomplainedthatitwouldhave themostadverserepercussionson...JewishChristianrelationsinBritain,while RabbiTonyBayfield,theheadoftheReformmovement,said:Thereisaclear problemofantiZionistvergingonantiSemiticattitudesemerginginthegrass 25

roots,andeveninthemiddleranksoftheChurch.113However,theChurchwas neitherguiltyofantiZionismnorantiSemitism;itwasmerelyprotestingIsraeli policy.114 CriticsarealsoaccusedofholdingIsraeltoanunfairstandardorquestioningits righttoexist.Buttheseareboguschargestoo.WesterncriticsofIsraelhardly everquestionitsrighttoexist.Instead,theyquestionitsbehaviortowardsthe Palestinians,whichisalegitimatecriticism:Israelisquestionitthemselves.Noris Israelbeingjudgedunfairly.Rather,IsraelitreatmentofthePalestinianselicits criticismbecauseitiscontrarytowidelyacceptedhumanrightsnormsand internationallaw,aswellastheprincipleofnationalselfdetermination.Anditis hardlytheonlystatethathasfacedsharpcriticismonthesegrounds. Insum,otherethniclobbiescanonlydreamofhavingthepoliticalmusclethat proIsraelorganizationspossess.Thequestion,therefore,iswhateffectdoesthe LobbyhaveonU.S.foreignpolicy? THETAILWAGGINGTHEDOG IftheLobbysimpactwereconfinedtoU.S.economicaidtoIsrael,itsinfluence mightnotbethatworrisome.Foreignaidisvaluable,butnotasusefulashaving theworldsonlysuperpowerbringitsvastcapabilitiestobearonIsraelsbehalf. Accordingly,theLobbyhasalsosoughttoshapethecoreelementsofU.S. MiddleEastpolicy.Inparticular,ithasworkedsuccessfullytoconvince AmericanleaderstobackIsraelscontinuedrepressionofthePalestiniansandto takeaimatIsraelsprimaryregionaladversaries:Iran,Iraq,andSyria. DemonizingthePalestinians Itisnowlargelyforgotten,butinthefallof2001,andespeciallyinthespringof 2002,theBushAdministrationtriedtoreduceantiAmericansentimentinthe ArabworldandunderminesupportforterroristgroupslikealQaeda,byhalting Israelsexpansionistpoliciesintheoccupiedterritoriesandadvocatingthe creationofaPalestinianstate. Bushhadenormouspotentialleverageathisdisposal.Hecouldhavethreatened toreduceU.S.economicanddiplomaticsupportforIsrael,andtheAmerican peoplewouldalmostcertainlyhavesupportedhim.AMay2003pollreported thatover60percentofAmericanswerewillingtowithholdaidtoIsraelifit resistedU.S.pressuretosettletheconflict,andthatnumberroseto70percent 26

amongpoliticallyactiveAmericans.115Indeed,73percentsaidthatUnited Statesshouldnotfavoreitherside. YettheBushAdministrationfailedtochangeIsraelspolicies,andWashington endedupbackingIsraelshardlineapproachinstead.Overtime,the AdministrationalsoadoptedIsraelsjustificationsforthisapproach,sothatU.S. andIsraelirhetoricbecamesimilar.ByFebruary2003,aWashingtonPost headlinesummarizedthesituation:BushandSharonNearlyIdenticalon MideastPolicy.116ThemainreasonforthisswitchistheLobby. ThestorybeginsinlateSeptember2001whenPresidentBushbeganpressuring IsraeliPrimeMinisterSharontoshowrestraintintheoccupiedterritories.He alsopressedSharontoallowIsraeliforeignministerShimonPerestomeetwith PalestinianleaderYasserArafat,eventhoughBushwashighlycriticalofArafats leadership.117BushalsosaidpubliclythathesupportedaPalestinianstate.118 Alarmedbythesedevelopments,SharonaccusedBushoftryingtoappeasethe Arabsatourexpense,warningthatIsraelwillnotbeCzechoslovakia.119 BushwasreportedlyfuriousatSharonslikeninghimtoNevilleChamberlain, andWhiteHousepresssecretaryAriFleischercalledSharonsremarks unacceptable.120TheIsraeliprimeministerofferedaproformaapology,buthe quicklyjoinedforceswiththeLobbytoconvincetheBushadministrationandthe AmericanpeoplethattheUnitedStatesandIsraelfacedacommonthreatfrom terrorism.121IsraeliofficialsandLobbyrepresentativesrepeatedlyemphasized thattherewasnorealdifferencebetweenArafatandOsamabinLaden,and insistedthattheUnitedStatesandIsraelshouldisolatethePalestinianselected leaderandhavenothingtodowithhim.122 TheLobbyalsowenttoworkinCongress.OnNovember16,89senatorssent BushaletterpraisinghimforrefusingtomeetwithArafat,butalsodemanding thattheUnitedStatesnotrestrainIsraelfromretaliatingagainstthePalestinians andinsistingthattheadministrationstatepubliclythatitstoodsteadfastly behindIsrael.AccordingtotheNewYorkTimes,theletterstemmedfroma meetingtwoweeksagobetweenleadersoftheAmericanJewishcommunityand keysenators,addingthatAIPACwasparticularlyactiveinprovidingadvice ontheletter.123 BylateNovember,relationsbetweenTelAvivandWashingtonhadimproved considerably.ThiswasdueinparttotheLobbyseffortstobendU.S.policyin Israelsdirection,butalsotoAmericasinitialvictoryinAfghanistan,which 27

reducedtheperceivedneedforArabsupportindealingwithalQaeda.Sharon visitedtheWhiteHouseinearlyDecemberandhadafriendlymeetingwith Bush.124 ButtroubleeruptedagaininApril2002,aftertheIDFlaunchedOperation DefensiveShieldandresumedcontrolofvirtuallyallofthemajorPalestinian areasontheWestBank.125BushknewthatIsraelsactionwoulddamage AmericasimageintheArabandIslamicworldandunderminethewaron terrorism,sohedemandedonApril4thatSharonhalttheincursionsandbegin withdrawal.Heunderscoredthismessagetwodayslater,sayingthismeant withdrawalwithoutdelay.OnApril7,Bushsnationalsecurityadvisor, CondoleezzaRice,toldreportersthat,withoutdelaymeanswithoutdelay.It meansnow.ThatsamedaySecretaryofStateColinPowellsetoutforthe MiddleEasttopressureallsidestostopfightingandstartnegotiating.126 IsraelandtheLobbyswungintoaction.AkeytargetwasPowell,whobegan feelingintenseheatfromproIsraelofficialsinVicePresidentCheneysofficeand thePentagon,aswellasfromneoconservativepunditslikeRobertKaganand WilliamKristol,whoaccusedhimofhavingvirtuallyobliteratedthedistinction betweenterroristsandthosefightingterrorists.127AsecondtargetwasBush himself,whowasbeingpressedbyJewishleadersandChristianevangelicals,the latterakeycomponentofhispoliticalbase.TomDeLayandDickArmeywere especiallyoutspokenabouttheneedtosupportIsrael,andDeLayandSenate MinorityLeaderTrentLottvisitedtheWhiteHouseandpersonallywarnedBush tobackoff.128 ThefirstsignthatBushwascavingcameonApril11onlyoneweekafterhe toldSharontowithdrawhisforceswhenAriFleischersaidthePresident believesSharonisamanofpeace.129Bushrepeatedthisstatementpublicly uponPowellsreturnfromhisabortivemission,andhetoldreportersthat Sharonhadrespondedsatisfactorilytohiscallforafullandimmediate withdrawal.130Sharonhaddonenosuchthing,butthePresidentoftheUnited Stateswasnolongerwillingtomakeanissueofit. Meanwhile,CongresswasalsomovingtobackSharon.OnMay2,itoverrode theAdministrationsobjectionsandpassedtworesolutionsreaffirmingsupport forIsrael.(TheSenatevotewas94to2;theHouseversionpassed35221).Both resolutionsemphasizedthattheUnitedStatesstandsinsolidaritywithIsrael andthatthetwocountriesare,toquotetheHouseresolution,nowengagedina commonstruggleagainstterrorism.TheHouseversionalsocondemnedthe 28

ongoingsupportofterrorbyYasirArafat,whowasportrayedasacentral elementoftheterrorismproblem.131Afewdayslater,abipartisancongressional delegationonafactfindingmissioninIsraelpubliclyproclaimedthatSharon shouldresistU.S.pressuretonegotiatewithArafat.132OnMay9,aHouse appropriationssubcommitteemettoconsidergivingIsraelanextra$200million tofightterrorism.SecretaryofStatePowellopposedthepackage,buttheLobby backedit,justasithadhelpedauthorthetwocongressionalresolutions.133 Powelllost. Inshort,SharonandtheLobbytookonthePresidentoftheUnitedStatesand triumphed.HemiShalev,ajournalistfortheIsraelnewspaperMaariv,reported thatSharonsaidescouldnothidetheirsatisfactioninviewofPowellsfailure. SharonsawthewhiteinPresidentBushseyes,theybragged,andthePresident blinkedfirst.134ButitwastheproIsraelforcesintheUnitedStates,notSharon orIsrael,thatplayedthekeyroleindefeatingBush. Thesituationhaschangedlittlesincethen.TheBushAdministrationrefusedto dealfurtherwithArafat,whoeventuallydiedinNovember2004.Ithas subsequentlyembracedthenewPalestinianleader,MahmoudAbbas,buthas donelittletohelphimgainaviablestate.Sharoncontinuedtodevelophisplans forunilateraldisengagementfromthePalestinians,basedonwithdrawalfrom GazacoupledwithcontinuedexpansionontheWestBank,whichentails buildingthesocalledsecurityfence,seizingPalestinianownedland,and expandingsettlementblocsandroadnetworks.Byrefusingtonegotiatewith Abbas(whofavorsanegotiatedsettlement)andmakingitimpossibleforhimto delivertangiblebenefitstothePalestinianpeople,Sharonsstrategycontributed directlytoHamasrecentelectoralvictory.135WithHamasinpower,however, Israelhasanotherexcusenottonegotiate.Theadministrationhassupported Sharonsactions(andthoseofhissuccessor,EhudOlmert),andBushhaseven endorsedunilateralIsraeliannexationsintheOccupiedTerritories,reversingthe statedpolicyofeverypresidentsinceLyndonJohnson.136 U.S.officialshaveofferedmildcriticismsofafewIsraeliactions,buthavedone littletohelpcreateaviablePalestinianstate.Formernationalsecurityadvisor BrentScowcroftevendeclaredinOctober2004thatSharonhasPresidentBush wrappedaroundhislittlefinger.137IfBushtriestodistancetheUnitedStates fromIsrael,orevencriticizesIsraeliactionsintheoccupiedterritories,heis certaintofacethewrathoftheLobbyanditssupportersinCongress. DemocraticPartypresidentialcandidatesunderstandthesefactsoflifetoo,

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whichiswhyJohnKerrywenttogreatlengthstodisplayhisunalloyedsupport forIsraelin2004andwhyHillaryClintonisdoingthesamethingtoday.138 MaintainingU.S.supportforIsraelspoliciesagainstthePalestiniansisacore goaloftheLobby,butitsambitionsdonotstopthere.ItalsowantsAmericato helpIsraelremainthedominantregionalpower.Notsurprisingly,theIsraeli governmentandproIsraelgroupsintheUnitedStatesworkedtogethertoshape theBushAdministrationspolicytowardsIraq,Syria,andIran,aswellasits grandschemeforreorderingtheMiddleEast. IsraelandtheIraqWar PressurefromIsraelandtheLobbywasnottheonlyfactorbehindtheU.S. decisiontoattackIraqinMarch2003,butitwasacriticalelement.Some Americansbelievethatthiswasawarforoil,butthereishardlyanydirect evidencetosupportthisclaim.Instead,thewarwasmotivatedingoodpartbya desiretomakeIsraelmoresecure.AccordingtoPhilipZelikow,amemberofthe PresidentsForeignIntelligenceAdvisoryBoard(20012003),executivedirector ofthe9/11Commission,andnowCounselortoSecretaryofStateCondoleezza Rice,therealthreatfromIraqwasnotathreattotheUnitedStates.139The unstatedthreatwasthethreatagainstIsrael,ZelikowtoldaUniversityof VirginiaaudienceinSeptember2002,notingfurtherthattheAmerican governmentdoesntwanttoleantoohardonitrhetorically,becauseitisnota popularsell. OnAugust16,2002,elevendaysbeforeVicePresidentCheneykickedoffthe campaignforwarwithahardlinespeechtotheVeteransofForeignWars,the WashingtonPostreportedthatIsraelisurgingU.S.officialsnottodelaya militarystrikeagainstIraqsSaddamHussein.140Bythispoint,accordingto Sharon,strategiccoordinationbetweenIsraelandtheU.S.hadreached unprecedenteddimensions,andIsraeliintelligenceofficialshadgiven WashingtonavarietyofalarmingreportsaboutIraqsWMDprograms.141As oneretiredIsraeligenerallaterputit,Israeliintelligencewasafullpartnerto thepicturepresentedbyAmericanandBritishintelligenceregardingIraqsnon conventionalcapabilities.142 IsraelileadersweredeeplydistressedwhenPresidentBushdecidedtoseekU.N. SecurityCouncilauthorizationforwarinSeptember,andevenmoreworried whenSaddamagreedtoletU.N.inspectorsbackintoIraq,becausethese developmentsseemedtoreducethelikelihoodofwar.ForeignMinisterShimon 30

PerestoldreportersinSeptember2002thatthecampaignagainstSaddam Husseinisamust.Inspectionsandinspectorsaregoodfordecentpeople,but dishonestpeoplecanovercomeeasilyinspectionsandinspectors.143 Atthesametime,formerPrimeMinisterEhudBarakwroteaNewYorkTimesop edwarningthatthegreatestrisknowliesininaction.144Hispredecessor, BenjaminNetanyahu,publishedasimilarpieceintheWallStreetJournalentitled TheCaseforTopplingSaddam.145Netanyahudeclared,Todaynothingless thandismantlinghisregimewilldo,addingthatIbelieveIspeakforthe overwhelmingmajorityofIsraelisinsupportingapreemptivestrikeagainst Saddamsregime.OrasHaaretzreportedinFebruary2003:The[Israeli] militaryandpoliticalleadershipyearnsforwarinIraq.146 ButasNetanyahusuggests,thedesireforwarwasnotconfinedtoIsraels leaders.ApartfromKuwait,whichSaddamconqueredin1990,Israelwasthe onlycountryintheworldwhereboththepoliticiansandthepublic enthusiasticallyfavoredwar.147AsjournalistGideonLevyobservedatthetime, IsraelistheonlycountryintheWestwhoseleaderssupportthewar unreservedlyandwherenoalternativeopinionisvoiced.148Infact,Israeliswere sogunghoforwarthattheiralliesinAmericatoldthemtodampdowntheir hawkishrhetoric,lestitlooklikethewarwasforIsrael.149 TheLobbyandtheIraqWar WithintheUnitedStates,themaindrivingforcebehindtheIraqwarwasasmall bandofneoconservatives,manywithclosetiestoIsraelsLikudParty.150In addition,keyleadersoftheLobbysmajororganizationslenttheirvoicestothe campaignforwar.151AccordingtotheForward,AsPresidentBushattemptedto sellthe...warinIraq,AmericasmostimportantJewishorganizationsralliedas onetohisdefense.Instatementafterstatementcommunityleadersstressedthe needtoridtheworldofSaddamHusseinandhisweaponsofmass destruction.152TheeditorialgoesontosaythatconcernforIsraelssafety rightfullyfactoredintothedeliberationsofthemainJewishgroups. AlthoughneoconservativesandotherLobbyleaderswereeagertoinvadeIraq, thebroaderAmericanJewishcommunitywasnot.153Infact,SamuelFreedman reportedjustafterthewarstartedthatacompilationofnationwideopinion pollsbythePewResearchCentershowsthatJewsarelesssupportiveoftheIraq warthanthepopulationatlarge,52%to62%.154Thus,itwouldbewrongto

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blamethewarinIraqonJewishinfluence.Rather,thewarwasdueinlarge parttotheLobbysinfluence,especiallytheneoconservativeswithinit. TheneoconservativeswerealreadydeterminedtotoppleSaddambeforeBush becamePresident.155Theycausedastirinearly1998bypublishingtwoopen letterstoPresidentClintoncallingforSaddamsremovalfrompower.156The signatories,manyofwhomhadclosetiestoproIsraelgroupslikeJINSAor WINEP,andwhoseranksincludedElliotAbrams,JohnBolton,DouglasFeith, WilliamKristol,BernardLewis,DonaldRumsfeld,RichardPerleandPaul Wolfowitz,hadlittletroubleconvincingtheClintonAdministrationtoadoptthe generalgoalofoustingSaddam.157Buttheneoconservativeswereunabletosella wartoachievethatobjective.Norweretheyabletogeneratemuchenthusiasm forinvadingIraqintheearlymonthsoftheBushAdministration.158As importantastheneoconservativeswereformakingtheIraqwarhappen,they neededhelptoachievetheiraim. Thathelparrivedwith9/11.Specifically,theeventsofthatfatefuldayledBush andCheneytoreversecourseandbecomestrongproponentsofapreventivewar totoppleSaddam.NeoconservativesintheLobbymostnotablyScooterLibby, PaulWolfowitz,andPrincetonhistorianBernardLewisplayedespecially criticalrolesinpersuadingthePresidentandVicePresidenttofavorwar. Fortheneoconservatives,9/11wasagoldenopportunitytomakethecasefor warwithIraq.AtakeymeetingwithBushatCampDavidonSeptember15, WolfowitzadvocatedattackingIraqbeforeAfghanistan,eventhoughtherewas noevidencethatSaddamwasinvolvedintheattacksontheUnitedStatesand binLadenwasknowntobeinAfghanistan.159Bushrejectedthisadviceand chosetogoafterAfghanistaninstead,butwarwithIraqwasnowregardedasa seriouspossibilityandthePresidenttaskedU.S.militaryplannersonNovember 21,2001withdevelopingconcreteplansforaninvasion.160 Meanwhile,otherneoconservativeswereatworkwithinthecorridorsofpower. Wedonothavethefullstoryyet,butscholarslikeLewisandFouadAjamiof JohnHopkinsUniversityreportedlyplayedkeyrolesinconvincingVice PresidentCheneytofavorthewar.161Cheneysviewswerealsoheavily influencedbytheneoconservativesonhisstaff,especiallyEricEdelman,John Hannah,andchiefofstaffLibby,oneofthemostpowerfulindividualsinthe Administration.162TheVicePresidentsinfluencehelpedconvincePresident Bushbyearly2002.WithBushandCheneyonboard,thedieforwarwascast.

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Outsidetheadministration,neoconservativepunditslostnotimemakingthe casethatinvadingIraqwasessentialtowinningthewaronterrorism.Their effortswerepartlyaimedatkeepingpressureonBushandpartlyintendedto overcomeoppositiontothewarinsideandoutsideofthegovernment.On September20,agroupofprominentneoconservativesandtheiralliespublished anotheropenletter,tellingthePresidentthatevenifevidencedoesnotlinkIraq directlytothe[9/11]attack,anystrategyaimingattheeradicationofterrorism anditssponsorsmustincludeadeterminedefforttoremoveSaddamHussein frompowerinIraq.163TheletteralsoremindedBushthat,Israelhasbeenand remainsAmericasstaunchestallyagainstinternationalterrorism.Inthe October1issueoftheWeeklyStandard,RobertKaganandWilliamKristolcalled forregimechangeinIraqimmediatelyaftertheTalibanwasdefeated.Thatsame day,CharlesKrauthammerarguedintheWashingtonPostthatafterwewere donewithAfghanistan,Syriashouldbenext,followedbyIranandIraq.The waronterrorism,heargued,willconcludeinBaghdad,whenwefinishoff themostdangerousterroristregimeintheworld.164 Thesesalvoeswerethebeginningofanunrelentingpublicrelationscampaignto winsupportforinvadingIraq.165Akeypartofthiscampaignwasthe manipulationofintelligenceinformation,soastomakeSaddamlooklikean imminentthreat.Forexample,LibbyvisitedtheCIAseveraltimestopressure analyststofindevidencethatwouldmakethecaseforwar,andhehelped prepareadetailedbriefingontheIraqthreatinearly2003thatwaspushedon ColinPowell,thenpreparinghisinfamousbriefingtotheU.N.SecurityCouncil ontheIraqithreat.166AccordingtoBobWoodward,Powellwasappalledat whatheconsideredoverreachingandhyperbole.Libbywasdrawingonlythe worstconclusionsfromfragmentsandsilkythreads.167AlthoughPowell discardedLibbysmostoutrageousclaims,hisU.N.presentationwasstillriddled witherrors,asPowellnowacknowledges. Thecampaigntomanipulateintelligencealsoinvolvedtwoorganizationsthat werecreatedafter9/11andreporteddirectlytoUndersecretaryofDefense DouglasFeith.168ThePolicyCounterterrorismEvaluationGroupwastaskedto findlinksbetweenalQaedaandIraqthattheintelligencecommunity supposedlymissed.ItstwokeymemberswereWurmser,ahardcore neoconservative,andMichaelMaloof,aLebaneseAmericanwhohadcloseties withPerle.TheOfficeofSpecialPlanswastaskedwithfindingevidencethat couldbeusedtosellwarwithIraq.ItwasheadedbyAbramShulsky,a neoconservativewithlongstandingtiestoWolfowitz,anditsranksincluded recruitsfromproIsraelthinktanks.169 33

 Likevirtuallyalltheneoconservatives,FeithisdeeplycommittedtoIsrael.He alsohaslongstandingtiestotheLikudParty.Hewrotearticlesinthe1990s supportingthesettlementsandarguingthatIsraelshouldretaintheoccupied territories.170Moreimportantly,alongwithPerleandWurmser,hewrotethe famousCleanBreakreportinJune1996fortheincomingIsraeliPrime Minister,BenjaminNetanyahu.171Amongotherthings,itrecommendedthat NetanyahufocusonremovingSaddamHusseinfrompowerinIraqan importantIsraelistrategicobjectiveinitsownright.ItalsocalledforIsraelto takestepstoreordertheentireMiddleEast.Netanyahudidnotimplementtheir advice,butFeith,PerleandWurmserweresoonadvocatingthattheBush Administrationpursuethosesamegoals.ThissituationpromptedHaaretz columnistAkivaEldartowarnthatFeithandPerlearewalkingafineline betweentheirloyaltytoAmericangovernmentsandIsraeliinterests.172 WolfowitzisequallycommittedtoIsrael.TheForwardoncedescribedhimas themosthawkishlyproIsraelvoiceintheAdministration,andselectedhimin 2002asthefirstamongfiftynotableswhohaveconsciouslypursuedJewish activism.173Ataboutthesametime,JINSAgaveWolfowitzitsHenryM. JacksonDistinguishedServiceAwardforpromotingastrongpartnership betweenIsraelandtheUnitedStates,andtheJerusalemPost,describinghimas devoutlyproIsrael,namedhimManoftheYearin2003.174 Finally,abriefwordisinorderabouttheneoconservativesprewarsupportof AhmedChalabi,theunscrupulousIraqiexilewhoheadedtheIraqiNational Congress(INC).TheyembracedChalabibecausehehadworkedtoestablish closetieswithJewishAmericangroupsandhadpledgedtofostergoodrelations withIsraeloncehegainedpower.175ThiswaspreciselywhatproIsrael proponentsofregimechangewantedtohear,sotheybackedChalabiinreturn. JournalistMatthewBergerlaidouttheessenceofthebargainintheJewish Journal:TheINCsawimprovedrelationsasawaytotapJewishinfluencein WashingtonandJerusalemandtodrumupincreasedsupportforitscause.For theirpart,theJewishgroupssawanopportunitytopavethewayforbetter relationsbetweenIsraelandIraq,ifandwhentheINCisinvolvedinreplacing SaddamHusseinsregime.176 GiventheneoconservativesdevotiontoIsrael,theirobsessionwithIraq,and theirinfluenceintheBushAdministration,itisnotsurprisingthatmany AmericanssuspectedthatthewarwasdesignedtofurtherIsraeliinterests.For example,BarryJacobsoftheAmericanJewishCommitteeacknowledgedin 34

March2005thatthebeliefthatIsraelandtheneoconservativesconspiredtoget theUnitedStatesintoawarinIraqwaspervasiveintheU.S.intelligence community.177Yetfewpeoplewouldsaysopublicly,andmostthatdid includingSenatorErnestHollings(DSC)andRepresentativeJamesMoran(D VA)werecondemnedforraisingtheissue.178MichaelKinsleyputthepoint wellinlate2002,whenhewrotethatthelackofpublicdiscussionabouttherole ofIsraelistheproverbialelephantintheroom:Everybodyseesit,noone mentionsit.179Thereasonforthisreluctance,heobserved,wasfearofbeing labeledanantiSemite.Evenso,thereislittledoubtthatIsraelandtheLobby werekeyfactorsinshapingthedecisionforwar.WithouttheLobbysefforts, theUnitedStateswouldhavebeenfarlesslikelytohavegonetowarinMarch 2003. DreamsofRegionalTransformation TheIraqwarwasnotsupposedtobeacostlyquagmire.Rather,itwasintended asthefirststepinalargerplantoreordertheMiddleEast.Thisambitious strategywasadramaticdeparturefrompreviousU.S.policy,andtheLobbyand Israelwerecriticaldrivingforcesbehindthisshift.Thispointwasmadeclearly aftertheIraqwarbeganinafrontpagestoryintheWallStreetJournal.The headlinesaysitall:PresidentsDream:ChangingNotJustRegimebutaRegion: AProU.S.,DemocraticAreaisaGoalthatHasIsraeliandNeoConservative Roots.180 ProIsraelforceshavelongbeeninterestedingettingtheU.S.militarymore directlyinvolvedintheMiddleEast,soitcouldhelpprotectIsrael.181Butthey hadlimitedsuccessonthisfrontduringtheColdWar,becauseAmericaactedas anoffshorebalancerintheregion.MostU.S.forcesdesignatedfortheMiddle East,liketheRapidDeploymentForce,werekeptoverthehorizonandoutof harmsway.Washingtonmaintainedafavorablebalanceofpowerbyplaying localpowersoffagainsteachother,whichiswhytheReaganAdministration supportedSaddamagainstrevolutionaryIranduringtheIranIraqwar(198088). ThispolicychangedafterthefirstGulfWar,whentheClintonAdministration adoptedastrategyofdualcontainment.Itcalledforstationingsubstantial U.S.forcesintheregiontocontainbothIranandIraq,insteadofusingoneto checktheother.ThefatherofdualcontainmentwasnoneotherthanMartin Indyk,whofirstarticulatedthestrategyinMay1993attheproIsraelthinktank WINEPandthenimplementeditasDirectorforNearEastandSouthAsian AffairsattheNationalSecurityCouncil.182 35

Therewasconsiderabledissatisfactionwithdualcontainmentbythemid1990s, becauseitmadetheUnitedStatesthemortalenemyoftwocountrieswhoalso hatedeachother,anditforcedWashingtontobeartheburdenofcontainingboth ofthem.183Notsurprisingly,theLobbyworkedactivelyinCongresstosavedual containment.184PressedbyAIPACandotherproIsraelforces,Clinton toughenedupthepolicyinthespringof1995byimposinganeconomicembargo onIran.ButAIPACetalwantedmore.Theresultwasthe1996IranandLibya SanctionsAct,whichimposedsanctionsonanyforeigncompaniesinvesting morethan$40milliontodeveloppetroleumresourcesinIranorLibya.AsZeev Schiff,themilitarycorrespondentforHaaretz,notedatthetime,Israelisbuta tinyelementinthebigscheme,butoneshouldnotconcludethatitcannot influencethosewithintheBeltway.185 Bythelate1990s,however,theneoconservativeswerearguingthatdual containmentwasnotenoughandthatregimechangeinIraqwasnowessential. BytopplingSaddamandturningIraqintoavibrantdemocracy,theyargued,the UnitedStateswouldtriggerafarreachingprocessofchangethroughoutthe MiddleEast.Thislineofthinking,ofcourse,wasevidentintheCleanBreak studytheneoconservativeswroteforNetanyahu.By2002,wheninvadingIraq hadbecomeafrontburnerissue,regionaltransformationhadbecomeanarticle offaithinneoconservativecircles.186 CharlesKrauthammerdescribesthisgrandschemeasthebrainchildofNatan Sharansky,theIsraelipoliticianwhosewritingshaveimpressedPresident Bush.187ButSharanskywashardlyalonevoiceinIsrael.Infact,Israelisacross thepoliticalspectrumbelievedthattopplingSaddamwouldaltertheMiddle EasttoIsraelsadvantage.AlufBennreportedinHaaretz(February17,2003), SeniorIDFofficersandthoseclosetoPrimeMinisterArielSharon,suchas NationalSecurityAdvisorEphraimHalevy,paintarosypictureofthewonderful futureIsraelcanexpectafterthewar.Theyenvisionadominoeffect,withthefall ofSaddamHusseinfollowedbythatofIsraelsotherenemiesAlongwith theseleaderswilldisappearterrorandweaponsofmassdestruction.188 Inshort,Israelileaders,neoconservatives,andtheBushAdministrationallsaw warwithIraqasthefirststepinanambitiouscampaigntoremaketheMiddle East.Andinthefirstflushofvictory,theyturnedtheirsightsonIsraelsother regionalopponents. 36

GunningforSyria IsraelileadersdidnotpushtheBushAdministrationtoputitscrosshairson SyriabeforeMarch2003,becausetheyweretoobusypushingforwaragainst Iraq.ButonceBaghdadfellinmidApril,Sharonandhislieutenantsbegan urgingWashingtontotargetDamascus.189OnApril16,forexample,Sharonand ShaulMofaz,hisdefenseminister,gavehighprofileinterviewsindifferent Israelinewspapers.Sharon,inYediothAhronoth,calledfortheUnitedStatesto putveryheavypressureonSyria.190MofaztoldMaarivthat,Wehavealong listofissuesthatwearethinkingofdemandingoftheSyriansanditis appropriatethatitshouldbedonethroughtheAmericans.191Sharonsnational securityadvisor,EphraimHalevy,toldaWINEPaudiencethatitwasnow importantfortheUnitedStatestogetroughwithSyria,andtheWashingtonPost reportedthatIsraelwasfuelingthecampaignagainstSyriabyfeedingthe UnitedStatesintelligencereportsabouttheactionsofSyrianPresidentBashar Assad.192 ProminentmembersoftheLobbymadethesameargumentsafterBaghdad fell.193WolfowitzdeclaredthattherehasgottoberegimechangeinSyria,and RichardPerletoldajournalistthatWecoulddeliverashortmessage,atwo wordedmessage[tootherhostileregimesintheMiddleEast]:Yourenext.194 InearlyApril,WINEPreleasedabipartisanreportstatingthatSyriashouldnot missthemessagethatcountriesthatpursueSaddamsreckless,irresponsibleand defiantbehaviorcouldendupsharinghisfate.195OnApril15,YossiKlein HaleviwroteapieceintheLosAngelesTimesentitledNext,TurntheScrewson Syria,whilethenextdayZevChafetswroteanarticlefortheNewYorkDaily NewsentitledTerrorFriendlySyriaNeedsaChange,Too.Nottobeoutdone, LawrenceKaplanwroteintheNewRepubliconApril21thatSyrianleaderAssad wasaseriousthreattoAmerica.196 BackonCapitolHill,CongressmanEliotEngel(DNY)hadreintroducedthe SyriaAccountabilityandLebaneseSovereigntyRestorationActonApril12.197It threatenedsanctionsagainstSyriaifitdidnotwithdrawfromLebanon,giveup itsWMD,andstopsupportingterrorism,anditalsocalledforSyriaandLebanon totakeconcretestepstomakepeacewithIsrael.Thislegislationwasstrongly endorsedbytheLobbyespeciallyAIPACandframed,accordingtothe JewishTelegraphAgency,bysomeofIsraelsbestfriendsinCongress.198Ithad beenonthebackburnerforsometime,largelybecausetheBushAdministration hadlittleenthusiasmforit,buttheantiSyrianactpassedoverwhelmingly(3984

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intheHouse;894intheSenate),andBushsigneditintolawonDecember12, 2003.199 YettheBushAdministrationwasstilldividedaboutthewisdomoftargeting Syriaatthistime.Althoughtheneoconservativeswereeagertopickafightwith Damascus,theCIAandtheStateDepartmentwereopposed.Andevenafter Bushsignedthenewlaw,heemphasizedthathewouldgoslowlyin implementingit.200 Bushsambivalenceisunderstandable.First,theSyriangovernmenthadbeen providingtheUnitedStateswithimportantintelligenceaboutalQaedasince 9/11andhadalsowarnedWashingtonaboutaplannedterroristattackinthe Gulf.201SyriahadalsogivenCIAinterrogatorsaccesstoMohammedZammar, theallegedrecruiterofsomeofthe9/11hijackers.TargetingtheAssadregime wouldjeopardizethesevaluableconnections,andthusunderminethelargerwar onterrorism. Second,SyriawasnotonbadtermswithWashingtonbeforetheIraqwar(e.g.,it hadevenvotedforU.N.Resolution1441),anditwasnothreattotheUnited States.PlayinghardballwithSyriawouldmaketheUnitedStateslooklikea bullywithaninsatiableappetiteforbeatingupArabstates.Finally,putting SyriaontheAmericanhitlistwouldgiveDamascusapowerfulincentiveto causetroubleinIraq.EvenifonewantedtopressureSyria,itmadegoodsense tofinishthejobinIraqfirst. YetCongressinsistedonputtingthescrewstoDamascus,largelyinresponseto pressurefromIsraelofficialsandproIsraelgroupslikeAIPAC.202Iftherewere noLobby,therewouldhavebeennoSyriaAccountabilityActandU.S.policy towardDamascuswouldhavebeenmoreinlinewiththeU.S.nationalinterest. PuttingIranintheCrosshairs Israelistendtodescribeeverythreatinthestarkestterms,butIraniswidelyseen astheirmostdangerousenemybecauseitisthemostlikelyadversarytoacquire nuclearweapons.VirtuallyallIsraelisregardanIslamiccountryintheMiddle Eastwithnuclearweaponsasanexistentialthreat.AsIsraeliDefenseMinister BinyaminBenEliezerremarkedonemonthbeforetheIraqwar:Iraqisa problem.Butyoushouldunderstand,ifyouaskme,todayIranismore dangerousthanIraq.203 38

SharonbeganpubliclypushingtheUnitedStatestoconfrontIraninNovember 2002,inahighprofileinterviewinTheTimes(London).204DescribingIranasthe centerofworldterror,andbentonacquiringnuclearweapons,hedeclared thattheBushAdministrationshouldputthestrongarmonIranthedayafterit conqueredIraq.InlateApril2003,HaaretzreportedthattheIsraeliambassador inWashingtonwasnowcallingforregimechangeinIran.205Theoverthrowof Saddam,henoted,wasnotenough.Inhiswords,Americahastofollow through.WestillhavegreatthreatsofthatmagnitudecomingfromSyria, comingfromIran. Theneoconservativesalsolostnotimeinmakingthecaseforregimechangein Tehran.206OnMay6,theAEIcosponsoredanalldayconferenceonIranwith theproIsraelFoundationfortheDefenseofDemocraciesandtheHudson Institute.207ThespeakerswereallstronglyproIsrael,andmanycalledforthe UnitedStatestoreplacetheIranianregimewithademocracy.Asusual,there wereabevyofarticlesbyprominentneoconservativesmakingthecaseforgoing afterIran.Forexample,WilliamKristolwroteintheWeeklyStandardonMay12 that,TheliberationofIraqwasthefirstgreatbattleforthefutureoftheMiddle East.Butthenextgreatbattlenot,wehope,amilitaryonewillbefor Iran.208 TheBushAdministrationhasrespondedtotheLobbyspressurebyworking overtimetoshutdownIransnuclearprogram.ButWashingtonhashadlittle success,andIranseemsdeterminedtogetanucleararsenal.Asaresult,the LobbyhasintensifieditspressureontheU.S.government,usingallofthe strategiesinitsplaybook.209Opedsandarticlesnowwarnofimminentdangers fromanuclearIran,cautionagainstanyappeasementofaterroristregime,and hintdarklyofpreventiveactionshoulddiplomacyfail.TheLobbyisalso pushingCongresstoapprovetheIranFreedomSupportAct,whichwould expandexistingsanctionsonIran.Israeliofficialsalsowarntheymaytake preemptiveactionshouldIrancontinuedownthenuclearroad,hintspartly intendedtokeepWashingtonfocusedonthisissue. OnemightarguethatIsraelandtheLobbyhavenothadmuchinfluenceonU.S. policytowardIran,becausetheUnitedStateshasitsownreasonstokeepIran fromgoingnuclear.Thisispartlytrue,butIransnuclearambitionsdonotpose anexistentialthreattotheUnitedStates.IfWashingtoncouldlivewithanuclear SovietUnion,anuclearChina,orevenanuclearNorthKorea,thenitcanlive withanuclearIran.AndthatiswhytheLobbymustkeepconstantpressureon U.S.politicianstoconfrontTehran.IranandtheUnitedStateswouldhardlybe 39

alliesiftheLobbydidnotexist,butU.S.policywouldbemoretemperateand preventivewarwouldnotbeaseriousoption. Summary ItisnotsurprisingthatIsraelanditsAmericansupporterswanttheUnitedStates todealwithanyandallthreatstoIsraelssecurity.IftheireffortstoshapeU.S. policysucceed,thenIsraelsenemiesgetweakenedoroverthrown,Israelgetsa freehandwiththePalestinians,andtheUnitedStatesdoesmostofthefighting, dying,rebuilding,andpaying. ButeveniftheUnitedStatesfailstotransformtheMiddleEastandfindsitselfin conflictwithanincreasinglyradicalizedArabandIslamicworld,Israelstillends upprotectedbytheworldsonlysuperpower.210Thisisnotaperfectoutcome fromtheLobbysperspective,butitisobviouslypreferabletoWashington distancingitselffromIsrael,orusingitsleveragetoforceIsraeltomakepeace withthePalestinians. CONCLUSION CantheLobbyspowerbecurtailed?Onewouldliketothinkso,giventheIraq debacle,theobviousneedtorebuildAmericasimageintheArabandIslamic world,andtherecentrevelationsaboutAIPACofficialspassingU.S.government secretstoIsrael.OnemightalsothinkthatArafatsdeathandtheelectionofthe moremoderateAbuMazenwouldcauseWashingtontopressvigorouslyand evenhandedlyforapeaceagreement.Inshort,thereareamplegroundsforU.S. leaderstodistancethemselvesfromtheLobbyandadoptaMiddleEastpolicy moreconsistentwithbroaderU.S.interests.Inparticular,usingAmericanpower toachieveajustpeacebetweenIsraelandthePalestinianswouldhelpadvance thebroadergoalsoffightingextremismandpromotingdemocracyintheMiddle East. Butthatisnotgoingtohappenanytimesoon.AIPACanditsallies(including ChristianZionists)havenoseriousopponentsinthelobbyingworld.Theyknow ithasbecomemoredifficulttomakeIsraelscasetoday,andtheyareresponding byexpandingtheiractivitiesandstaffs.211Moreover,Americanpoliticians remainacutelysensitivetocampaigncontributionsandotherformsofpolitical pressureandmajormediaoutletsarelikelytoremainsympathetictoIsraelno matterwhatitdoes. 40

Thissituationisdeeplyworrisome,becausetheLobbysinfluencecausestrouble onseveralfronts.Itincreasestheterroristdangerthatallstatesfaceincluding AmericasEuropeanallies.BypreventingU.S.leadersfrompressuringIsraelto makepeace,theLobbyhasalsomadeitimpossibletoendtheIsraeliPalestinian conflict.Thissituationgivesextremistsapowerfulrecruitingtool,increasesthe poolofpotentialterroristsandsympathizers,andcontributestoIslamic radicalismaroundtheworld. Furthermore,theLobbyscampaignforregimechangeinIranandSyriacould leadtheUnitedStatestoattackthosecountries,withpotentiallydisastrous effects.WedonotneedanotherIraq.Ataminimum,theLobbyshostility towardthesecountriesmakesitespeciallydifficultforWashingtontoenlistthem againstalQaedaandtheIraqiinsurgency,wheretheirhelpisbadlyneeded. Thereisamoraldimensionhereaswell.ThankstotheLobby,theUnitedStates hasbecomethedefactoenablerofIsraeliexpansionintheoccupiedterritories, makingitcomplicitinthecrimesperpetratedagainstthePalestinians.This situationundercutsWashingtonseffortstopromotedemocracyabroadand makesitlookhypocriticalwhenitpressesotherstatestorespecthumanrights. U.S.effortstolimitnuclearproliferationappearequallyhypocriticalgivenits willingnesstoacceptIsraelsnucleararsenal,whichencouragesIranandothers toseeksimilarcapabilities. Moreover,theLobbyscampaigntosquelchdebateaboutIsraelisunhealthyfor democracy.Silencingskepticsbyorganizingblacklistsandboycottsorby suggestingthatcriticsareantiSemitesviolatestheprincipleofopendebate uponwhichdemocracydepends.TheinabilityoftheU.S.Congresstoconducta genuinedebateonthesevitalissuesparalyzestheentireprocessofdemocratic deliberation.Israelsbackersshouldbefreetomaketheircaseandtochallenge thosewhodisagreewiththem.Buteffortstostifledebatebyintimidationmust beroundlycondemnedbythosewhobelieveinfreespeechandopendiscussion ofimportantpublicissues. Finally,theLobbysinfluencehasbeenbadforIsrael.Itsabilitytopersuade WashingtontosupportanexpansionistagendahasdiscouragedIsraelfrom seizingopportunitiesincludingapeacetreatywithSyriaandapromptandfull implementationoftheOsloAccordsthatwouldhavesavedIsraelilivesand shrunktheranksofPalestinianextremists.DenyingthePalestinianstheir legitimatepoliticalrightscertainlyhasnotmadeIsraelmoresecure,andthelong campaigntokillormarginalizeagenerationofPalestinianleadershas 41

empoweredextremistgroupslikeHamas,andreducedthenumberof Palestinianleaderswhowouldbebothwillingtoacceptafairsettlementand abletomakeitwork.ThiscourseraisestheawfulspecterofIsraeloneday occupyingthepariahstatusoncereservedforapartheidstateslikeSouthAfrica. Ironically,IsraelitselfwouldprobablybebetteroffiftheLobbywereless powerfulandU.S.policyweremoreevenhanded. Butthereisarayofhope.AlthoughtheLobbyremainsapowerfulforce,the adverseeffectsofitsinfluenceareincreasinglydifficulttohide.Powerfulstates canmaintainflawedpoliciesforquitesometime,butrealitycannotbeignored forever.Whatisneeded,therefore,isacandiddiscussionoftheLobbys influenceandamoreopendebateaboutU.S.interestsinthisvitalregion.Israels wellbeingisoneofthoseinterests,butnotitscontinuedoccupationoftheWest Bankoritsbroaderregionalagenda.Opendebatewillexposethelimitsofthe strategicandmoralcaseforonesidedU.S.supportandcouldmovetheUnited Statestoapositionmoreconsistentwithitsownnationalinterest,withthe interestsoftheotherstatesintheregion,andwithIsraelslongterminterestsas well.

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ENDNOTES
Indeed,themereexistenceoftheLobbysuggeststhatunconditionalsupportforIsrael isnotintheAmericannationalinterest.Ifitwas,onewouldnotneedanorganized specialinterestgrouptobringitabout.ButbecauseIsraelisastrategicandmoral liability,ittakesrelentlesspoliticalpressuretokeepU.S.supportintact.AsRichard Gephardt,theformerHouseMinorityLeader,toldtheAmericanIsraelPublicAffairs Committee(AIPAC),Without[your]constantsupport...andallyourfightingona dailybasistostrengthenthatrelationship,itwouldnotbe.Thisquotewasdownloaded fromtheAIPACwebsite[http://www.aipac.org/]onJanuary12,2004.AlsoseeMichael Kinsley,JAccuse,SortOf,Slate,March12,2003. 2AccordingtotheU.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopments(USAID)Greenbook, whichreportsoverseasloansandgrants,Israelhasreceived$140,142,800(inconstant 2003dollars)fromtheUnitedStatesthrough2003.DownloadedfromtheGreenbook website[http://qesdb.cdie.org/gbk/]onNovember8,2005. 3AccordingtotheGreenbook,Israelreceivedabout$3.7billionindirectaidfromthe UnitedStatesin2003.IsraelspopulationaccordingtotheInternationalInstitutefor StrategicStudies[IISS]andtheCIAis6,276,883.IISS,TheMilitaryBalance:20052006 (Oxfordshire:Routledge,2005),p.192;http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/. Thataveragesoutto$589perIsraeli.Ifoneassumesthesamepopulationsizeand$3 billionintotalaid,theneachIsraelireceives$478. 4Seehttp://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/;WorldBankAtlas(Washington,DC: DevelopmentDataGroup,WorldBank,September2004),pp.6465. 5ForadiscussionofthevariousspecialdealsthatIsraelreceives,seeClydeR.Mark, Israel:U.S.ForeignAssistance,IssueBriefforCongress(Washington,DC: CongressionalResearchService,April26,2005). 6AvnerCohen,IsraelandtheBomb(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1999); SeymourM.Hersh,TheSamsonOption:IsraelsNuclearArsenalandAmericanForeign Policy(NewYork:RandomHouse,1991). 7ReportoftheOpenEndedWorkingGroupontheQuestionofEquitable RepresentationonandIncreaseintheMembershipoftheSecurityCouncilandOther MattersRelatedtotheSecurityCouncil,AnnexIII,U.N.GeneralAssemblyOfficial Records,58thSession,SupplementNo.47,2004,pp.1314;DonaldNeff,AnUpdated ListofVetoesCastbytheUnitedStatestoShieldIsraelfromCriticismbytheU.N. SecurityCouncil,WashingtonReportonMiddleEastAffairs,May/June2005;Stephen Zunes,U.S.DeclaresOpenSeasononUNWorkers,CommonDreams.org,January10,
1

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2003.TherewerealsomanyresolutionsthatnevercametoavotebecauseSecurity CouncilmembersknewthattheUnitedStateswouldvetothem.Giventhedifficultyof criticizingspecificIsraeliactionsintheSecurityCouncil,criticismhasoftencomefrom theU.N.GeneralAssembly,wherenostatehasaveto.Inthoseinstances,theUnited Statesinvariablyfindsitselfontheshortendoflopsidedvotesontheorderofsay1334, wherethedissentersincludeMicronesiaandtheMarshallIslandsaswellasIsraeland theUnitedStates.Inresponse,theForwardreportedinNovember2003thattheBush Administration,attheinstigationoftheAmericanJewishCommittee,wasembarking onthemostcomprehensivecampaigninyearstoreducethenumberofantiIsrael resolutionsroutinelypassedbytheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.MarcPerelman, WashingtonSeekingtoReduceNumberofAntiIsraelVotesatU.N.,Forward, November14,2003. 8MarcPerelman,InternationalAgencyEyesIsraeliNukes,Forward,September5,2003. 9WilliamB.Quandt,PeaceProcess:AmericanDiplomacyandtheArabIsraeliConflictsince 1967,3rded.(Washington,DC:BrookingsInstitutionPress,2005),chapters57,1012. 10NathanGuttman,U.S.AccusedofProIsraelBiasat2000CampDavid,Haaretz, April29,2005.AlsoseeAaronD.Miller,IsraelsLawyer,WashingtonPost,May23, 2005;LessonsofArabIsraeliNegotiating:FourNegotiatorsLookBackandAhead, Transcriptofpaneldiscussion,MiddleEastInstitute,April25,2005.Forgeneral discussionsofhowtheUnitedStatesconsistentlyfavorsIsraeloverthePalestinians,see NoamChomsky,FatefulTriangle:TheUnitedStates,IsraelandthePalestinians(Cambridge, MA:SouthEndPress,1999);KathleenChristison,PerceptionsofPalestine:TheirInfluence onU.S.MiddleEastPolicy(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2001);NaseerH. Aruri,DishonestBroker:TheU.S.RoleinIsraelandPalestine(Cambridge,MA:SouthEnd Press,2003).ItisalsoworthnotingthattheBritishfavoredtheZionistsoverthe PalestiniansduringtheperiodoftheBritishMandate(19191948).SeeTomSegev,One Palestine,Complete:JewsandArabsundertheBritishMandate(NewYork:HenryHolt, 2000). 11DownloadedfromAIPACswebsite[http://aipac.org/documents/unitedefforts.html] onJanuary12,2006. 12See,forexample,WarrenBass,SupportAnyFriend:KennedysMiddleEastandthe MakingoftheUSIsraelAlliance(NY:OxfordUniversityPress,2003);A.F.K.Organski,The $36BillionBargain:StrategyandPoliticsinU.S.AssistancetoIsrael(NewYork:Columbia UniversityPress,1990);StevenL.Spiegel,IsraelasaStrategicAsset,Commentary,June 1983,pp.5155;Idem,TheOtherArabIsraeliConflict:MakingAmericasMiddleEastPolicy, fromTrumantoReagan(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1985).

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ThispointwasnotlostonMosheDayan,who,rememberingatalkhehadwithHenry KissingeratthetimeoftheOctober1973War,notedthatthoughIhappenedtoremark thattheUnitedStateswastheonlycountrythatwasreadytostandbyus,mysilent reflectionwasthattheUnitedStateswouldreallyrathersupporttheArabs.Moshe Dayan,MosheDayan:StoryofMyLife(NY:WilliamMorrow,1976),pp.521513.Alsosee ZachLevey,TheUnitedStatesSkyhawkSaletoIsrael,1966:StrategicExigenciesofan ArmsDeal,DiplomaticHistory,Vol.28,No.2(April2004),pp.255276. 14BernardLewiswrotein1992,WhatevervalueIsraelmighthavehadasastrategic assetduringtheColdWar,thatvalueobviouslyendedwhentheColdWaritselfcameto aclose.ThechangewasclearlymanifestedintheGulfWarlastyear,whenwhatthe UnitedStatesmostdesiredfromIsraelwastokeepoutoftheconflicttobesilent, inactiveand,asfaraspossible,invisible.Israelwasnotanasset,butanirrelevance someevensaidanuisance.SomeofthethingsthattheIsraeligovernmentlatersaidand didwereunlikelytochangethisperception.RethinkingtheMiddleEast,Foreign Affairs,Vol.71,No.4,(Fall1992),pp.110111. 15AccordingtoMiddleEastexpertShibleyTelhami,Nootherissueresonateswiththe publicintheArabworld,andmanyotherpartsoftheMuslimworld,moredeeplythan Palestine.NootherissueshapestheregionalperceptionsofAmericamore fundamentallythantheissueofPalestine.TheStakes:AmericaandtheMiddleEast (Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,2002),p.96.LakhdarBrahimi,theformerU.N.special envoytoIraq,whotheBushAdministrationenlistedtohelpformaninterimIraqi governmentinJune2004,saidthatIsraelipolicytowardthePalestiniansisthegreat poisonintheregion,andthatintheregion,andbeyondpeoplerecognizedthe injusticeofthispolicyandtheequallyunjustsupportoftheUnitedStatesforthis policy.SeeWarrenHoge,U.N.MovestoDisassociateItselffromRemarksbyEnvoy toIraq,NewYorkTimes,April23,2004;BrahimisIsraelCommentsDrawAnnan,Israel Ire,Haaretz,April24,2004.AlsoseethecommentsofEgyptianPresidentHosni MubarakinMubarak:ArabHatredofAmericaGrowing,WashingtonPost,April20, 2004.Finally,seeAmiEden,9/11CommissionFindsAngeratIsraelFuelingIslamic TerrorismWave,Forward,July30,2004. 16NationalCommissiononTerroristAttacksagainsttheUnitedStates,Outlineofthe 9/11Plot,StaffStatementNo.16,June16,2004.AlsoseeNathanGuttman,AlQaida PlannedAttacksduringPMsVisittoWhiteHouse,Haaretz,June17,2004;andMarc Perelman,BinLadenAimedtoLinkPlottoIsrael,Forward,June25,2004.ProIsrael supportersoftenarguethatbinLadenonlybecameinterestedintheIsraelPalestinian conflictafter9/11,andonlybecausehethoughtthatitwasgoodforrecruitingpurposes. Thus,thereisvirtuallynoconnectionbetweenwhathappenedon9/11andU.S.support forIsrael.SeeAndreaLevin,DontScapegoatIsrael,BostonGlobe,October6,2001; NormanPodhoretz,IsraelIsnttheIssue,WallStreetJournal,September20,2001.Note
13

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thatbothofthesepieceswerepublishedrightaftertheTwinTowersfell.However,we nowhaveasubstantialnumberofbinLadenswritingsandtalksfromthe1980sand 1990s,anditisclearthathecareddeeplyaboutmattersrelatingtoJerusalemandthe Palestinianslongbefore9/11.See,forexample,JihadagainstJewsandCrusaders, WorldIslamicFrontStatement,February23,1998;TranscriptofOsamabinLadens March20,1997interviewwithPeterArnettofCNN(firstbroadcastonMay10,1997). AlsoNewOsamabinLadenVideoContainsAntiIsraelandAntiAmerican Statements,downloadedfromtheAntiDefamationLeague(ADL)website [http://www.adl.org/terrorism_america/bin_l_print.asp]onMarch8,2004. 17ChangingMinds,WinningPeace:ANewStrategicDirectionforU.S.PublicDiplomacyinthe ArabandMuslimWorld,ReportoftheAdvisoryGrouponPublicDiplomacyfortheArab andMuslimWorld,SubmittedtotheCommitteeonAppropriations,U.S.Houseof Representatives,October1,2003,p.18.AlsoseeThePewGlobalAttitudesProject,Views ofaChangingWorld2003:WarWithIraqFurtherDividesGlobalPublics(Washington,DC: ThePewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress,June3,2003);ReportoftheDefense ScienceBoardTaskForceonStrategicCommunication(Washington,DC:Officeofthe UndersecretaryofDefenseforAcquisition,Technology,andLogistics,September2004); ShibleyTelhami,ArabPublicOpinion:ASurveyinSixCountries,SanJoseMercury, March16,2003;JohnZogby,TheTenNationImpressionsofAmericaPoll(Utica,NY:Zogby International,April11,2002);Idem,ImpressionsofAmerica2004:HowArabsViewAmerica, HowArabsLearnaboutAmerica(SixNationSurvey),(Utica,NY:ZogbyInternational, 2004). 18SeeThePewGlobalAttitudesProject,AmericaAdmired,YetItsNewVulnerabilitySeen AsGoodThing,SayOpinionLeaders(Washington,DC:ThePewResearchCenterforthe PeopleandthePress,December19,2001);PewGlobalAttitudesProject,Viewsofa ChangingWorld2003,p.5. 19Foracopyoftheletter,seeDoomedtoFailureintheMiddleEast,TheGuardian, April27,2004.AlsoseeNicholasBlanford,USMovesInflameArabModerates,The ChristianScienceMonitor,April26,2004;RupertCornwell,AlliesWarnBushthat StabilityinIraqDemandsArabIsraeliDeal,TheIndependent,June10,2004;Glenn KesslerandRobinWright,ArabsandEuropeansQuestionGreaterMiddleEastPlan, WashingtonPost,February22,2004;PaulRichter,U.S.HasFreshHopeforMideast,Los AngelesTimes,November7,2004;RobinWrightandGlennKessler,U.S.Goalsfor MiddleEastFalter,WashingtonPost,April21,2004.EvensomeIsraelisunderstandthat thecontinuationofthisconflict,includingtheIsraelioccupation,willmostcertainly leadtonewwavesofterror;internationalterrorism,whichtheAmericansfearsomuch, willspread.ZeevSchiff,FittingintoAmericasStrategy,Haaretz,August1,2003.It isalsoworthnotingthatsome50retiredAmericandiplomatswrotealetterinMay2004 toPresidentBushsimilartotheletterthattheBritishdiplomatssenttoTonyBlair.A

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copyoftheAmericanletterwaspublishedinTheNewYorkReviewofBooks,November 18,2004. 20Consider,forexample,thecontroversythateruptedin2005overIsraelsdecisionto expanditssettlementsintheWestBank.SeeAlufBenn,WeCantExpectExplicitU.S. OkaytoBuildinSettlements,Haaretz,March28,2005;AkivaEldar,Bush:End ExpansionofSettlements,Haaretz,May27,2005;BushWarnsIsraeloverWestBank, BBCNewsOnline,April11,2005;DonaldMacintyre,SharonVowstoDefyBushover ExpansionofIsraeliSettlements,Independent,April22,2005;SharonBrushesOff WarningfromBush,MSNBC.com,April12,2005;AmyTeibel,U.S.toIsrael:Stop ExpandingSettlements,WashingtonPost,June26,2005;ZeevSchiff,U.S.:Israel ShirkingItsPromisesonSettlementBoundaries,Haaretz,March15,2005.Regarding targetedassassinationsPrimeMinisterSharonpromisedSecretaryofStateColinPowell inMay2003thatIsraelwouldrefrainfromkillingPalestinianleadersunlesstherewasa tickingbomb(animminentattack).ZeevSchiff,Focus/AmericansFearAbuMazen IsFurtherWeakened,Haaretz,June12,2003.Butonemonthlater,afterBushmadea highprofilevisittotheMiddleEastandtheprospectsfornegotiationsbetweenthe warringpartieslookedpromising,Sharonlaunchedsevenassassinationmissionsinfive days,noneinvolvingatickingbomb.BradleyBurston,Background:HasSharons HamasHitlistConvertedBush?Haaretz,June17,2003.AlsoseeUriAvnery,Avoiding aRoadMaptotheAbyss,ArabNews(online),August26,2003;GlennKessler,White HouseBacksLatestIsraeliAttacks,WashingtonPost,June13,2003;LauraKing,Sharon LaudsHebronKilling,LosAngelesTimes,June23,2003;GideonLevy,WhoViolated theHudna?Tikkun(online),August17,2003.InMarch2004,theIDFkilledHamas spiritualleaderSheikYassin,eventhoughhewasnotanimminentthreat,andeven thoughhisdeathdamagedAmericaspositionintheMiddleEast.GeorgieAnneGeyer, ArielSharonComplicatesU.S.Mission,ChicagoTribune,March26,2004;H.D.S. Greenway,AssassinationFalloutBodesIllforUS,BostonGlobe,March26,2004;Tony Karon,HowIsraelsHamasKillingAffectstheU.S.,Time,March23,2004;DavidR. Sands,IsraelsKillingofYassinPutsUSinLineofFire,WashingtonTimes,March23, 2004.AsJimHoaglandsaidinthewakeofYassinskilling,Withthepossibleexception ofCharlesdeGaulle,nofriendlyforeignleaderhascomplicatedmodernAmerican diplomacymoreconsistentlyorgravelythanArielSharon.HepursuesIsraelsinterests withawarriorstenacityanddirectnessthattakesawaythebreath,andtheoptions,of everyoneelse.SeeConsequencesforSharonandtheU.S.,ChicagoTribune,March 26,2004. 21QuotedinDuncanL.Clarke,IsraelsUnauthorizedArmsTransfers,ForeignPolicy, No.99(Summer1995),p.94.Thisarticleprovidesanexcellentdiscussionofthe problem.Therewasabittercontroversyin20042005betweentheUnitedStatesand IsraeloverIsraeliarmssalestoChina.SeeAlufBennandAmnonBarzilai,Pentagon OfficialWantsYaronFired,Haaretz,December16,2004;AlufBenn,U.S.KeepsIsrael

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OutofNewFighterJetDevelopmentProgram,Haaretz,October12,2005;NinaGilbert, YaronWontGiveInfoonArmsSalestoChina,JerusalemPost,December30,2004; Israeli,U.S.TalksonWeaponsDealswithChinaEndwithoutResult,Haaretz,June29, 2005;MarcPerelman,SpatOverSalesofWeaponsChillingTiesbetweenJerusalemand Beijing,Forward,December23,2004;MarcPerelman,ChinaCrisisStrainingU.S.Israel Ties,Forward,August5,2005;MarcPerelman,IsraelMiffedoverLingeringChina Flap,Forward,October7,2005;ZeevSchiff,U.S.IsraelCrisisDeepensoverDefense ExportstoChina,Haaretz,July27,2005. 22QuotedinDuncanL.Clarke,IsraelsEconomicEspionageintheUnitedStates, JournalofPalestineStudies,Vol.27,No.4(Summer1998),p.21.AlsoseeBobDroginand GregMiller,IsraelHasLongSpiedonU.S.SayOfficials,LosAngelesTimes,September 3,2004;FBISaysIsraelaMajorPlayerinIndustrialEspionage,JewishBulletin,January 16,1998;ClydeR.Mark,IsraeliUnitedStatesRelations,IssueBriefforCongress (Washington,DC:CongressionalResearchService,November9,2004),pp.1415;Joshua Mitnick,U.S.AccusesOfficialsofSpying,WashingtonTimes,December16,2004. 23OnthePollardaffair,seeHersh,SamsonOption,pp.285305;Idem,TheTraitor:Why PollardShouldNeverBeReleased,NewYorker,Vol.74,issue42(January18,1999),pp. 2633.ThereareahugenumberofarticlesontheinternetdealingwiththeFranklin Affair.Foragoodoverviewofthecase,seeJeffreyGoldberg,RealInsiders:AProIsrael LobbyandanF.B.I.Sting,NewYorker,Vol.81,issue19(July4,2005),pp.3440. 24TrevorN.Dupuy,ElusiveVictory:TheArabIsraeliWars,19471974(NewYork:Harper andRow,1978),pp.319,121125,146147,212214,231244,333340,388390,597605, 623633;SimhaFlapan,TheBirthofIsrael:MythsandRealities(NewYork:Pantheon Books,1987),pp.189199;RashidKhalidi,ThePalestiniansand1948:TheUnderlying CausesofFailure,inEugeneL.RoganandAviShlaim,eds.,TheWarforPalestine: RewritingtheHistoryof1948(NY:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),pp.1236;Haim Levenberg,MilitaryPreparationsoftheArabCommunityinPalestine,19451948(London: FrankCass,1993);BennyMorris,TheBirthofthePalestinianRefugeeProblemRevisited (NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2004),chapters1,3.Idem,RighteousVictims:A HistoryoftheZionistArabConflict,18811999(NewYork:AlfredKnopf,1999),pp.187 189,191196,217223,235236,241242,286291,311313,393395;MartinVanCreveld, TheSwordandtheOlive:ACriticalHistoryoftheIsraeliDefenseForces(NY:PublicAffairs, 1998),pp.7782,137138,179182. 25AmosHarel,IsraelMaintainsItsStrategicAdvantage,SaysJaffeeCenter,Haaretz, November23,2005.Alsosee,UriBarJoseph,TheParadoxofIsraeliPower,Survival, Vol.46,No.4(Winter200405),pp.137156;MartinVanCreveld,Opportunity Beckons,JerusalemPost,May15,2003.

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ForthreeinstructivepiecesonthismatterfromtheIsraelipress,seeAmiramBarkat, MajorityofIsraelisAreOpposedtoIntermarriage,SurveyFinds,Haaretz,September 15,2003;NickyBlackburn,BetteraJew,Haaretz,April21,2004;LilyGalili,Hitting BelowtheBelt,Haaretz,August8,2004. 27SeeTheOfficialSummationoftheOrCommissionReport,publishedinHaaretz, September2,2003.ForevidenceofhowhostilemanyIsraelisweretothereports findingsandrecommendations,seeNoAvoidingtheCommissionRecommendations, Haaretz,September4,2003;MollyMoore,IsraeliReportIsWelcomed,Dismissed, WashingtonPost,September3,2003.AlsoseeBernardAvishai,SavingIsraelfromItself: ASecularFuturefortheJewishState,HarpersMagazine,January2005.Itisalsoworth notingthattheIsraelDemocracyInstitutereportedinMay2003that:53percentofIsraeli JewsareagainstfullequalityfortheArabs;77percentofIsraeliJewsbelievethat thereshouldbeaJewishmajorityoncrucialpoliticaldecisions;only31percent supporthavingArabpoliticalpartiesinthegovernment;57percentthinkthatthe Arabsshouldbeencouragedtoemigrate.SeeTheDemocracyIndex:MajorFindings 2003.ImaginetheoutcrythatwouldoccurifamajorityofwhiteAmericansdeclared thatblacks,Hispanics,andAsiansshouldbeencouragedtoleavetheUnitedStates. Formorerecentsurveys,whichshowlittlechangeinIsraeliattitudes,seeYulie Khromchenko,Survey:MostJewishIsraelisSupportTransferofArabs,Haaretz,June 22,2004;YoavStern,Poll:MostIsraeliJewsSayIsraeliArabsShouldEmigrate, Haaretz,April4,2005. 28QuotedinJustinHuggler,IsraelImposesRacistMarriageLaw,Guardian,August1, 2003.AlsoseeJamesBennet,IsraelBlocksPalestiniansfromMarryingintoResidency, NewYorkTimes,July31,2003;RacistLegislation,Haaretzeditorial,July,19,2004; RacistLegislation,Haaretzeditorial,January18,2005.EventheAntiDefamation League(ADL)criticizedthelegislation,albeitmildly.NathanGuttman,YairEttinger, SharonSadeh,ADLCriticizesLawDenyingCitizenshiptoPalestinians,Haaretz, August5,2003. 29ThefirstwaveofEuropeanJewstocometoPalestineisknownastheFirstAliyah,and itcoverstheyearsfrom1882to1903.Therewereslightlymorethan15,000Jewsin Palestinein1882.JustinMcCarthy,ThePopulationofPalestine:PopulationHistoryand StatisticsoftheLateOttomanPeriodandtheMandate(NY:ColumbiaUniversityPress, 1990),p.11,whichhasexcellentdatafortheyearsfrom1850to1915.AlsoseeMark Tessler,AHistoryoftheIsraeliPalestinianConflict(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversity Press,1994),p.124. 30ThetotalpopulationofPalestinein1893wasroughly530,000,ofwhomabout19,000 wereJewish(3.6percent).Arabscomprisedthevastmajorityoftheremaining population.McCarthy,PopulationofPalestine,p.11.
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Flapan,BirthofIsrael,p.44;Morris,RighteousVictims,p.186.

Flapan,BirthofIsrael,p22.Similarly,BenGuriontoldhisson,Iamcertainwewillbe abletosettleinalltheotherpartsofthecountry,whetherthroughagreementand mutualagreementwithourArabneighborsorinanotherway.Hewentontosay, ErectaJewishStateatonce,evenifitisnotinthewholeoftheland.Therestwillcome inthecourseoftime.Itmustcome.AviShlaim,TheIronWall:IsraelandtheArabWorld (NY:Norton,2000),p.21.AlsoseeFlapan,BirthofIsrael,pp.1353;NurMasalah, ExpulsionofthePalestinians:TheConceptofTransferinZionistPoliticalThought,18821948 (Washington,DC:InstituteforPalestineStudies,1992),chapter2;Morris,Righteous Victims,pp.138139;AviShlaim,ThePoliticsofPartition:KingAbdullah,theZionists,and Palestine,19211951(NY:OxfordUniversityPress,1999). 33Masalah,ExpulsionofthePalestinians,p.128.AlsoseeMorris,RighteousVictims,pp. 140,142,168169. 34BennyMorris,ANewExodusfortheMiddleEast?Guardian,October3,2002.On thepervasivenessoftransferthinkingamongZionistsbeforeIsraelwasestablishedin 1948,seeMasalha,ExpulsionofthePalestinians;Morris,RevisitingthePalestinian Exodusof1948,inRoganandShlaim,WarforPalestine,pp.3948;Morris,Birth Revisited,chapter2;AriShavit,SurvivaloftheFittest,Haaretz,January9,2004. 35Morris,BirthRevisited,providesadetailedaccountofthisevent.AlsoseeMeron Benvenisti,SacredLandscape:TheBuriedHistoryoftheHolyLandsince1948,trans.Maxine KaufmanLacusta(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2000),chapters34.The onlyremainingdebateofrealsignificanceregardingtheexpulsionofthePalestinians fromtheirhomelandiswhetheritwasbornofwar,asMorrisargues,orbydesign,as NormanFinkelsteinarguesinImageandRealityoftheIsraelPalestineConflict(London: Verso,1995),chapter3. 36ErskineChilders,TheOtherExodus,Spectator,May12,1961;Flapan,BirthofIsrael, pp.81118;WalidKhalidi,WhyDidthePalestiniansLeaveRevisited,Journalof PalestineStudies,Vol.34,No.2(Winter2005),pp.4254;Idem,TheFallofHaifa, MiddleEastForum,Vol.35,No.10(December,1959),pp.2232;Morris,BirthRevisited. 37NahumGoldmann,TheJewishParadox,trans.SteveCox(NY:GrossetandDunlap, 1978),p.99.ZeevJabotinsky,thefoundingfatheroftheIsraeliright,madeessentially thesamepointwhenhewrote,Colonizationisselfexplanatoryandwhatitimpliesis fullyunderstoodbyeverysensibleJewandArab.Therecanonlybeonepurposein colonization.ForthecountrysArabsthatpurposeisessentiallyunacceptable.Thisisa naturalreactionandnothingwillchangeit.QuotedinIanLustick,ToBuildandTo
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BeBuiltBy:IsraelandtheHiddenLogicoftheIronWall,IsraelStudies,Vol.1,No.1 (Spring1996),p.200. 38SeeGeoffreyAronson,Israel,Palestinians,andtheIntifada:CreatingFactsontheWest Bank(London:KeganPaulInternational,1990);AmnonBarzilai,ABriefHistoryofthe MissedOpportunity,Haaretz,June5,2002;Idem,SomeSawtheRefugeesastheKey toPeace,Haaretz,June11,2002;MosheBehar,ThePeaceProcessandIsraeliDomestic Politicsinthe1990s,SocialismandDemocracy,CurrentIssueNumber32,Vol.16,No.2 (SummerFall2002),pp.3447;AdamHaniehandCatherineCook,ARoadMaptothe OsloCuldeSac,MiddleEastReportOnline,May15,2003;IsraelsInterestsTake Primacy:AnInterviewwithDoreGold,inbitterlemons.org,WhatConstitutesaViable PalestinianState?March15,2004,Edition10;NurMasalha,ImperialIsraelandthe Palestinians:ThePoliticsofExpansion(London:PlutoPress,2000);SaraRoy,Erasingthe OpticsofGaza,TheDailyStarOnLine,February14,2004;36Years,andStill Counting,Haaretz,September26,2003. 39RahidKhalidi,PalestinianIdentity:TheConstructionofModernNationalConsciousness (NY:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1997),p.147.Meiralsosaid,Itwasnotasthough therewasaPalestinianpeopleinPalestineconsideringitselfasaPalestinianpeopleand wecameandthrewthemoutandtooktheircountryawayfromthem.Theydidnot exist.Masalha,ImperialIsrael,p.47.Rabinsaidin1995,twoyearsaftersigningtheOslo accords,IseekpeacefulcoexistencebetweenIsraelasaJewishstate,notalloverthe landofIsrael,ormostofit;itscapital,theunitedJerusalem;itssecurityborderwith Jordanrebuilt;nexttoit,aPalestinianentity,lessthanastate,thatrunsthelifeof Palestinians.Thisismygoal,nottoreturntothepreSixDayWarlinesbuttocreate twoentities,aseparationbetweenIsraelandthePalestinianswhoresideintheWest BankandtheGazaStrip.HaniehandCook,RoadMap.AlsoseeAkivaEldar,On theSamePage,TenYearsOn,Haaretz,November5,2005;DavidGrossman,The NightOurHopeforPeaceDied,Guardian,November4,2005;MichaelJansen,A PracticethatPreventstheEmergenceofaPalestinianState,JordanTimes,November10, 2005.Itisworthnotingthatinthespringof1998,IsraelanditsAmericansupporters sharplycriticizedFirstLadyHillaryClintonforsayingthat,Itwouldbeinthelong terminterestsofpeaceintheMiddleEastfortheretobeastateofPalestine,a functioningmodernstatethatisonthesamefootingasotherstates.TomRhodesand ChristopherWalker,CongressTellsIsraeltoRejectClintonsPulloutPlan,NewYork Times,May8,1998;JamesBennet,AidesDisavowMrs.ClintononMideast,NewYork Times,May8,1998. CharlesEnderlein,ShatteredDreams:TheFailureofthePeaceProcessintheMiddleEast, 19952002,trans.SusanFairfield(NY:OtherPress,2003),pp.201,207208;Jeremy Pressman,VisionsinCollision:WhatHappenedatCampDavidandTaba?International Security,Vol.28,No.2(Fall2003),p.17;DeborahSontag,QuestforMideastPeace:
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HowandWhyItFailed,NewYorkTimes,July26,2001;ClaytonE.Swisher,TheTruth aboutCampDavid:TheUntoldStoryabouttheCollapseofthePeaceProcess(NY:Nation Books,2004),pp.284,318,325.BarakhimselfsaidafterCampDavidthatthe Palestinianswerepromisedacontinuouspieceofsovereignterritoryexceptforarazor thinIsraeliwedgerunningfromJerusalemthroughfromMaaleAdumimtotheJordan River,whicheffectivelywouldhavebeenunderIsraelscontrol.BennyMorris,Camp DavidandAfter:AnExchange(1.AnInterviewwithEhudBarak),NewYorkReviewof Books,Vol.49,No.10(June13,2002),p.44.AlsoseethemapIsraelinegotiators presentedtothePalestiniansatCampDavid,acopyofwhichcanbefoundinRoane Carey,ed.,TheNewIntifada:ResistingIsraelsApartheid(London:Verso,2001),p.36. SeeAlanDershowitz,TheCaseforIsrael(Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2003).Fora tellingcritiqueofDershowitzsbook,seeNormanG.Finkelstein,BeyondChutzpah:On theMisuseofAntiSemitismandtheAbuseofHistory(Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia Press,2005).AlsoseeDershowitzv.Desch,AmericanConservative,January16,2005. 42Morris,RighteousVictims,chapters25. 43Morris,BirthRevisited.ItshouldbenotedthatmanyIsraelidocumentsconcerningthe eventsof1948remainclassified;Morrisexpectsthatwithrespecttobothexpulsions andatrocities,wecanexpectadditionalrevelationsastheyearspassandmoreIsraeli recordsbecomeavailable.Morris,RevisitingthePalestinianExodus,inRoganand Shlaim,WarforPalestine,p.49.Infact,hemaintainsthatthereportedcasesofrapehe knowsaboutarejustthetipoftheiceberg.SeeShavit,SurvivaloftheFittest. 44BennyMorris,IsraelsBorderWars,19491956(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress, 1997),p.432.Alsoseeibid.,pp.126153,178184.Forevidenceofsimilarbehaviorafter the1967War,seeUriAvnery,CryingWolf?CounterPunch,March15,2003;Ami Kronfeld,AvneryonEthnicCleansingandaPersonalNote,inJewishVoiceforPeace, JewishPeaceNews,March17,2003;KatherineM.Metres,AsEvidenceMounts,Tollof IsraeliPrisonerofWarMassacresGrows,WashingtonReportonMiddleEastAffairs, February/March1996,pp.17,104105. 45DuringhisnegotiationswiththeBritishandFrenchgovernmentsoverthelaunching ofthe1956war,BenGurionproposedagrandplanforreorderingtheregionthatwould havedividedJordanbetweenIsraelandIraq,transferredallofLebanonsouthofthe LitaniRivertoIsrael,andgivenIsraelportionsoftheSinaiaswell.OnIsraelspolicies inthe1950s,seeMorris,IsraelsBorderWars;Morris,RighteousVictims,chapter6, especiallypp.289290;Shlaim,IronWall,chapters34,especiallypp.184185;Kennett Love,Suez:theTwiceFoughtWar(NewYork:McGrawHill,1969),pp.589638;Michael Brecher,DecisionsinIsraelsForeignPolicy(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1975),pp. 282283.
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 GabbyBron,EgyptianPOWsOrderedtoDigGraves,ThenShotbyIsraeliArmy, YediothAhronoth,August17,1995;RonalFisher,MassMurderinthe1956SinaiWar, Maariv,August8,1995[CopiesofthesetwopiecescanbefoundinJournalofPalestine Studies,Vol.25,No.3(Spring1996),pp.148155];GalalBana,Egypt:WeWillTurnto theInternationalWarCrimesTribunalintheHagueifIsraelWillNotCompensate MurderedPrisonersofWar,Haaretz,July24,2002;Zehavat,Friedman,Personal Reminiscence:RememberingAmiKronfeld,inJewishVoiceforPeace,JewishPeace News,September25,2005;Metres,AsEvidenceMounts. 47Avnery,CryingWolf;RobertBlecher,LivingontheEdge:TheThreatofTransfer inIsraelandPalestine,MERIP,MiddleEastReport225,Winter2002;Baruch Kimmerling,Politicide:ArielSharonsWaragainstthePalestinians(London:Verso,2003),p. 28.AlsoseeChomsky,FatefulTriangle,p.97;Morris,RighteousVictims,pp.328329; TanyaReinhart,Israel/Palestine:HowtoEndtheWarof1948(NY:SevenStoriesPress, 2002),p.8.Morrisreports(p.329)that120,000Palestiniansappliedtoreturntotheir homesrightafterthe1967War,butIsraelallowedonlyabout17,000tocomeback. AmnestyInternationalestimatedinmid2003thatintheyearssinceIsraelhadacquired theWestBankandtheGazaStrip,ithaddestroyedmorethan10,000Palestinianhomes inthoseareas.DannyRubinstein,Roads,FencesandOutpostsMaintainControlinthe Territories,Haaretz,August12,2003. 48ReportoftheCommissionofInquiryintotheEventsattheRefugeeCampsin Beirut,February7,1983.ThereportiscommonlycalledTheKahanCommission Reportafteritschairman,YitzhakKahan. 49SwedishSavetheChildren,TheStatusofPalestinianChildrenduringtheUprisingin theOccupiedTerritories,ExcerptedSummaryMaterial,Jerusalem,1990,inJournalof PalestineStudies,Vol.19,No.4(Summer1990),pp.136146.AlsoseeJoshuaBrilliant, OfficerTellsCourtVillagersWereBound,GaggedandBeaten.NotGuiltyPleaat BreakBonesTrial,JerusalemPost,March30,1990;JoshuaBrilliant,RabinOrdered Beatings,MeirTellsMilitaryCourt,JerusalemPost,June22,1990;JacksonDiehl, RightsGroupAccusesIsraelofViolenceAgainstChildreninPalestinianUprising, WashingtonPost,May17,1990;JamesA.Graff,CripplingaPeople:PalestinianChildren andIsraeliStateViolence,Alif,No.13(1993),pp.4663;RonaldR.Stockton,Intifada Deaths,JournalofPalestineStudies,Vol.19,No.4(Summer1990),pp.8695.Ehud Barak,theIDFsDeputyChiefofStaffduringtheFirstIntifada,saidatthetime,Wedo notwantchildrentobeshotunderanycircumstances.Whenyouseeachildyou dontshoot.Nevertheless,theSwedishSavetheChildrenreportestimatedthat6,500to 8,000childrenwerewoundedbygunfireduringthefirsttwoyearsoftheIntifada. Researchersinvestigated66ofthe106recordedcasesofchildgunshotdeaths.They concludedthat:almostallofthemwerehitbydirectednotrandomorricochet
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gunfire;nearlytwentypercentsufferedmultiplegunshotwounds;twelvepercentwere shotfrombehind;fifteenpercentofthechildrenweretenyearsofageoryounger;most childrenwerenotparticipatinginastonethrowingdemonstrationwhenshotdead; andnearlyonefifthofthechildrenwereshotdeadwhileathomeorwithintenmeters oftheirhomes. 50UnbridledForce,Haaretzeditorial,March16,2003.Forotherevidence,seeJonathan Cook,ImpunityonBothSidesoftheGreenLine,MERIP,MiddleEastReportOnline, November23,2005;WhenEverythingIsPermissible,Haaretzeditorial,June6,2005; ItCanHappenHere,Haaretzeditorial,November22,2004;ChrisMcGreal,Snipers withChildreninTheirSights,Guardian,June28,2005;Idem,IsraelShockedbyImage ofSoldiersForcingViolinisttoPlayatRoadblock,Guardian,November29,2004;Greg Myre,FormerIsraeliSoldiersTellofHarassmentofPalestinians,NewYorkTimes,June 24,2004;ReuvenPedatzur,TheMessagetotheSoldiersWasClear,Haaretz,December 13,2004;ConalUrquhart,IsraeliSoldiersTellofIndiscriminateKillingsbyArmyandA CultureofImpunity,Guardian,September6,2005. 51SeeSwisher,TruthaboutCampDavid,p.387. 52AccordingtoBtselem,betweenSeptember29,2000,andDecember31,2005,3,386 PalestinianswerekilledbytheIsraelis,ofwhom676werechildren.Ofthose3,386 deaths,1,185werebystanders,1,008werekilledwhilefightingtheIsraelis,andthe circumstancesof563deathsareunknown.Duringthesameperiod,992Israeliswere killedbythePalestinians,118ofwhomwerechildren.Ofthose992deaths,683were civiliansand309belongedtoIsraelisecurityforces.Btselempressrelease,January4, 2006. 53NathanGuttman,ItsaTerribleThing,LivingwiththeKnowledgethatYouCrushed OurDaughter,Haaretz,April30,2004;AdamShapiro,RememberingRachel Shapiro,Nation,March18,2004;TsaharRotem,BritishPeaceActivistShotbyIDF TroopsinGazaStrip,Haaretz,April11,2003. 54MollyMoore,ExSecurityChiefsTurnonSharon,WashingtonPost,November15, 2003;ExShinBetHeadsWarnofCatastrophewithoutPeaceDeal,Haaretz, November15,2003.ThesecommentswerebasedonaninterviewintheIsraeli newspaperYediothAhronothonNovember14,2003.Foracopyofthatinterview,see WeAreSeriouslyConcernedabouttheFateoftheStateofIsrael,TheAlternative InformationCenter,December1,2003. 55BillMaxwell,U.S.ShouldReconsiderAidtoIsrael,St.PetersburgTimes,December 16,2001.

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SeeJ.BowyerBell,TerrorOutofZion:TheFightforIsraeliIndependence(New Brunswick,NJ:TransactionPublishers,1996);JosephHeller,TheSternGang:Ideology, PoliticsandTerror,19401949(London:FrankCass,1995);BruceHoffmann,TheFailureof BritishMilitaryStrategywithinPalestine,19391947(Israel:BarIlanUniversity,1983); Morris,RighteousVictims,pp.173180;Segev,OnePalestine,pp.468486.Accordingto HaimLevenberg,210ofthe429casualtiesfromJewishterrorisminPalestineduring 1946werecivilians.Theother219werepoliceandsoldiers.Levenberg,Military Preparations,p.72.Furthermore,itwasJewishterroristsfromtheinfamousIrgunwhoin late1937introducedthepracticeofplacingbombsinbusesandlargecrowds.Benny Morrisspeculatesthat,TheArabsmaywellhavelearnedthevalueofterrorist bombingsfromtheJews.RighteousVictims,pp.147,201.AlsoseeLenniBrenner,The IronWall:ZionistRevisionismfromJabotinskytoShamir(London:ZedBooks,1984),p.100; YehoshuaPorath,ThePalestinianArabNationalMovement:fromRiotstoRebellion,Vol.II, 19291939(London:FrankCass,1977),p.238.Finally,Morrisnotesthatduringthe1948 warthemainJewishterroristgroupsknowinglyplantedbombsinbusstopswiththe aimofkillingnoncombatants,includingwomenandchildren.BirthRevisited,p.80. 57Bell,TerrorOutofZion,pp.336340. 58QuotedinChomsky,FatefulTriangle,pp.485486.IsraeliPrimeMinisterLeviEshkol usedtocallMenachemBegintheterrorist.Barzilai,BriefHistory.OnShamir,see AvishaiMargalit,TheViolentLifeofYitzhakShamir,NewYorkReviewofBooks,May 14,1992,pp.1824. 59Moreover,Israelsclaimtoamorallysuperiorstatusisunderminedbysomeofits otherpolicies.IsraeloncecultivatedclosetieswithapartheideraSouthAfricaand aidedthewhiteminoritygovernmentsnuclearweaponsprogram.PeterLiberman, IsraelandtheSouthAfricanBomb,TheNonproliferationReview,Vol.11,No.2(Summer 2004),pp.4680.In1954,IsraeliintelligenceforcesbombedaU.S.diplomaticfacilityin CairoinabungledattempttosowdiscordbetweenEgyptandtheUnitedStates.Shlaim, IronWall,pp.110113. 60StevenM.Cohen,The2004NationalSurveyofAmericanJews,sponsoredbytheJewish AgencyforIsraelsDepartmentofJewishZionistEducation,February24,2005.The figuretwoyearsearlierwas28percent.SeeStevenM.Cohen,The2002NationalSurveyof AmericanJews,sponsoredbytheJewishAgencyforIsraelsDepartmentofJewishZionist Education,conductedinNovemberDecember2002.AlsoseeAmiranBarkat,Young AmericanJewsAreMoreAmbivalentTowardIsrael,StudyShows,Haaretz,March7, 2005;StevenM.Cohen,Poll:AttachmentofU.S.JewstoIsraelFallsinPast2Years, Forward,March4,2005;M.J.Rosenberg,LettingIsraelSellItself,IsraelPolicyForum IssueBrief#218,March18,2005.
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J.J.Goldberg,OldFriend,ShatteredDreams,Forward,December24,2004;Esther Kaplan,TheJewishDivideonIsrael,Nation,July12,2004;MichaelMassing, ConservativeJewishGroupsHaveClout,LosAngelesTimes,March10,2002;Eric Yoffie,ReformtheConference,Forward,August2,2002. 62OriNir,FBIProbe:MoreQuestionsThanAnswers.Forward,May13,2005. 63InigoGilmore,U.S.JewishLeaderHitoverLetter,LondonSundayTelegraph,August 12,2003;IsiLiebler,WhenSeymourMetCondi,JerusalemPost,November24,2005. AlsoseeSarahBronson,OrthodoxLeader:U.S.JewsHaveNoRighttoCriticizeIsrael, Haaretz,August2,2004. 64Liebler,WhenSeymourMetCondi;OriNir,O.U.ChiefDecriesAmericanPressure onIsrael,Forward,December2,2005;Idem,RiceTripRaisesConcernoverU.S. PressureonIsrael,Forward,November18,2005;SeymourD.Reich,Listento America,JerusalemPost,November13,2005. 65JeffreyH.Birnbaum,WashingtonsPower25,Fortune,December8,1997.AIPAC wasrankednumber4inasimilarstudyconductedin2001.SeeJeffreyH.Birnbaumand RussellNewell,FatandHappyinD.C.,Fortune,May28,2001. 66RichardE.CohenandPeterBell,CongressionalInsidersPoll,NationalJournal.March 5,2005;JamesD.Besser,MostMuscle?ItsNRA,ThenAIPACandAARP,Chicago JewishStar,March1124,2005. 67SeeMaxBlumenthal,BornAgainsforSharon,salon.com,October30,2004;DarrellL. Bock,SomeChristiansSeeaRoadMaptoEndTimes,LosAngelesTimes,June18, 2003;NathanGuttman,WipingOutTerror,BriningOnRedemption,Haaretz,April 29,2002;TomHamburgerandJimVandeHei,ChosenPeople:HowIsraelBecamea FavoriteCauseofChristianRight,WallStreetJournal,May23,2002;PaulNussbaum, IsraelFindsanAllyinAmericanEvangelicals,PhiladelphiaInquirer,November17, 2005.DanielPipesmaintainsthat,otherthantheIsraelDefenseForces,Americas ChristianZionistsmaybetheJewishstatesultimatestrategicasset.[Christian Zionism:]IsraelsBestWeapon?NewYorkPost,July15,2003. 68TheweaknessofthePalestinianLobbyintheUnitedStatesiscapturedinthe headlinesofthesetwoarticles:NoraBoustany,PalestiniansLoneHandin Washington,WashingtonPost,April,19,2002;GeorgeGedda,PLOLosesD.C.Office BecauseofUnpaidRent,ChicagoTribune,April12,2002.Ontheweakimpactofthe ArabLobby,seeAliA.Mazrui,BetweentheCrescentandtheStarSpangledBanner: AmericanMuslimsandU.S.ForeignPolicy,InternationalAffairs,Vol.72,No.3(July 1996),pp.493506;NabeelA.Khoury,TheArabLobby:ProblemsandProspects,
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MiddleEastJournal,Vol.41,No.3(Summer1987),pp.379396;AndreaBarron,Jewish andArabDiasporasintheUnitedStatesandTheirImpactonU.S.MiddleEastPolicy, inYehudaLukacsandAbdallaM.Battah,eds.,TheArabIsraeliConflict:TwoDecadesof Change(London:Westview,1988),pp.238259. 69JakeTapper,QuestionsforDickArmey:Retiring,NotShy,NewYorkTimesMagazine, September1,2002.Also,TomDeLayhascalledhimselfanIsraeliatheart.SeeJames Bennet,DeLaySaysPalestiniansBearBurdenforAchievingPeace,NewYorkTimes, July30,2003. 70QuotedinMitchellBard,IsraeliLobbyPower,Midstream,Vol.33,No.1(January 1987),pp.68. 71QuotedinEdwardTivnan,TheLobby:JewishPoliticalPowerandAmericanForeignPolicy (NY:SimonandSchuster,1987),p.191.J.J.Goldberg,theeditoroftheForward,saidin 2002,ThereisthisimageinCongressthatyoudontcrossthesepeopleortheytakeyou down.QuotedinJohnDiamondandBriannaB.Piec,ProIsraelGroupsIntensify PoliticalFrontinU.S.,ChicagoTribune,April16,2002. 72QuotedinCamilleMansour,BeyondAlliance:IsraelinU.S.ForeignPolicy,trans.James A.Cohen(NY:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1994),p.242. 73AlthoughAIPAChasbeenabletouseitspoliticalmuscletoavoidhavingtoregisteras aforeignagentforanothergovernment,itisespeciallyconcernedaboutthatproblem todaybecauseoftheLarryFranklinspyscandal,andthusitisgoingtoconsiderable lengthstoemphasizeitsAmericanside.SeeOriNir,LeadersFearProbeWillForce ProIsraelLobbytoFileasForeignAgentCouldFuelDualLoyaltyTalk,Forward, December31,2004;Idem,LeadersStressAmericanSideofAIPAC,Forward,May27, 2005. 74Sen.HollingsFloorStatementSettingtheRecordStraightonHisMideastNewspaper Column,May20,2004,acopyofwhichcanbefoundontheformerSenatorswebsite. 75PublishedinanAIPACadvertisementintheChicagoJewishStar,August29 September11,2003.SharonisnotaloneinhisappraisalofAIPACspower.Senate MinorityLeaderHarryReidsaysthatIcantthinkofapolicyorganizationinthe countryaswellorganizedorrespected[asAIPAC]andformerHouseSpeakerNewt Gingrichcalleditthemosteffectivegeneralinterestgroup...acrosstheentireplanet. FormerPresidentBillClintondescribedAIPACasstunninglyeffectiveandbetter thananyoneelselobbyinginthistown.QuotationsdownloadedfromtheAIPAC websiteonJanuary14,2005[www.aipac.org/documents/whoweare.html#say].

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ThomasB.EdsallandAlanCooperman,GOPUsesRemarkstoCourtJews, WashingtonPost,March13,2003.AlsoseeJamesD.Besser,JewsPrimaryRole Expanding,JewishWeek,January23,2004;AlexanderBolton,JewishDefectionsIrk Democrats,TheHill,March30,2004;E.J.Kessler,AncientWoesResurfacingasDean EyesTopDemPost,Forward,January28,2005.HamiltonJordanwroteamemorandum toPresidentJimmyCarterinJune1977,inwhichhesaid:Outof125membersofthe DemocraticNationalFinanceCouncil,over70areJewish;In1976,over60%ofthelarge donorstotheDemocraticPartywereJewish;Over60%ofthemoniesraisedbyNixonin 1972wasfromJewishcontributors;Over75%ofthemoniesraisedinHumphreys1968 campaignwasfromJewishcontributors;Over90%ofthemoniesraisedbyScoop JacksonintheDemocraticprimarieswasfromJewishcontributors;Inspiteofthefact thatyouwerealongshotandcamefromanareaofthecountrywherethereisasmaller Jewishcommunity,approximately35%ofourprimaryfundswerefromJewish supporters.Whereverthereismajorpoliticalfundraisinginthiscountry,youwillfind AmericanJewsplayingasignificantrole.HamiltonJordan,ConfidentialFile,Box34, FileForeignPolicy/DomesticPoliticsMemo,HJMemo,6/77,declassifiedJune12, 1990. 77DouglasBrinkley,OutoftheLoop,TheNewYorkTimes,December29,2002. LawrenceKaplanreportsthatafterBruceRiedel,theMiddleEastexpertontheNational SecurityCouncil,lefthisjobattheendof2001,thePentagonhelduptheappointment ofRiedelsdesignatedsuccessor,MiddleEastexpertAlinaRomanowski,whom PentagonofficialssuspectofbeinginsufficientlysupportiveoftheJewishstate. TorpedoBoat:HowBushTurnedonArafat,NewRepublic,February18,2003.The positionwaseventuallyfilledbyElliotAbrams,aferventsupporterofIsrael.Indeed, forthegovernmentofIsrael,NathanGuttmanwrote,itisagiftfromheaven.See FromClemencytoaSeniorPost,Haaretz,December16,2002. 78E.J.Kessler,LiebermanandDeanSparOverIsrael,Forward,September9,2003; StephenZunes,AttacksonDeanExposeDemocratsShifttotheRight,Tikkun, November/December2003. 79Zunes,AttacksonDean;JamesD.Besser,DeansJewishProblem,ChicagoJewish Star,December19,2003January8,2004. 80E.J.Kessler,DeanPlanstoVisitIsrael,PoliticalBaggageinTow,Forward,July8, 2005;Zunes,AttacksonDean. 81LauraBlumenfeld,ThreePeaceSuits;ForThesePassionateAmericanDiplomats,a MiddleEastSettlementistheGoalofaLifetime,WashingtonPost,February24,1997.
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Samuel(Sandy)Berger,PresidentClintonsNationalSecurityAdvisor,reportsthat atonepointduringthenegotiationsatCampDavid(July2000),DennisRossmadethe remarkablecommentthat,IfBarakoffersanythingmore,Illbeagainstthis agreement.UneditedtranscriptofCommentsbySandyBergerattheLaunchofHow IsraelisandPalestiniansNegotiate(USIPPress,2005),U.S.InstituteofPeace,Washington, DC,June7,2005. 83QuotedinBlumenfeld,ThreePeaceSuits. 84EricAlterman,IntractableFoes,WarringNarratives,MSNBC.com,March28,2002. 85QuotedinBretStephens,EyeontheMediabyBretStephens:BartleysJournal, JerusalemPost,November21,2002. 86MaxFrankel,TheTimesofMyLifeAndMyLifewiththeTimes(NY:RandomHouse, 1999),pp.401403. 87FelicityBarringer,SomeU.S.BackersofIsraelBoycottDailiesOverMideastCoverage ThatTheyDeplore,NewYorkTimes,May23,2002. 88Barringer,SomeU.S.Backers;GabyWenig,NPRIsraelCoverageSparksProtests, TheJewishJournalofGreaterLosAngeles,May9,2003;GilaWertheimer,NPRDismisses ProtestRallies,ChicagoJewishStar,May30June12,2003.AlsoseeJamesD.Besser, NPRRadioWarsPuttingJewishGroupsinaBind,JewishWeek,May20,2005;Samuel Freedman,FromBalancetoCensorship:BushsCynicalPlanforNPR,Forward,May 27,2005;NathanGuttman,EnoughAlreadyfromThoseProIsraelNudniks,Haaretz, February1,2005;E.J.Kessler,HotSeatExpectedforNewChairofCorporationfor PublicBroadcasting,Forward,October28,2005. 89JoelBeinin,Money,MediaandPolicyConsensus:TheWashingtonInstituteforNear EastPolicy,MiddleEastReport,JanuaryFebruary1993,pp.1015;MarkH.Milstein, WashingtonInstituteforNearEastPolicy:AnAIPACImageProblem,Washington ReportonMiddleEastAffairs,July1991. 90QuotedinMilstein,WashingtonInstitute. 91BrookingsAnnouncesNewSabanCenterforMiddleEastPolicy,Brookings InstitutionPressRelease,May9,2002;AndrewRossSorkin,SchleppingtoMoguldom, NewYorkTimes,September5,2004. 92JamesD.Besser,TurningupHeatinCampusWars,JewishWeek,July25,2003; RonaldS.LauderandJaySchottenstein,BacktoSchoolforIsraelAdvocacy,Forward,
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November14,2003;RachelPomerance,IsraelForcesWinningCampusBattle,Say StudentsAttendingAIPACMeeting,JTA,December31,2002.Jewishgroupsarealso targetinghighschools.SeeMaxGross,IsraelAdvocacyCoalitionTargetingHigh Schools,Forward,January23,2004;NewProIsraelCampaignTargetsHighSchool Students,JTA,June2,2004. 93Besser,TurningupHeat.In2002and2003,AIPACbrought240collegestudentsto Washington,DCforintensiveadvocacytraining,sendingthembacktoschooltowin overcampusleaderstoIsraelscause.Besser,TurningupHeat;Pomerance,Israel ForcesWinning.Inthespringof2005,ithosted100studentgovernmentpresidents(80 ofwhomwerenotJewish)atitsannualconference.NathanielPopper,ProIsrael Groups:CampusesImproving,Forward,June24,2005. 94MichaelDobbs,MiddleEastStudiesunderScrutinyinU.S.,WashingtonPost, January13,2004;MicheleGoldberg,OsamaUniversity?Salon.com,November6,2003; KristineMcNeil,TheWaronAcademicFreedom,Nation,November11,2002;Zachary Lockman,BehindtheBattleoverUSMiddleEastPolicy,MiddleEastReportOnline, January2004. 95JonathanR.Cole,ThePatriotActonCampus:DefendingtheUniversityPost9/11, BostonReview,Summer2003. 96ChanakyaSethi,KhalidiCandidacyforNewChairDrawsFire,DailyPrincetonian, April22,2005;Idem,DebateGrowsoverKhalidiCandidacy,DailyPrincetonian,April 28,2005. 97RobertGaines,TheBattleatColumbiaUniversity,WashingtonReportonMiddleEast Affairs,April2005,pp.5657;CarolineGlick,OurWorld:TheColumbiaDisaster, JerusalemPost,April4,2005;JosephMassad,WitchHuntatColumbia:Targetingthe University,CounterPunch,June3,2005;NathanielPopper,ColumbiaStudentsSay FirestormBlursCampusReality,Forward,February11,2005;ScottSherman,The MideastComestoColumbia,Nation,April4,2005;ChananWeissman,Columbia Unbecoming,JerusalemPost,February6,2005. 98ColumbiaUniversityAdHocGrievanceCommittee,FinalReport,NewYork,28 March2005(excerpts),inJournalofPalestineStudies,Vol.34,No.4(Summer2005),pp. 90100. 99Goldberg,OsamaUniversity?;RonKampeas,CampusOversightPassesSenateas ReviewEffortScoresaVictory,JTA,November22,2005;StanleyKurtz,Reformingthe Campus:CongressTargetsTitleVI,NationalReviewOnline,October14,2003;McNeil, WaronAcademicFreedom;OriNir,GroupsBackBilltoMonitorUniversities,

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Forward,March12,2004;SaraRoy,ShortCuts,LondonReviewofBooks,April1,2004; AndersStrindberg,TheNewCommissars,AmericanConservative,February2,2004. 100Thenumber130comesfromMitchellG.Bard,TenuredorTenuous:Definingthe RoleofFacultyinSupportingIsraelonCampus,ReportpublishedbyTheIsraelon CampusCoalitionandTheAmericanIsraeliCooperativeEnterprise,May2004,p.11. AlsoseeNachaCattan,NYUCenter:NewAdditiontoGrowingAcademicField, Forward,May2,2003;SamuelG.Freedman,SeparatingthePoliticalMythsfromthe FactsinIsraelStudies,NewYorkTimes,February16,2005;JenniferJacobson,The PoliticsofIsraelStudies,ChronicleofHigherEducation,June24,2005,pp.1012;Michael C.Kotzin,TheJewishCommunityandtheIvoryTower:AnUrgentNeedforIsrael Studies,Forward,January30,2004;NathanielPopper,IsraelStudiesGainonCampus asDisputesGrow,Forward,March25,2005. 101QuotedinCattan,NYUCenter. 102JonathanKessler,ProIsraelActivismMakesComebackonCampus,Forward, December26,2003;Popper,CampusesImproving;BarrySilvermanandRandall Kaplan,ProIsraelCollegeActivistsQuietlySuccessfulonCampus,JTA,May9,2005; ChananTigay,AsStudentsReturntoCampus,ActivistsPrepareaNewApproach, JTA,September1,2005.Nevertheless,therearelimitstotheLobbyseffectivenesson campuses.SeeJoeEskenazi,Book:CollegeCampusesQuiet,butAntiIsraelFeelingIs Growing,JTA,November29,2005;GaryRosenblatt,U.S.GradStudentsSeenHostile toIsrael,JewishWeek,June17,2005. 103QuotedinTonyJudt,GoodbyetoAllThat?Nation,January3,2005. 104AntiDefamationLeague(ADL),AttitudestowardJews,IsraelandthePalestinian IsraeliConflictinTenEuropeanCountries,April2004;ThePewGlobalAttitudes Project,AYearAfterIraqWar:MistrustofAmericainEuropeEvenHigher,MuslimAnger Persists(Washington,DC:ThePewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress,March 16,2004),pp.45,26.OntheADLsurvey,seeADLSurveyFindsSomeDecreasein AntiSemiticAttitudesinTenEuropeanCountries,ADLPressRelease,April26,2004; ShlomoShamir,PollShowsDecreaseinAntiSemiticViewsinEurope,Haaretz,April 27,2004.ThesefindingshadvirtuallynoeffectonproIsraelpundits,whocontinuedto arguethatantiSemitismwasrampantinEurope.See,forexample,DanielJ.Goldhagen, EuropesToothlessReplytoAntiSemitism:ConferenceFailstoBuildToolstoFighta RisingSicknessLosAngelesTimes,April30,2004;CharlesKrauthammer,TheReal MideastPoison,WashingtonPost,April30,2004. 105MartinPeretz,theeditorinchiefoftheNewRepublic,says,Theheadquartersofanti SemiticEuropetoday,justasduringtheThirdRepublic,isParis.CambridgeDiarist:

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Regrets,NewRepublic,April22,2002,p.50.ThedatainthisparagrapharefromAnti SemitisminEurope:IsItReallyRising?Economist,May4,2002. 106QuotedinMarcPerelman,CommunityHead:FranceNoMoreAntisemiticThan U.S.,Forward,August1,2003.AlsoseeFrancoisBujondelEstang,ASlanderon France,WashingtonPost,June22,2002;FrenchPresidentAccusesIsraelofConducting AntiFrenchCampaign,Haaretz,May12,2002. 107FrenchPolice:AntiSemitisminFranceSharplyDecreasedin2005,Haaretz,January 19,2006. 108FrenchProtestforMurderedJew,BBCNewsOnline,February26,2006;Michel Zlotowski,LargeMemorialHeldforParisianJew,JerusalemPost,February23,2006. 109AviBeker,TheEternallyOpenGate,Haaretz,January11,2005;JosefJoffe,A Boom,ifNotARenaissance,inModernDayGermany,Forward,July25,2003; NathanielPopper,ImmigrantPolicyEyedasGermanCommunitySwells,Forward, July25,2003;EliahuSalpeter,JewsfromtheCISPreferGermanytotheJewishState, Haaretz,May28,2005.Also,theTimesofLondonreportedinthespringof2005,that, Anestimated100,000JewshavereturnedtoRussiainthepastfewyears,sparkinga dramaticrenaissanceofJewishlifeinacountrywithalonghistoryofantiSemitism. JeremyPage,OnceDesperatetoLeave,NowJewsAreReturningtoRussia,Landof Opportunity,Times,April28,2005.AlsoseeLevKrichevsky,Poll:RussiansDont DislikeJews,andMoreAreagainstAntiSemitism,JTA,February2,2006. 110ThechairmanoftheEducationDepartmentoftheJewishAgencyrecentlysaidthat presentdayviolentantiSemitismoriginatesfromtwoseparatesources:radical IslamistsintheMiddleEastandWesternEuropeaswellastheneoNaziyouthelement inEasternEuropeandLatinAmerica.JonathanSchneider,AntiSemitismStillaWorld Problem,JerusalemPost,January26,2006. 111IntheADLsApril2004survey,AttitudestowardJews,IsraelandthePalestinian IsraeliConflictinTenEuropeanCountries,thefollowingquestionwasasked:Inyour opinion,isitveryimportant,somewhatimportant,somewhatunimportantornot importantatallforourgovernmenttotakearoleincombatingantiSemitisminour country?ThepercentagesforthosewhostronglyagreeorsomewhatagreewereItaly (92),Britain(83),Netherlands(83),France(82),Germany(81),Belgium(81),Denmark (79),Austria(76),Switzerland(74),Spain(73).Seep.19. 112PhyllisChesler,TheNewAntiSemitism:TheCurrentCrisisandWhatWeMustDoabout It(SanFrancisco:JosseyBass,2003);HillelHalkin,TheReturnofAntiSemitism:ToBe againstIsraelIstoBeagainsttheJews,WallStreetJournal,February5,2002;Barry

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KosminandPaulIganski,JudeophobiaNotYourParentsAntiSemitism,Haaretz, June3,2003;AmnonRubinstein,FightingtheNewAntiSemitism,Haaretz,December 2,2003;GabrielSchoenfeld,TheReturnofAntiSemitism(SanFrancisco:EncounterBooks, 2003);NatanSharansky,AntiSemitismisourProblem,Haaretz,August10,2003;Yair Sheleg.AWorldCleansedoftheJewishState,Haaretz.April18,2002;YairSheleg, Enemies,aPostNationalStory,Haaretz,March8,2003.Forcriticismofthis perspective,seeAkivaEldar,AntiSemitismCanBeSelfServing,Haaretz,May3, 2002;BrianKlug,TheMythoftheNewAntiSemitism,Nation,February2,2004;Ralph Nader,CriticizingIsraelisNotAntiSemitism,CounterPunch,October16/17,2004; HenriPicciottoandMitchellPlitnick,eds.,ReframingAntiSemitism:AlternativeJewish Perspectives(Oakland,CA:JewishVoiceforPeace,2004);andespeciallyFinkelstein, BeyondChutzpah,chapters13. 113HelenNugent,ChiefRabbiFlaysChurchoverVoteonIsraelAssets,TimesOnline, February17,2006.AlsoseeBillBowder,SacksSeeksTalksafterSynodVoteon Disinvestment,ChurchTimes,February24,2006;BulldozerMotionBasedon Ignorance,inibid;RuthGledhill,ChurchUrgedtoReconsiderInvestmentswith Israel,TimesOnline,May28,2005;IreneLancaster,AnglicansHaveBetrayedthe Jews,DownloadedfromMorielMinistries(UK)website,February20,2006;U.K.Chief RabbiAttacksAnglicansoverIsraelDivestmentVote,Haaretz,February17,2006. 114ThattheChurchofEnglandwasmerelycriticizingIsraelipolicyandnotengagingin antiSemitismisclearlyreflectedintheFebruary10,2006letterthattheArchbishopof Canterbury(Dr.RowanWilliams)senttoEnglandsChiefRabbi(JonathanSacks) explainingtheChurchsdecisionondivestment.Foracopyoftheletter,see Archbishop:SynodCallWasExpressionofConcern,February10,2006,Downloaded fromChurchofEnglandwebsite,February20,2006. 115StevenKull(PrincipalInvestigator),AmericansontheMiddleEastRoadMap(Program onInternationalPolicyAttitudes,UniversityofMaryland,May30,2003),pp.911,1819. AlsoseeStevenKulletal.,AmericansontheIsraeliPalestinianConflict(Programon InternationalPolicyAttitudes,UniversityofMaryland,May6,2002).A2005Anti DefamationLeaguepublicopinionsurveyfoundthat78percentofAmericansbelieve thattheirgovernmentshouldfavorneitherIsraelnorthePalestinians.American AttitudestowardIsraelandtheMiddleEast,SurveyconductedonMarch1825,2005, andJune1923,2005,bytheMarttilaCommunicationsGroupfortheAntiDefamation League. 116RobertG.Kaiser,BushandSharonNearlyIdenticalonMideastPolicy,Washington Post,February9,2003.

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LeeHockstaderandDanielWilliams,IsraelSaysItWontPayPriceofCoalition, WashingtonPost,September18,2001;JonathanKarp,SharonCancelsPeaceTalksin RebufftoU.S.Concerns,WallStreetJournal,September24,2001;ThomasOliphant,A DelicateBalance,BostonGlobe,September18,2001:IsraelsOpportunity,LosAngeles Timeseditorial,September18,2001. 118KurtEichenwald,U.S.JewsSplitonWashingtonsShiftonPalestinianState,New YorkTimes,October5,2001.Atthesametime,PrimeMinisterTonyBlairmadeBritains strongestendorsementyetofPalestinianstatehood.MichaelDobbs,BlairBacks CreationofPalestinianState,WashingtonPost,October16,2001. 119JamesBennet,SharonInvokesMunichinWarningU.S.onAppeasement,New YorkTimes,October5,2001;JanePerlezandandKatharineQ.Seelye.U.S.Stongly RebukesSharonforCriticismofBush,CallingitUnacceptable.NewYorkTimes October6,2001;ShlomoShamir,U.S.Jews:SharonisWorriedbyTerrorism Distinction,Haaretz,September18,2001;AlanSipressandLeeHockstader,Sharon SpeechRilesU.S.,WashingtonPost,October6,2001.ForevidencethatotherIsraelis sharedSharonsfears,seeIsraelHarel,LessonsfromtheNextWar,Haaretz,October 6,2001. 120JackDonnelly,NationSettoPushSharononAgreement,BostonGlobe,October10, 2001;HockstaderandSipress,SharonSpeechRilesU.S.;PerlezandSeelye.U.S. StronglyRebukesSharon. 121LeeHockstader,SharonApologeticoverRowwithU.S.,WashingtonPost,October7, 2001;SergeSchmemann,RaisingMunich,SharonRevealsIsraeliQualms,NewYork Times,October6,2001. 122AlufBenn,Analysis:ClutchingatStraws,Haaretz,September18,2001;Excerpts fromTalkbySharon,NewYorkTimes,December4,2001;WilliamSafire,Israelor Arafat,NewYorkTimes,December3,2001. 123ElaineSciolino,SenatorsUrgeBushNottoHamperIsrael,NewYorkTimes, November17,2001. 124DanaMilbank,BushSpokesmanGentleonIsraeliAssault,WashingtonPost, December3,2001;Safire,IsraelorArafat;DavidSanger,U.S.WalksaTightropeon TerrorisminIsrael,NewYorkTimes,December4,2001. 125KeithB.RichburgandMollyMoore,IsraelRejectsDemandstoWithdrawTroops, WashingtonPost,April11,2002.AllquotesinthisparagrapharefromFareedZakaria, ColinPowellsHumiliation:BushShouldClearlySupportHisSecretaryofState
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OtherwiseHeShouldGetaNewOne,Newsweek,April29,2002.AlsoseeMikeAllen andJohnLancaster,DefiantSharonLosingSupportinWhiteHouse,WashingtonPost, April11,2002,whichdescribestheBushAdministrationsangerwithSharon. 126ItisworthnotingthattheAmericanpeopleweregenerallysupportiveofBushs effortstoputpressureonIsraelinthespringof2002.ATime/CNNpolltakenonApril 1011foundthat60percentofAmericansfeltthatU.S.aidtoIsraelshouldbecutoffor reducedifSharonrefusedtowithdrawfromthePalestinianareashehadrecently occupied.Poll:AmericansSupportCuttingAidtoIsrael,ReutersNewsRelease,April 12,2002;AFPNewsRelease,April13,2002.AlsoseeIsraelandthePalestinians(Program onInternationalPolicyAttitudes,UniversityofMaryland,lastupdatedonAugust15, 2002).Moreover,75percentofthosesurveyedthoughtthatPowellshouldmeetwith ArafatwhenhevisitedIsrael.RegardingSharon,only35percentfoundhim trustworthy,while35percentthoughthewasawarmonger,20percentsawhimasa terrorist,and25percentconsideredhimanenemyoftheUnitedStates. 127WilliamKristolandRobertKagan,SeniorWhiteHouseAides:SpeakUp!Weekly Standard,April11,2002.ForagraphicdescriptionoftheheatthattheLobbyputon PowellwhenhewasintheMiddleEast,seeBobWoodward,BushatWar(NewYork: SimonandSchuster,2002),pp.323326.AlsoseeJohnSimpson,IsraeliLeaderHas MorePowerinWashingtonthanPowell,SundayTelegraph(London),April14,2002, whichdescribesajointpressconferencePowellandSharonconductedbynotingthat: theSecretaryofStateslanguage,bodyandverbal,certainlywerenotthatofthe paymastercomingtocallaclienttoaccount.Farfromit.Mr.Powellseemedingratiating, deferential;nodoubtherealizeshowmuchsupportMr.SharonhasbackinWashington andhowmuchinfluencehisfriendshavetherewiththePresident.Itisalsoworth notingthatformerIsraeliPrimeMinisterBenjaminNetanyahu,whowasmakingIsraels caseintheUnitedStatesatthetime,saidevenbeforePowellarrivedinIsraelthathis tripwontamounttoanything.ElaineSciolino,NetanyahuSaysPowellMission WontAmounttoAnythingandUrgesArafatsExile,NewYorkTimes,April11,2002. 128JamesD.Besser,NoTennesseeWaltz,JewishWeek,December27,2002.Alsosee MikeAllenandJulietEilperin,WhiteHouseandDeLayatOdds,WashingtonPost April26,2002;JudithEilperinandHelenDewar,LawmakersEndorseIsraels Offensive,WashingtonPost,May3,2002.Bushwasfeelingintensepressurenotjust fromlawmakers,butfromJewishleadersandChristianEvangelicals.SeeMikeAllen andJohnLancaster,DefiantSharonLosingSupportinWhiteHouse,WashingtonPost, April11,2002;DanBalz,BushStatementonMideastReflectsTensioninGOP, WashingtonPost,April7,2003;ElisabethBumiller,BushSendsAidetoSpeakatRallyto QuellaGrowingFuror,NewYorkTimes,April16,2002;BradleyBurston,Background: CanBushAffordtoPressSharonforPeace?Haaretz,May6,2002;AkivaEldar,Bush andIsrael,1991and2002,Haaretz,May6,2002;AlisonMitchell,U.S.PoliticalLeaders

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SeekUnityonMideast,forNow,WashingtonPost,April12,2002;WilliamSafire,On BeinganAlly,NewYorkTimes,April11,2002;AlanSipress,PolicyDivideThwarts PowellinMideastEffort,WashingtonPost,April26,2002;andAlanSipressandKaren DeYoung,U.S.PressesAheadwithPeaceEfforts,WashingtonPost,May9,2002. 129RandallMikkelsen,WhiteHouseCallsSharonManofPeace,Reuters,April11, 2002;BillSammon,WhiteHouseSoftensTonewithIsrael,WashingtonTimes,April12, 2002. 130PeterSlevinandMikeAllen,Bush:SharonAManofPeace,WashingtonPost,April 19,2002;DavidSanger,PresidentPraisesEffortbyPowellintheMiddleEast,New YorkTimes,April19,2002.Foratranscriptofthepressconference,seePresidentBush, SecretaryPowellDiscussMiddleEast,WhiteHouse,OfficeofthePressSecretary,April 18,2002. 131EilperinandDewar,LawmakersEndorseIsraelsOffensive;JulietEilperinand MikeAllen,HillLeadersPlanVotesonProIsraelRelations,WashingtonPost,May2, 2002;AlisonMitchell,HouseandSenateSupportIsraelinStrongResolutions,New YorkTimes,May3,2002.Forcopiesofthetworesolutions,see2ResolutionsExpressing SolidaritywithIsrael,NewYorkTimes,May3,2002.AlsoseeMatthewE.Berger,Bills inCongressBoostIsrael,TreatArafatasTerrorist,JewishBulletin,April26,2002. 132AriehOSullivan,VisitingCongressmenAdviseIsraeltoResistAdministration PressuretoDealwithArafat,JerusalemPostMay6,2002. 133EliLake,IsraeliLobbyWins$200MillionFight,UnitedPressInternational,May11, 2002. 134QuotedinJeffersonMorley,WhosinCharge?WashingtonPost,April26,2002.As AkivaEldarnotedjustbeforeSharonsteamrolledBush,Sharonhasalotofexperience stickingittotheAmericans.Ultimately,whetheritwasPalestinianterror,Arafats mistakes,ordomesticpolitics,theAmericansweresenttothepeanutgallery.Seehis WordsAreNotEnough,Haaretz,April8,2002.NorwasBushshumiliationloston commentatorsaroundtheworld.Spainsleadingdaily,ElPais,expressedtheviewsof manyoutsideobserverswhenitcommented,Ifacountrysweightismeasuredbyits degreeofinfluenceonevents,thesuperpowerisnottheUSAbutIsrael.Quotedin Morley,WhosinCharge? 135BradleyBurston,HamasRUs,Haaretz,January18,2006;AkivaEldar,Kadimato ANewMiddleEast,Haaretz,December19,2005;Idem,WhoNeedsAbuMazen? Haaretz,November7,2005;RanHaCohen,HamasandIsrael:RivalTwins, AntiWar.com,February6,2006;M.J.Rosenberg,NoPartnerAsAlways,IPFFriday,

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IssueNo.260,February3,2006;DannyRubenstein,AllWeDidWasSwitchtheNon Partner,Haaretz,February5,2006;DisarrayAmongthePalestinians,NewYorkTimes editorial,January17,2006. 136RegardingtheviewsofpreviousPresidents,seeClydeR.Mark,IsraeliUnitedStates Relations,IssueBriefforCongress(Washington,DC:CongressionalResearchService, August29,2002),p.7.OnApril14,2004,Bushbrokewithhispredecessorsand proclaimedthatIsraelwouldnothavetoreturnalloftheterritoriesthatitoccupiedin 1967,andthatPalestinianrefugeeswouldnotbeallowedtoreturntotheirformerhomes inIsrael,butwouldhavetosettleinanewPalestinianstate.SeeStatementbythe PresidentRegardingIsraelArabPeaceProcess,April14,2004;andPresidentBushs LettertoPrimeMinisterSharon,April14,2004. 137USScowcroftCriticizesBushAdminsForeignPolicy,FinancialTimes,October13, 2004.AlsoseeGlennKessler,ScowcroftisCriticalofBush,WashingtonPost,October 16,2004. 138OnKerry,seeGadiDechter,Analysis:PresidentKerryonIsrael,UnitedPress Internationalpressrelease,July9,2004;NathanGuttman,KerryPositionPaperOutlines SupportforIsrael,Haaretz,July2,2004:NathanGuttman,KerryJumpsonSharon BandwagoninFavoringGazaDisengagementPlan,Haaretz,April25,2004.On Clinton,seeAdamDickter,Hillary:IHadALottoProve,JewishWeek,November18, 2005;KristenLombardi,HillaryCallsIsraelaBeaconofDemocracy,VillageVoice, December11,2005;SoniaVerma,ClintonStressedU.S.IsraelCoalition,Newsday, November15,2005;RachelZabarkesFriedman,SenatorIsrael,NationalReviewOnline, May25,2005. 139EmadMekay,IraqWasInvadedtoProtectIsraelUSOfficial,AsiaTimesOnline, March31,2004.ZelikowalsoservedwithRiceontheNationalSecurityCouncilwhen GeorgeH.W.BushwasPresident,andcoauthoredabookwithheronGerman reunification.HewasalsooneoftheprincipalauthorsofthesecondBush Administrations2002NationalSecurityStrategy,whichisthemostcomprehensive officialpresentationofthesocalledBushDoctrine. 140JasonKeyser,IsraelUrgesU.S.toAttack,WashingtonPost,August16,2002.Alsosee AlufBenn,PMUrgingU.S.NottoDelayStrikeagainstIraq,Haaretz,August16,2002; Idem,PMAide:DelayinU.S.AttackLetsIraqSpeedUpArmsProgram,Haaretz, August16,2002;ReuvenPedhatzur,IsraelsInterestintheWaronSaddam,Haaretz, August4,2002;ZeevSchiff,IntotheRough,Haaretz,August16,2002. 141GideonAlon,SharontoPanel:IraqisOurBiggestDanger,Haaretz,August13, 2002.AtaWhiteHousepressconferencewithPresidentBushonOctober16,2002,

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Sharonsaid:Iwouldliketothankyou,Mr.President,forthefriendshipand cooperation.AndasfarasIremember,aswelookbacktowardsmanyyearsnow,I thinkthatweneverhadsuchrelationswithanyPresidentoftheUnitedStatesaswe havewithyou,andweneverhadsuchcooperationineverythingaswehavewiththe currentadministration.Foratranscriptofthepressconference,seePresidentBush WelcomesPrimeMinisterSharontoWhiteHouse;QuestionandAnswerSessionwith thePress,U.S.DepartmentofState,October16,2002.AlsoseeKaiser,Bushand SharonNearlyIdenticalonMideastPolicy. 142ShlomoBrom,AnIntelligenceFailure,StrategicAssessment(JaffeeCenterfor StrategicStudies,TelAvivUniversity),Vol.6,No.3(November2003),p.9.Alsosee IntelligenceAssessment:SelectionsfromtheMedia,19982003,inibid.,pp.1719; GideonAlon,ReportSlamsAssessmentofDangersPosedbyLibya,Iraq,Haaretz, March28,2004;DanBaron,IsraeliReportBlastsIntelligenceforExaggeratingtheIraqi Threat,JTA,March28,2004;GregMyre,IsraeliReportFaultsIntelligenceonIraq, NewYorkTimes,March28,2004;JamesRisen,StateofWar:TheSecretHistoryoftheCIA andtheBushAdministration(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2006),pp.7273. 143MarcPerelman,IraqiMovePutsIsraelinLonelyU.S.Corner,Forward,September 20,2002.Thisarticlebegins,SaddamHusseinssurpriseacceptanceofunconditional UnitedNationsweaponsinspectionsputIsraelonthehotseatthisweek,forcingitinto theopenastheonlynationactivelysupportingtheBushadministrationsgoalofIraqi regimechange.PeresbecamesofrustratedwiththeUNprocessinthefollowing monthsthatinmidFebruary2003helashedoutattheFrenchbyquestioningFrances statusasapermanentmemberoftheSecurityCouncil.PeresQuestionsFrance PermanentStatusonSecurityCouncil,Haaretz,February20,2003.Onavisitto MoscowinlateSeptember2002,SharonmadeitcleartoRussianPresidentPutin,who wasleadingthechargefornewinspections,thatthetimewhentheseinspectorscould havebeeneffectivehaspassed.HerbKeinon,SharontoPutin:TooLateforIraqArms Inspection,JerusalemPost,October1,2002. 144EhudBarak,TakingApartIraqsNuclearThreat,NewYorkTimes,September4, 2002. 145BenjaminNetanyahu,TheCaseforTopplingSaddam,WallStreetJournal, September20,2002.TheJerusalemPostwasparticularlyhawkishonIraq,frequently runningeditorialsandopedspromotingthewar,andhardlyeverrunningpieces againstit.RepresentativeeditorialsincludeNextStopBaghdad,JerusalemPost, November15,2001;DontWaitforSaddam,JerusalemPost,August18,2002;Making theCaseforWar,JerusalemPost,September9,2002.Forsomerepresentativeopeds, seeRonDermer,TheMarchtoBaghdad,JerusalemPost,December21,2001;Efraim

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Inbar,OustingSaddam,InstillingStability,JerusalemPost,October8,2002;GeraldM. Steinberg,ImaginingtheLiberationofIraq,JerusalemPost,November18,2001. 146AlufBenn,Background:EnthusiasticIDFAwaitsWarinIraq,Haaretz,February17, 2002.AlsoseeJamesBennet,IsraelSaysWaronIraqWouldBenefittheRegion,New YorkTimes,February27,2003;ChemiShalev,JerusalemFretsAsU.S.BattlesIraqWar Delays,Forward,March7,2003. 147Indeed,aFebruary2003pollreportedthat77.5percentofIsraeliJewswantedthe UnitedStatestoattackIraq.EphraimYaarandTamarHermann,PeaceIndex:Most IsraelisSupporttheAttackonIraq,Haaretz,March6,2003.RegardingKuwait,a publicopinionpollreleasedinMarch2003foundthat89.6percentofKuwaitisfavored theimpendingwaragainstIraq.JamesMorrison,KuwaitisSupportWar,Washington Times,March18,2003. 148GideonLevy,ADeafeningSilence,Haaretz,October6,2002. 149SeeDanIzenberg,ForeignMinistryWarnsIsraeliWarTalkFuelsUSAnti Semitism,JerusalemPost,March10,2003,whichmakesclearthattheForeignMinistry hasreceivedreportsfromtheUStellingIsraelistocooltheirjetsbecausetheUS mediaisportrayingIsraelastryingtogoadtheadministrationintowar.Thereisalso evidencethatIsraelitselfwasconcernedaboutbeingseenasdrivingAmericanpolicy towardIraq.SeeBenn,PMUrgingU.S.NottoDelayStrike;Perelman,IraqMove PutsIsraelinLonelyU.S.Corner.Finally,inlateSeptember2002,agroupofpolitical consultantsknownastheIsraelProjecttoldproIsraelleadersintheUnitedStatesto keepquietwhiletheBushadministrationpursesapossiblewarwithIraq.Dana Milbank,GroupUrgesProIsraelLeadersSilenceonIraq,WashingtonPost,November 27,2002.
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Theinfluenceoftheneoconservativesandtheiralliesisclearlyreflectedinthe followingarticles:SeeJoelBeinin,ProIsraelHawksandtheSecondGulfWar,Middle EastReportOnline,April6,2003;ElisabethBumillerandEricSchmitt,OntheJobandat Home,InfluentialHawks30YearFriendshipEvolves,NewYorkTimes,September11, 2002;KathleenandWilliamChristison,ARosebyAnotherName:TheBush AdministrationsDualLoyalties,CounterPunch,December13,2002;RobertDreyfuss, ThePentagonMuzzlestheCIA,TheAmericanProspect,December16,2002;Michael ElliottandJamesCarney,FirstStop,Iraq,Time,March31,2003;SeymourHersh,The IraqHawks,NewYorker,Vol.77,issue41(December2431,2001),pp.5863;Glenn Kessler,U.S.DecisiononIraqHasPuzzlingPast,WashingtonPost,January12,2003; JoshuaM.Marshall,BombSaddam?WashingtonMonthly,June2002;DanaMilbank, WhiteHousePushforIraqiStrikeIsonHold,WashingtonPost,August18,2002;Susan

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Page,ShowdownwithSaddam:TheDecisiontoAct,USAToday,September11,2002; SamTanenhaus,BushsBrainTrust,VanityFair,July2003.Notethatallthesearticles arefrombeforethewarstarted. 151SeeMortimerB.Zuckerman,NoTimeforEquivocation,U.S.News&WorldReport, August26/September2,2002;Idem,ClearandCompellingProof,U.S.News&World Report,February10,2003;Idem,TheHighPriceofWaiting,U.S.News&WorldReport, March10,2003. 152AnUnseemlySilence,Forward,May7,2004.AlsoseeGaryRosenblatt,Hussein Asylum,JewishWeek,August23,2002;Idem,TheCaseforWaragainstSaddam, JewishWeek,December13,2002. 153JustbeforetheU.S.militaryinvadedIraq,CongressmanJamesP.Moran(DVa) createdastirwhenhesaid,IfitwerenotforthestrongsupportoftheJewish communityforthiswarwithIraq,wewouldnotbedoingthis.SpencerS.Hsu,Moran SaidJewsArePushingWar,WashingtonPost,March11,2003.However,Moran misspoke,becausetherewasnotwidespreadsupportforthewarintheJewish community.Heshouldhavesaid,Ifitwerenotforthestrongsupportofthe neoconservativesandtheleadershipoftheIsraelLobbyforthiswarwithIraq,wewould notbedoingthis. 154SamuelG.Freedman,DontBlameJewsforThisWar,USAToday,April2,2003. AlsoseeOriNir,PollFindsJewishPoliticalGap,Forward,February4,2005. Itisnoexaggerationtosaythatinthewakeof9/11,theneoconservativeswerenot justdetermined,butwereobsessedwithremovingSaddamfrompower.Asonesenior AdministrationfigureputitinJanuary,2003,Idobelievecertainpeoplehavegrown theologicalaboutthis.Itsalmostareligionthatitwillbetheendofoursocietyifwe donttakeactionnow.Kessler,U.S.DecisiononIraqHasPuzzlingPast.Kessleralso describesColinPowellreturningfromWhiteHousemeetingsonIraq,rollinghiseyes andsaying,Jeez,whatafixationaboutIraq.BobWoodwardreportsinPlanofAttack (NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2004),p.410,thatKennethAdelmansaidhehad worriedtodeathastimewentonandsupportseemedtowanethattherewouldbeno war.Alsoseeibid.,pp.164165. 156Thefirstletter(January26,1998)waswrittenundertheauspicesoftheProjectforthe NewAmericanCenturyandcanbefoundonitswebsite.Thesecondletter(February 19,1998)waswrittenundertheauspicesoftheCommitteeforPeaceandSecurityinthe GulfandcanbefoundontheIraqWatchwebsite.AlsoseetheMay29,1998letterto SpeakeroftheHouseNewtGingrichandSenateMajorityLeaderTrentLottwritten
155

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undertheauspicesoftheProjectfortheNewAmericanCenturyandfoundonits website.Theneoconservatives,itshouldbeemphasized,advocatedinvadingIraqto toppleSaddam.SeeTheEndofContainment,WeeklyStandard,December1,1997,pp. 1314;ZalmayM.KhalizadandPaulWolfowitz,OverthrowHim,inibid.,pp.1415; FrederickW.Kagan,NotbyAirAlone,inibid.,pp.1516. 157SeeClintonscommentsafterhesignedtheIraqLiberationActof1998.Statement bythePresident,WhiteHousePressOffice,October31,1998. 158Onemightthinkfromthepublicityandthecontroversysurroundingtwobooks publishedin2004RichardClarkesAgainstAllEnemies:InsideAmericasWaronTerror (NewYork:FreePress,2004)andRonSuskind,ThePriceofLoyalty:GeorgeW.Bush,the WhiteHouse,andtheEducationofPaulONeill(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2004) thatBushandCheneywerebentoninvadingIraqwhentheyassumedofficeinlate January2001.However,thisinterpretationiswrong.Theyweredeeplyinterestedin topplingSaddam,justasBillClintonandAlGorehadbeen.Butthereisnoevidencein thepublicrecordshowingthatBushandCheneywereseriouslycontemplatingwar againstIraqbefore9/11.Infact,BushmadeitcleartoBobWoodwardthathewasnot thinkingaboutgoingtowaragainstSaddambefore9/11.SeePlanofAttack,p.12.Also seeNicholasLehmann,TheIraqFactor,NewYorker,Vol.76,issue43(January22, 2001),pp.3448;EricSchmittandStevenLeeMeyers,BushAdministrationWarnsIraq onWeaponsPrograms,NewYorkTimes,January23,2001.AndCheneyhaddefended thedecisionnottogotoBaghdadthroughoutthe1990sandduringthe2000campaign. SeeTimothyNoah,DickCheney,Dove,Slate,October16,2002;CalmafterDesert Storm,AnInterviewwithDickCheney,PolicyReview,No.65(Summer1993).Inshort, eventhoughtheneoconservativesheldimportantpositionsintheBushAdministration, theywereunabletogeneratemuchenthusiasmforattackingIraqbefore9/11.Thus,the NewYorkTimesreportedinMarch2001thatsomeRepublicanswerecomplainingthat RumsfeldandWolfowitzarefailingtoliveuptotheirpreelectionadvocacyof steppingupeffortstooverthrowPresidentHussein.Atthesametime,aWashington Timeseditorialasked,HaveHawksBecomeDoves?SeeJanePerlez,CapitolHawks SeekTougherLineonIraq,NewYorkTimes,March7,2001;HaveHawksBecome Doves?WashingtonTimes,March8,2001. 159Woodward,PlanofAttack,pp.2526.WolfowitzwassoinsistentonconqueringIraq thatfivedayslaterCheneyhadtotellhimtostopagitatingfortargetingSaddam. Page,ShowdownwithSaddam.AccordingtooneRepublicanlawmaker,hewaslike aparrotbringing[Iraq]upallthetime.ItwasgettingonthePresidentsnerves.Elliot andCarney,FirstStop,Iraq.WoodwarddescribesWolfowitzaslikeadrumthat wouldnotstop.PlanofAttack,p.22. 160Woodward,PlanofAttack,pp.144.

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 RegardingtheneoconservativesinfluenceonCheney,seeElliottandCarney,First Stop,Iraq;Page,ShowdownwithSaddam;MichaelHirsh,BernardLewis Revisited,WashingtonMonthly,November2004,pp.1319;FrederickKempe,Lewiss LiberationDoctrineforMideastFacesNewTests,WallStreetJournal,December13, 2005;CarlaAnneRobbinsandJeanneCummings,HowBushDecidedthatHussein MustBeOustedfromAtopIraq,WallStreetJournal,June14,2002.OnCheneyscritical roleinthedecisionmakingprocess,seeGlennKesslerandPeterSlevin,Cheneyis FulcrumofForeignPolicy,WashingtonPost,October13,2002;BarbaraSlavinandSusan Page,CheneyRewritesRolesinForeignPolicy,USAToday,July29,2002. 162TheNewYorkTimesreportedshortlyafter9/11that,Somesenioradministration officials,ledbyPaulD.WolfowitzandI.LewisLibbyarepressingfortheearliest andbroadestmilitarycampaignagainstnotonlytheOsamabinLadennetworkin Afghanistan,butalsoagainstothersuspectedterroristbasesinIraqandinLebanons Bekkaregion.PatrickE.TylerandElaineSciolino,BushAdvisersSplitonScopeof Retaliation,NewYorkTimes,September20,2001.AlsoseeWilliamSafire,PhonyWar II,NewYorkTimes,November28,2002.WoodwardsuccinctlydescribesLibbys influenceinPlanofAttack(pp.4849):Libbyhadthreeformaltitles.Hewaschiefof stafftoVicePresidentCheney;hewasalsonationalsecurityadvisertothevice president;andhewasfinallyanassistanttoPresidentBush.Itwasatrifectaofpositions probablyneverheldbeforebyasingleperson.Scooterwasapowercenteruntohimself .LibbywasoneofonlytwopeoplewhowerenotprincipalstoattendtheNational SecurityCouncilmeetingswiththepresidentandtheseparateprincipalsmeetings chairedbyRice.Alsoseeibid.,pp5051,288292,300301,409410;Bumillerand Schmitt,OntheJobandatHome;KarenKwiatkowski,TheNewPentagonPapers, Salon.com,March10,2004;PatrickE.TylerandElaineSciolino,BushAdvisersSpliton ScopeofRetaliation,NewYorkTimes,September20,2001.OnLibbysrelationshipto Israel,anarticleintheForwardreportsthatIsraeliofficialslikedLibby.Theydescribed himasanimportantcontactwhowasaccessible,genuinelyinterestedinIsraelrelated issuesandverysympathetictotheircause.OriNir,LibbyPlayedLeadingRoleon ForeignPolicyDecisions,Forward,November4,2005. 163ThisletterwaspublishedintheWeeklyStandard,October1,2001.
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RobertKaganandWilliamKristol,TheRightWar,WeeklyStandard,October1,2001; CharlesKrauthammer,OurFirstMove:TakeOuttheTaliban,WashingtonPost, October1,2001.AlsoseeWarAims,WallStreetJournal,September20,2001. 165EvenbeforethedusthadsettledattheWorldTradeCenter,proIsraelforceswere makingthecasethatSaddamwasresponsiblefor9/11.SeeMichaelBarone,Warby Ultimatum,U.S.NewsandWorldReport,October1,2001;BillGertz,IraqSuspectedof SponsoringTerroristAttacks,WashingtonTimes,September21,2001;DrainthePond

164

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ofTerror,JerusalemPosteditorial,September25,2001;WilliamSafire,TheUltimate Enemy,NewYorkTimes,September24,2001. 166SeeJamesBamford,APretexttoWar(NewYork:Doubleday,2004);chaps.1314; Woodward,PlanofAttack,pp.288292,297306.Alsoseeibid.,pp.72,163,300301. 167Woodward,PlanofAttack,p.290. 168SeeBamford,PretexttoWar,pp.287291,307331;DavidS.Cloud,Prewar IntelligenceInquiryZeroesInOnPentagon,WallStreetJournal,March11,2004; SeymourM.Hersh,SelectiveIntelligence,NewYorker,Vol.79,issue11(May12,2003), pp.4450;Kwiatkowski,NewPentagonPapers;JimLobe,PentagonOfficeHometo NeoConNetwork,InterPressServiceNewsAgency,August7,2003;GregMiller,Spy UnitSkirtedCIAonIraq,LosAngelesTimes,March10,2004;PaulR.Pillar,Intelligence, Policy,andtheWarinIraq,ForeignAffairs,Vol.85,No.2(MarchApril2006),pp.1527; JamesRisen,HowPairsFindingonTerrorLedtoClashonShapingIntelligence,New YorkTimes,April28,2004;EricSchmittandThomShanker,ThreatsandResponses:A C.I.A.Rival;PentagonSetsUpIntelligenceUnit.NewYorkTimesOctober24,2002. 169TheOfficeofSpecialPlansreliedheavilyoninformationfromAhmedChalabiand otherIraqiexilesandithadcloselinkswithvariousIsraelisources.Indeed,theGuardian reportsthatitforgedclosetiestoaparallel,adhocintelligenceoperationinsideAriel SharonsofficeinIsraelspecificallytobypassMossadandprovidetheBush administrationwithmorealarmistreportsonSaddamsIraqthanMossadwasprepared toauthorize.JulianBorger,TheSpiesWhoPushedforWar,Guardian,July17,2003. 170See,forexample,DouglasJ.Feith,TheInnerLogicofIsraelsNegotiations: WithdrawalProcess,NotPeaceProcess,MiddleEastQuarterly,March1996.Foruseful discussionsofFeithsviews,seeJeffreyGoldberg,ALittleLearning:WhatDouglas FeithKnewandWhenHeKnewIt,NewYorker,Vol.81,issue12(May9,2005),pp.36 41;JimLobe,LosingFeith,oristheBushTeamSheddingItsSharperEdges?TheDaily Star,January31,2005;JamesJ.Zogby,ADangerousAppointment:ProfileofDouglas Feith,UndersecretaryofDefenseunderBush,MiddleEastInformationCenter,April 18,2001;IsraeliSettlements:Legitimate,DemocraticallyMandated,VitaltoIsraels Securityand,Therefore,inU.S.Interest,TheCenterforSecurityPolicy,TransitionBrief No.96T130,December17,1996.Notethatthetitleofthelatterpiece,whichwas publishedbyanorganizationintheLobby,saysthatwhatisinIsraelsinterestis thereforeinAmericasnationalinterest.InLosingFeith,Lobewrites:In2003,when Feith,whowasstandinginforRumsfeldataninteragencyPrincipalsMeetingonthe MiddleEast,concludedhisremarksonbehalfofthePentagon,accordingtothe Washingtoninsidernewsletter,TheNelsonReport,[NationalSecurityAdvisor

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Condoleezza]Ricesaid,ThanksDoug,butwhenwewanttheIsraelipositionwell invitetheambassador. 171TheCleanBreakstudywaspreparedforTheInstituteforAdvancedStrategicand PoliticalStudiesinJerusalemandpublishedinJune1996.Acopycanbefoundonthe Instituteswebsite. 172AkivaEldar,PerlesofWisdomfortheFeithful,Haaretz,October1,2002. 173RallyUnitesAnguishedFactionsunderFlagofStandwithIsrael,Forward,April 19,2002;Forward50,Forward,November15,2002. 174JohnMcCaslin,IsraeliTrainedCops,WashingtonTimes,November5,2002;Bret Stephens,ManoftheYear,JerusalemPost(RoshHashanaSupplement),September26, 2003;JanineZacharia,InvasiveTreatment,inibid.OtherusefulpiecesonWolfowitz includeMichaelDobbs,ForWolfowitz,AVisionMayBeRealized,WashingtonPost, April7,2003;JamesFallows,TheUnilateralist,AtlanticMonthly,March2002,pp.26 29;BillKeller,TheSunshineWarrior,NewYorkTimesMagazine,September22,2002; PaulWolfowitz,Velociraptor,Economist,February915,2002. 175AccordingtoFeithsformerlawpartner,L.MarcZell,Chalabialsopromisedtore buildthepipelinethatonceranfromHaifainIsraeltoMosulinIraq.SeeJohnDizard, HowAhmedChalabiConnedtheNeocons,Salon.com,May4,2004.InmidJune2003, BenjaminNetanyahuannouncedthat,ItwontbelongbeforeyouwillseeIraqioil flowingtoHaifa.Reuters,NetanyahuSaysIraqIsraelOilLineNotPipeDream, Haaretz,June20,2003.Ofcourse,thisdidnothappenanditisunlikelytohappeninthe foreseeablefuture. 176MatthewE.Berger,NewChancestoBuildIsraelIraqTies,JewishJournal,April28, 2003.AlsoseeBamford,PretexttoWar,p.293;EdBlanche,SecuringIraqiOilforIsrael: ThePlotThickens,Lebanonwire.com,April25,2003.NathanGuttmanreportsthatthe AmericanJewishcommunityandtheIraqioppositionhadforyearstakenpainsto concealthelinksbetweenthem.MutualWariness:AIPACandtheIraqiOpposition, Haaretz,April8,2003. 177Nir,FBIProbe.Ontheeveofthewar,BillKeller,whoisnowtheexecutiveeditorof theNewYorkTimes,wrote:TheideathatthiswarisaboutIsraelispersistentandmore widelyheldthanyouthink.Keller,IsItGoodfortheJews?NewYorkTimes,March8, 2003. 178Inanopedwritteninmid2004,HollingsaskedwhytheBushAdministration invadedIraqwhenitwasnotadirectthreattotheUnitedStates.Theanswer,which

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hesayseveryoneknows,isbecausewewanttosecureourfriendIsrael.Senator ErnestF.Hollings,BushsFailedMideastPolicyIsCreatingMoreTerrorism, CharlestonPostandCourier,May6,2004;Sen.HollingsFloorStatement.Not surprisingly,HollingswascalledanantiSemite,achargehefuriouslyrejected.Matthew E.Berger,NotSoGentleRhetoricfromtheGentlemanfromSouthCarolina,JTA,May 23,2004;Sen.HollingsFloorStatement;SenatorLautenbergsFloorStatementin SupportofSenatorHollings,June3,2004,acopyofwhichcanbefoundonHollings website.OnMoran,seenote151.AhandfulofotherpublicfigureslikePatrick Buchanan,MaureenDowd,GeorgieAnneGeyer,GaryHart,ChrisMatthews,and GeneralAnthonyZinni,haveeithersaidorstronglyhintedthatproIsraelforcesinthe UnitedStatesweretheprinciplemoversbehindtheIraqwar.SeeAlufBenn,Scapegoat forIsrael,Haaretz,May13,2004;MatthewBerger,WillSomeJewsBackingforWarin IraqHaveRepercussionsforAll?JTA,June10,2004;PatrickJ.Buchanan,Whose War?AmericanConservative,March24,2003;AmiEden,IsraelsRole:TheElephant TheyreTalkingAbout,Forward,February28,2003;TheGroundShifts,Forward,May 28,2004;NathanGuttman,ProminentU.S.Jews,IsraelBlamedforStartofIraqWar, Haaretz,May31,2004;LawrenceF.Kaplan,ToxicTalkonWar,WashingtonPost, February18,2003;E.J.Kessler,GaryHartSaysDualLoyaltyBarbWasNotAimedat Jews,Forward,February21,2003;OriNirandAmiEden,ExMideastEnvoyZinni ChargesNeoconsPushedIraqWartoBenefitIsrael,Forward,May28,2004. 179MichaelKinsley,WhatBushIsntSayingaboutIraq,Slate,October24,2002.Also seeidem,JAccuse. 180RobertS.GreenbergerandKarbyLeggett,PresidentsDream:ChangingNotJust RegimebutaRegion:AProU.S.,DemocraticAreaisaGoalthatHasIsraeliandNeo ConservativeRoots,WallStreetJournal,March21,2003.AlsoseeGeorgePacker, DreamingofDemocracy,NewYorkTimesMagazine,March2,2003.Althoughnotall neoconservativesareJewish,mostofthefounderswereandvirtuallyallwerestrong supportersofIsrael.AccordingtoGalBeckermanintheForward,Ifthereisan intellectualmovementinAmericatowhoseinventionJewscanlaysoleclaim, neoconservatismisit.SeeTheNeoconservativePersuasion,Forward,January6,2006. 181See,forexample,RebuildingAmericasDefenses:Strategy,ForcesandResourcesforaNew Century,AReportfortheNewAmericanCentury,September2000,p.14. 182MartinIndyk,TheClintonAdministrationsApproachtotheMiddleEast,Speech toSorefSymposium,WashingtonInstituteforNearEastPolicy,May18,1993.Alsosee AnthonyLake,ConfrontingBacklashStates,ForeignAffairs,Vol.73.No.2 (March/April1994),pp.4553.

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BarbaraConry,AmericasMisguidedPolicyofDualContainmentinthePersian Gulf,ForeignPolicyBriefingNo.33,CATOInstitute,November10,1994;GregoryF. GauseIII,TheIllogicofDualContainment,ForeignAffairs,Vol.73.No.2(March/April 1994),pp.5666;ZbigniewBrzezinskiandBrentScowcroft,DifferentiatedContainment: U.S.PolicyTowardIranandIraq,ReportofanIndependentStudyGrouponGulfStability andSecurity,CouncilonForeignRelations,NewYork,1997. 184BrzezinskiandScowcroft,DifferentiatedContainment,p.6. 185BrzezinskiandScowcroft,DifferentiatedContainment,p.130. 186Forexample,theJerusalemPostnotedinaneditorial(September9,2002)that accordingtoMiddleEastexpertBernardLewis,apostSaddamIraqisonethatwould bemorelikelytomakepeacewithIsrael,defangArabradicalism,andperhapseven catalyzerevolutionaryforcesinpresentdayIran.Similarly,MichaelLedeenwroteon August6,2002intheNationalReviewOnline(ScowcroftStrikesOut)that,Ifeverthere wasaregionthatrichlydeservedbeingcauldronized,itistheMiddleEasttoday.Ifwe wagethewareffectively,wewillbringdowntheterrorregimesinIraq,Iran,andSyria, andeitherbringdowntheSaudimonarchyorforceittoabandonitsglobalassembly linetoindoctrinateyoungterrorists.OnAugust19,JoshuaMuravchikarguedinthe NewYorkTimes(DemocracysQuietVictory)that,Changetowarddemocratic regimesinTehranandBaghdadwouldunleashatsunamiacrosstheIslamicworld. AlsoseeMarinaOttawayetal.,DemocraticMirageintheMiddleEast,PolicyBrief#20 (Washington,D.C:CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,October2002). 187CharlesKrauthammer,PeacethroughDemocracy,WashingtonPost,June28,2002. 188Benn,Background.Also,theNewYorkTimesreportedthatHalevygaveaspeechin MunichinFebruary2003inwhichhesaid,Theshockwavesemergingfrompost SaddamBaghdadcouldhavewiderangingeffectsinTehran,Damascus,andin Ramallah.TheTimesarticlewentontosaythatIsraelishopingthatonceSaddam Husseinisdispensedwith,thedominoeswillstarttotumble.Accordingtothishope moderatesandreformersthroughouttheregionwouldbeencouragedtoputnew pressureontheirowngovernments,notexceptingthePalestinianAuthorityofYasir Arafat.Bennet,IsraelSaysWaronIraqWouldBenefittheRegion.Thissametheme isreflectedinaForwardarticlefromearlyMarch2003,whichsaidthatIsraelstop political,militaryandeconomicechelonshavecometoregardtheloomingwarasa virtualdeusexmachinathatwillturnthepoliticalandeconomictablesandextricateIsrael fromitscurrentmorass.Shalev,JerusalemFrets.Finally,thislineofthinkingwas apparentinformerPrimeMinisterEhudBarakspreviouslydiscussedSeptember4, 2002,opedintheNewYorkTimes.BarakmaintainedthatputtinganendtoSaddam HusseinsregimewillchangethegeopoliticallandscapeoftheArabworld.Heclaimed
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thatAnArabworldwithoutSaddamHusseinwouldenablemanyfromthisgeneration [leadersabouttocomeintopower]toembracethegradualdemocraticopeningthat someofthePersianGulfstatesandJordanhavebeguntoenjoy.Barakalsomaintained thattopplingSaddamwouldcreateanopeningforforwardmovementontheIsraeli Palestinianconflict. 189SeeSeymourM.Hersh,TheSyrianBet,NewYorker,Vol.79,issue20(July28,2003), pp.3236;MollyMoore,SharonAsksU.S.toPressureSyriaonMilitants,Washington Post,April17,2003;OriNir,JerusalemUrgesBush:NextTargetHezbollah,Forward, April11,2003;Idem,SharonAideMakestheCaseforU.S.ActionagainstSyria, Forward,April18,2003;MarcPerelman,BehindWarningstoDamascus:Reassessment ofYoungerAssad,Forward,April18,2004;DanielSobelmanandNathanGuttman, PMUrgesU.S.toKeepHeatonSyria,CallsAssadDangerous,Haaretz,April15, 2003.
190

Moore,SharonAsksU.S.

Nir,SharonAide.AlsoseeKarenDeYoung,U.S.ToughensWarningstoSyriaon Iraq,OtherIssues,WashingtonPost,April15,2003. 192Nir,SharonAide.AlsoseePerelman,BehindWarnings.Intheireffortsto demonizeSyriaandbaittheUnitedStatesintoattackingit,Israelishavesaidthat DamascuswasharboringhighlevelIraqisfromSaddamsregime,andevenworse, hidingIraqsWMD.Perelman,BehindWarnings;LaurieCopans,IsraeliMilitary BossClaimsIraqHadChemicalWeapons,AssociatedPressnewsrelease,April26,2004; IraStoll,SaddamsWMDMovedtoSyria,AnIsraeliSays,NewYorkSun,December 15,2005;Idem,IraqsWMDSecretedinSyria,SadaSays,NewYorkSun,January26, 2006.InAugust2003,whenasuicidetruckbomberblewupUNheadquartersin Baghdad,IsraelsambassadortotheUNcausedadiplomaticspatbysuggestingthat Syriahadprovidedthetruck,therebyimplyingthatSyriawaspartlyresponsible. MichaelCasey,IsraeliAmbassadorBelievesTruckUsedinU.N.BombingCamefrom Syria,AssociatedPressnewsrelease,August21,2003;IsraeliEnvoyLinksSyriatoUN Blast,StirsFlap,Reutersnewsrelease,August21,2003.ItmarRabinowich,theformer IsraeliambassadortotheUnitedStates,toldSeymourHershthathewondered whether,giventhequalityoftheirsources,theSyrianshadhadadvanceinformation abouttheSeptember11thplotandfailedtowarntheUnitedStates.Hersh,The SyrianBet.Therewaslittleevidencetosupportthesecharges,butIsraelswillingness tomakethemshowshoweagertheyweretogettheUnitedStatesembroiledwithyet anotherArabregime.
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SyriahadbeenintheLobbysgunsightswellbefore9/11.Infact,Syria,notIraq,was themaintargetintheCleanBreakstudythatFeith,Perle,andWurmserwrotefor Netanyahuin1996.AndDanielPipesandZiadAbdelnour,theheadoftheU.S. CommitteeforaFreeLebanon(USCFL),hadcoauthoreda2000reportcallingforthe UnitedStatestousemilitarythreatstoforceSyriatoremoveitstroopsfromLebanon, getridofanyWMDitmighthave,andstopsupportingterrorism.(EndingSyrias OccupationofLebanon:TheU.S.Role,ReportoftheMiddleEastStudyGroup,Middle EastForum,May2000.)TheUCSFLisaclosecousinoftheLobby,anditincludes numerousneoconservatives(Abrams,Feith,Ledeen,Perle,andWurmser)amongits officialcoresupporters.JordanGreen,NeoconsDreamofLebanon,ZNet,July23, 2003;DavidR.Sands,HawksRecycleArgumentsforIraqWaragainstSyria, WashingtonTimes,April16,2003.ExceptforLedeen,theyallsignedthe2000report,as didproIsraelCongressmanEliotEngel(DNY),anothercoresupporterofUCSFL. 194NathanGuttman,SomeSeniorU.S.FiguresSaySyriaHasCrossedtheRedLine, Haaretz,Aril14,2004;MichaelFlynn,TheWarHawks:TheRightFlexesMusclewith NewU.S.Agenda,ChicagoTribune,April13,2003.InadditiontoPerleandWolfowitz, JohnBoltonpushedhardfrominsidetheAdministrationforregimechangeinSyria.He hadtoldIsraelileadersamonthbeforetheIraqwarthattheBushAdministrationwould dealwithSyria,aswellasIranandNorthKorea,rightafterSaddamfellfrompower. Flynn,TheRightFlexesMuscle.Inpursuitofthatgoal,Boltonreportedlypreparedto tellCongressinmidJulythatSyriasWMDprogramshadreachedthepointwherethey wereaseriousthreattostabilityintheMiddleEastandhadtobedealtwithsooner ratherthanlater.However,theCIAandothergovernmentagenciesobjected,claiming thatBoltonsanalysisgreatlyinflatedtheSyrianthreat.Consequently,the AdministrationdidnotallowBoltontogivehistestimonyonSyriaatthattime.Douglas Jehl,NewWarningWasPutOffonWeaponsSyriaPlans,NewYorkTimes,July18, 2003;MarcPerelman,StateDepartmentHawkunderFireinIntelligenceFlapover Syria,Forward,July25,2003;WarrenP.StrobelandJonathanS.Landay,Intelligence DataonSyriaNowDisputed,PhiladelphiaInquirer,July17,2003.YetBoltonwasnot putoffforlong.HeappearedbeforeCongressinSeptember2003anddescribedSyriaas agrowingthreattoU.S.interestsintheMiddleEast.NathanGuttman,US:Syria SupportingTerror,DevelopingWeaponsofMassDestruction,Haaretz,September16 2003. 195QuotedinRobinWright,U.S.InsistsSyriaAlterItsCourse,LosAngelesTimes,April 14,2003.AlsoseeMartinIndyksandDennisRossstoughmindedrhetoricaboutSyria inHersh,TheSyrianBet. 196LawrenceF.Kaplan,WhiteLie,NewRepublic,April21&28,2003.AlsoseeWilliam KristolandLawrenceF.Kaplan,TheWaroverIraq:SaddamsTyrannyadAmericasMission (NewYork:EncounterBooks,2003).
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 DeYoung,U.S.ToughensStance.TherewasastoryinHaaretz(NYCongressman SaysWillPushBilltoPressureSyria)onAugust19,2003,whichreportedthatEngel hadjustmetwithSharoninhisJerusalemOfficefor90minutesandtheIsraelileader hadendorsedEngelseffortstopushtheSyriaAccountabilityAct.Regardingthe specificsofthatlegislation,seeZviBarel,DecipheringtheSyrians,Haaretz,July9, 2003;TheReturnoftheSyriaAccountabilityAct,NewsMax.com,April19,2003;Claude Salhani,TheSyriaAccountabilityAct:TakingtheWrongRoadtoDamascus,Policy Analysis,No.512,CATOInstitute,March18,2004.Notsurprisingly,RichardPerlecalled onCongresstopasstheSyriaAccountabilityActshortlyafterEngelreintroducedthe legislation.Sands,HawksRecycleArguments. 198RonKampeas,Bush,OnceReluctantonSanctions,PreparestoTakeaToughLine withSyria,JTA,March16,2004. 199Salhani,TheSyriaAccountabilityAct,p.5. 200JulianBorger,BushVetoesSyriaWarPlan,Guardian,April15,2003;Kampeas, Bush,OnceReluctant. 201SeeHersh,TheSyrianBet.OtherpiecesdiscussingtheadvantagesfortheUnited statesofcooperatingwithSyriaincludeSpencerAckerman,RoughTrade,New Repulic,January13,2003;SusanTaylorMartin,ExpertsDisagreeonDangersofSyria, St.PetersburgTimes,November3,2002;Salhani,TheSyriaAccountabilityAct;Stephen Zunes,BushHasClearRunatSyria,AsiaTimesOnline,March2,2005. 202TwoarticlesthatappearedintheForwardafterBaghdadfelldescribethedriving forcesbehindthenewU.S.policytowardSyria.InapieceinmidApril,theauthor noted:AsuddenflurryofU.S.warningstoSyriainrecentdaysindicatesthat WashingtonhasundertakenwhatIsraelanditssupportersherehavebeenurgingfor months:acomprehensivereassessmentofSyrianrulerBasharAssad.Perelman, BehindWarnings.AfewmonthslaterinmidJuly,anotherauthornoted:Duringthe pastseveralmonths,topIsraeliofficialshavewarnedtheirAmericancounterpartsand audiencesaboutAssadsunreliability.Americanofficialshaveechoedthestanceand pressreportshavespeculatedaboutpossibleAmericanmilitaryinterventioninSyria. MarcPerelman,SyriaMakesOvertureoverNegotiations,Forward,July11,2003. 203QuotedinAlanSipress,IsraelEmphasizesIranianThreat,WashingtonPost, February7,2002.Thisarticle,whichwaswrittenasSharonwasarrivinginWashington, makesclearthatTelAvivwasredoublingitseffortstowarntheBushadministration thatIranposesagreaterthreatthantheIraqiregimeofSaddamHussein.Alsosee SeymourHersh,TheIranGame,NewYorker,Vol.77,issue38(December3,2001),pp.
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4249;PeterHirschberg,Background/PeresRaisesIranianThreat,Haaretz,February5, 2002;DavidHirst,IsraelThrustsIraninLineofUSFire,Guardian,February2,2002; IsraelOnceAgainSeesIranasACauseforConcern,Haaretz,May7,2001. 204StephenFarrell,RobertThomson,andDanielleHaas,AttackIrantheDayIraqWar Ends,DemandsIsrael,TheTimes(London),September5,2002;StephenFarrelland RobertThomson,TheTimesInterviewwithArielSharon,inibid. 205AmbassadortoU.S.CallsforRegimeChangeinIran,Syria,Haaretz,April28, 2003.TendayslatertheNewYorkTimesreportedthattheWashingtonwasgrowing increasinglyconcernedaboutIransnuclearambitions,andthatthereisalotof hammeringfromtheIsraelisforustotakethispositionseriously.StevenR.Weisman, NewU.S.ConcernsonIransPursuitofNuclearArms,NewYorkTimes,May8,2003. ShimonPeresthenpublishedanopedintheWallStreetJournalonJune25entitled,We MustUnitetoPreventanAyatollahNuke.HisdescriptionoftheIranianthreat soundedjustlikehisearlierdescriptionofthethreatfromSaddam,evenincludinga ritualreferencetothelessonsofappeasementinthe1930s.Iran,heemphasized,must betoldinnouncertaintermsthattheUnitedStatesandIsraelwillnottolerateitgoing nuclear. 206InlateMay2003,InterPressServicereportedthat,Theneoconseffortstonowfocus USattentiononregimechangeinIranhasbecomemuchmoreintensesinceearlyMay andalreadyhasbornesubstantialfruit.JimLobe,U.S.NeoConsMoveQuicklyon Iran,InterPressService,May28,2003.InearlyJune,theForwardreportedthat, Neoconservativesinsideandoutsidetheadministrationhavebeenurginganactive efforttopromoteregimechangeinTehran.Reportsofpossiblecovertactionshave surfacedinrecentweeks.MarcPerelman,PentagonTeamonIranComesunderFire, Forward,June6,2003.Alsoseeidem,WhiteHouseIsAimingtoRaiseIranianNukesat U.N.SecurityCouncil,Forward,May9,2003;Idem,NewFrontSetsSightsonToppling IranRegime,Forward,May16,2003.Finally,theLobbyhasestablishedcloserelations withRezaPahlavi,thesonofthelateShahofIran.Heisevenreportedtohavehad meetingswithNetanyahuandSharon.ThisrelationshipissimilartotheLobbys relationshipwithAhmedChalabi.Specifically,proIsraelforcespromotePahlavi,andin return,hemakesclearthatifhecomestopowerinIran,itwillhavegoodrelationswith Israel.ConnieBruck,Exiles:HowIransExpatriatesAreGamingtheNuclearThreat, NewYorker,Vol.82,issue2(March6,2006),pp.4863;Perelman,NewFront. 207Theflyeradvertisingtheconference,whichwasentitledTheFutureofIran: Mullahcracy,DemocracyandtheWaronTerror,canbefoundatanumberofsiteson theweb.AlsoseeGreen,NeoconsDreamofLebanon;Lobe,U.S.NeoConsMove Quickly.

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WilliamKristol,TheEndoftheBeginning,WeeklyStandard,February12,2003. OtherswritingarticlesatthetimeincludeDanielPipesandPatrickClawson,whowrote apieceonMay20fortheJerusalemPostentitledTurnupthePressureonIran.They calledfortheBushAdministrationtosupporttheMujahedeeneKhalq,aterrorist organizationbasedinIraqthatwasbentonoverthrowingtheayatollahsrunningIran. LawrenceKaplanarguedintheNewRepublic(Iranamok)onJune9thattheUSneeded togettougherwithIranoveritsnuclearprograms,whichhefearedwerefurtheralong thanmostAmericanpolicymakersrecognized.MichaelLedeen,oneoftheleading hawksonIran,wroteintheNationalReviewOnline(TheOthers)onApril4:Thereis nomoretimefordiplomaticsolutions.Wewillhavetodealwiththeterrormasters, hereandnow.Iran,atleast,offersusthepossibilityofamemorablevictory,becausethe Iranianpeopleopenlyloaththeregime,andwillenthusiasticallycombatit,ifonlythe UnitedStatessupportsthemintheirjuststruggle. 209ForevidenceoftheLobbysintensifiedeffortstogettheBushAdministrationtodeal withtheIraniannuclearproblem,seeStewartAin,IsraelUrgingU.S.toStopIran Nukes,JewishWeek,October7,2005;EfraimInbar,TheImperativestoUseForce againstIranianNuclearization,BESACenter[BarIlanUniversity,Israel]Perspectives, Number12,December1,2005;MartinS.Indyk,IransBlusterIsntABluff,LosAngeles Times,November1,2005;RonKampeas,WithTimeShortonIranNukes,AIPAC CriticizesBushApproach,JTA,December2,2005;CharlesKrauthammer,InIran, ArmingforArmageddon,WashingtonPost,December16,2005;DafnaLinzer,Pro IsraelGroupCriticizesWhiteHousePolicyonIran,WashingtonPost,December25, 2005;OriNir,NewSanctionBillLosesMomentumasAdministrationPresses Diplomacy,Forward,June10,2005;Idem,JewishGroupsPushforIranSanctions, Forward,September23,2005;Idem,IsraeliAidesWarnU.S.NottoDropBallonIran, Forward,December9,2005;MichaelRubinetal.,WarFooting:10StepsAmericaMust TaketoPrevailintheWarfortheFreeWorld,AmericanEnterpriseInstitute, November30,2005;RowanScarborough,IsraelPushesU.S.onIranNukeSolution, WashingtonTimes,February21,2005. 210Someneoconservativesevenwelcomethisoutcome.Forexample,RobertKaganand WilliamKristolwroteintheaftermathof9/11that,Afghanistanwillprovebutan openingbattle.thiswarwillnotendinAfghanistan.Itisgoingtospreadandengulf anumberofcountriesinconflictsofvaryingintensity.Itcouldwellrequiretheuseof Americanmilitarypowerinmultipleplacessimultaneously.Itisgoingtoresemblethe clashofcivilizationsthateveryonehashopedtoavoid.TheGatheringStorm,Weekly Standard,October29,2002.AlsoseeEliotA.Cohen,WorldWarIV,WallStreetJournal, November20,2001;PhilMcCombs,TheFireThisTime,WashingtonPost,April13, 2003;NormanPodhoretz,HowtoWinWorldWarIV,Commentary,February2002; Idem,WorldWarIV:HowItStarted,WhatItMeans,andWhyWeHavetoWin,
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Commentary,September2004;BrianWhitaker,PlayingSkittleswithSaddam,Guardian, September3,2002. 211RonKampeas,AfterRestructuring,AIPACPlanstoFocusonWiderRangeof Issues,JTA,September26,2005.

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