Tet Coverage of all course fundamentals for vector analysis, with an introduction to tensor analysis Theories, concepts, and definitions 480 fully worked problems "Hundreds of additional practice problems Use with these courses: Electromagnetics (A Mechanics (1 Electromagnetic Theory © Aerodynamics,Schaums Outline of THEORY and PROBLEMS VECTOR ANALYSIS and an introduction to TENSOR ANALYSIS by Murray R. Spiegel, Ph.D, Former Professor and Chairman Mathematics Department Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Hartford Graduate Center SCHAUM’S OUTLINE SERIES McGraw-Hill New York San Francisco Washington, D.C, Auckland Bogoti Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore Sydney ‘Tokyo TorontoCopyright © 1959 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical. photocopying. recording, or otherwise. without the prior written permission of the publisher. ISBN 07-060228-X. 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 SH SH 876Preface Vector analysis, which had its beginnings in the middle of the 19th century, has in recent years become an essential part of the mathematical background required of engineers, phy- sicists, mathematicians and other scientists. This requirement is far from accidental, for not only does vector analysis provide a concise notation for presenting equations arising from mathematical formulations of physical and geometrical problems but it is also a natural aid in forming mental pictures of physical and geometrical ideas. In short, it might very well be considered a most rewarding language and mode of thought for the physical sciences. This book is designed to be used either as a textbook for a formal course in vector analysis or as a very useful supplement to all current standard texts. It should also be of considerable value to those taking courses in physics, mechanics, electromagnetic theory, aerodynamics or any of the numerous other fields in which vector methods are employed. Each chapter begins with a clear statement of pertinent definitions, principles and theorems together with illustrative and other descriptive material. This is followed by graded sets of solved and supplementary problems, The solved problems serve to illustrate and amplify the theory, bring into sharp focus those fine points without which the student continually feels himself on unsafe ground, and provide the repetition of basic principles so vital to effective teaching. Numerous proofs of theorems and derivations of formulas are included among the solved problems. The large number of supplementary problems with answers serve as a complete review of the material of each chapter. Topics covered include the algebra and the differential and integral calculus of vec- tors, Stokes’ theorem, the divergence theorem and other integral theorems together with many applications drawn from various fields. Added features are the chapters on curvilin- ear coordinates and tensor analysis which should prove extremely useful in the study of advanced engineering, physics and mathematics. Considerably more material has been included here than can be covered in most first courses. This has been done to make the book more flexible, to provide a more useful book of reference, and to stimulate further interest in the topics. The author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to Mr. Henry Hayden for typo- graphical layout and art work for the figures. The realism of these figures adds greatly to the effectiveness of presentation in a subject where spatial visualizations play such an im- portant role. M. R. SPIEGEL Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute June, 1959Contents CHAPTER - VECTORS AND SCALARS. Vectors. Scalars. Vector algebra. Laws of vector algebra, Unit vectors, Rectangular unit vectors, Components of a vector. Scalar fields, Vector fields, S THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCT. Dot or scalar products. Cross or vector products. Triple products. Reciprocal sets of vectors, 3. VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION. Ordinary derivatives of vectors. Space curves. Continuity and differentiability. Differen- tiation formulas. Partial derivatives of vectors. Differentials of vectors. Differential geometry. Mechanics, 4. GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL... The vector differential operator del. Gradient, Divergence, Curl, Formulas involving del, Invariance. 5. VECTOR INTEGRATION Ordinary integrals of vectors. Line integrals. Surface integrals. Volume integrals, 6. THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, AND RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS. The divergence theorem of Gauss, Stokes’ theorem. Green’s theorem in the plane, Re- lated integral theorems. Integral operator form for del, N » CURVILINEAR COORDINATES. Transformation of coordinates. Orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. Unit vectors in curvilinear systems. Arc length and volume elements, Gradient, divergence and curl. Special orthogonal coordinate systems, Cylindrical coordinates. Spherical coordinates. Parabolic cylindrical coordinates. Paraboloidal coordinates. Elliptic cylindrical coordinates, Prolate spheroidal coordinates. Oblate spheroidal coordinates. Ellipsoidal coordinates, Bipolar coordinates. 8. TENSOR ANALYSIS... Physical laws, Spaces of N dimensions, Coordinate transformations. ‘The summatio convention. Contravariant and covariant vectors. Contravariant, covariant and mixed tensors. The Kronecker delta, Tensors of rank greater than two. Scalars or invariants, Tensor fields. Symmetric and skew-symmetric tensors. Fundamental operations with tensors. Matrices. Matrix algebra. The line element and metric tensor. Conjugate or reciprocal tensors. Associated tensors. Length of a vector. Angle between vectors, Physical components. Christoffel’s symbols. Transformation laws of Christoffel’s symbols. Geo- desics. Covariant derivatives. Permutation symbols and tensors. Tensor form of gradient, divergence and curl, The intrinsic or absolute derivative, Relative and absolute tensors. 16 35 57 a 82 106 135 166Chapter 1 A VECTOR is a quantity having both magnitude and direction, such as displacement, velocity, force, and acceleration, oe Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow OP (Fig.1) de- fining the direction, the magnitude of the vector being indicated by P the length of the arrow. The tail end O of the arrow is called the origin or initial point of the vector, and the head P is called the terminal point ot terminus. Analytically a vector is represented by a letter with an arrow over it, as A in Fig.1, and its magnitude is denoted by [Al or A. In printed works, bold faced type, such as A, is used to indicate the vector A while lal or A indicates its magnitude. We shall use this megntuce’ bold faced notation in this book. The vector OP is also indicated as OP or OP; in such case we shall denote its magnitude by OP, |OB|, or lor]. Pig.. A SCALAR is a quantity having magnitude but @) direction, e.g. mass, length, time, temperature, and any real number. Scalars are indicated by letters in ordinary type as in elementary alge- bra. Operations with scalars follow the same rules as in elementary algebra. VECTOR ALGEBRA. The operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication familiar in the alge- bra of numbers or scalars are, with suitable definition, capable of extension to an algebra of vectors. The following definitions are fundamental. 1. Two vectors A and B are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction regardless of the position of their initial points. Thus A=B in Fig.2. 2. A vector having direction opposite to that of vector A but having the same magnitude is de- noted by --A (Fig.3). Fig. 2 Fig.32 VECTORS and SCALARS 3. The sum or resultant of vectors A and B is a vector C formed by placing the initial point of B on the terminal point of A and then joining the initial point of A to the terminal point of B (Fig.4). This sum is written A+B, i.e. C = A+B. ‘The definition here is equivalent to the par- allelogram law for vector addition (see Prob.3). Extensions to sums of more than two vectors are immediate (see Problem 4). Fig. 4 4, The difference of vectors A and B, represented by A—B, is that vector C which added to B yields vector A. Kauivalently, A-B can be defined as the sum A+(—B). If A=B, then A—B is defined as the null or zero vector and is represented by the sym- bol 0 or simply 0. It has zero magnitude ‘and no specific direction. A vector which is not null is a proper vector. All vectors will be assumed proper unless otherwise stated. 5. The product of a vector A by a scalar m is a vector mA with magnitude |m| times the magni- tude of A and with direction the same as or opposite to that of A, according as m is positive or negative. If m=0, mA is the null vector. LAWS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA. If A,B and C are vectors and m and n are scalars, then I A+B=BtA Commutative Law for Addition 2. A+ (BIC) = (A+B) +C Associative Law for Addition 3. mA = Am Commutative Law for Multiplication 4. m(wA) = (mn)A Associative Law for Multiplication 5. (m+n)A = mAtnA Distributive Law 6. m(A+B) = mA+ mB Distributive Law Note that in these laws only multiplication of a vector b; ter 2, products of vectors are defined. yy one or more scalars is used. In Chap- ‘These laws enable us to treat vector equations in the same way as ordinary algebraic equations. For example, if A+B = C then by transposing A = C-B. A UNIT VECTOR is a vector having unit magnitude, If A is a vector with magnitude A#0 then A/A is a unit vector having the same direction as A. ‘Any vector A can be represented by a unit vector a in the direction of A multiplied by the magnitude of A. In symbols, A= Aa. THE RECTANGULAR UNIT VECTORS i, j, k. An impor- tant set of unit vectors are those having the directions of the pos- itive x, y, and z axes of a three dimensional rectangu- Jar coordinate system, and are denoted respectively by i,j, and k (Fig.5). We shall use right-handed rectangular coordinate systems unless otherwise stated. Such a system derives Fig. 5