FRACTURES

Fracture: break in the continuity of bone, usually accompanied by localized tissue response and muscle spasm. Etiology: usually cause by trauma, but can also be pathologic (osteoporosis, multiple myeloma, bone tumor) which weaken the bone structure. Causes: 1. In normal bones, fractures occurs when more stress is placed upon a bone that is able to absorb such as: a. Direct force or crushing force b. Twisting force c. Powerful contraction d. Fatigue and stress 2. Pathologic Decay: bones weakened by disease or tumors and subject to pathologic fractures. e.g.: Bone cancer, osteoporosis

FRACTURES (cont)
Classification of Fractures According to: Displacement:
a. b. Displaced- two ends of the fractured bone are separated Undisplaced-crack in the one may radiate in several direction but the fragments do not separate proximal 3rd /Proximal middle 3rd /Midshaft distal 3rd /Distal Transverse-break runs across the bone Oblique- break runs in slanting direction Spiral-break coils around the bone Linear: 2 fragments Comminuted: 3 or more fragments Closed: skin is intact Open: skin and tissue have been damaged

Anatomical position:
a. b. c.

Direction of the fracture line:

a. b. c.

Number of Fragments:
a. b. a. b.

Condition of the skin overlying the fracture

Specific Type of Fracture

 A fracture with a surface or open wound.

Does not produce a break in the skin.

A fracture in which the bone has been compressed, seen in vertebral fractures.

A fracture, caused by repeated , prolonged or abnormal stress

A pulling away of a fragment of bone by a ligament or tendon and its attachment.

The bone bends without fracturing across completely, the cortex on the concave side usually remaining intact.

A fracture that is straight across the bone, usually caused by a force applied to the site at which fracture occurs.

A fracture with more than one fragments.

A fracture where the fragments are driven into one another.

FEMORAL FRACTURE

FRACTURES (cont)
Signs and Symptoms/Clinical Manifestations: Pain (especially at the time of injury) Tenderness at the site Loss of function Deformity Crepitus (grating sensation either heard or felt as bone ends rub together.) Discoloration Bleeding from an open wound with protrusion of both ends. swelling

FRACTURES (cont)
Diagnostic procedures: X-ray examination reveals break in the continuity of the skin. Therapeutic Interventions:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Traction/Splinting is used to maintain alignment of bone fragments and reduce the fracture until healing occurs. Surgical intervention to align the bone (open reduction), often with plates and screws to hold the fracture in alignment. Manipulation to reduce fracture (closed reduction) Application of cast to maintain alignment and immobilize limb. ( Plaster of Paris or fiberglass) Application of external fixation device when fractures accompany soft tissue injury.

FRACTURES (cont)
a. b. Stages of Bone Healing Formation of Hematoma: blood extravagates into the area between and around the fragments and the bone marrow. Clot begins 24 hours after fracture occurs. Cellular Proliferation: takes place at the fracture site after several days. The combination of periosteal elevation and granulation tissue containing blood vessels , fibroblast and osteoblasts produce a substance called osteoids forming a bridge across the fracture site. Callus Formation: after the following weeks minerals are being deposited in the osteoids formig a large mass of differentiated tissue bridging the fracture called callus. Ossification: final laying down of bone, the stage in which the fracture ends knit together. Consolidation and Remodelling: when consolidation is completed, the excess cells are absorbed. The primary cancellous bone is remodelled, compact bone being formed according to stress pattern. Remodelling continues as bone is formed in relation to its function (Wolffs Law).

c.
d. e.

FRACTURES (cont)
Average Period for Firm Union of Various Bones:
Clavicle: Radius-Ulna Metacarpals: Femur: Fibula: OS calcis: Phalanges: Humerus: Lower 3rd Radius: Tibia: Tarsals: Metatarsals: 3-4 weeks 6-13 weeks 4 weeks 12 weeks 12-14 weeks 8-12 weeks 3 weeks 6 weeks 4 weeks 8-12 weeks 6-8 weeks 5-6 weeks

FRACTURES (cont)
1. 2. 3. 4. Nursing Care of clients with Fractures: Assessment: Age of the patient Ability of the client to move extremity Altered appearance of the injured body part. Neurovascular assessment: soft tissue injury or edema may compromise circulatory or neurologic functioning. 5. Factors precipitating injury. 6. Nutritional status.

FRACTURES (cont)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Nursing Diagnoses: Body image disturbance Constipation Fear Risk for injury Pain Impaired physical mobility Altered role performance Self-care deficit Risk for impaired skin integrity

FRACTURES (cont)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Nursing Interventions: Enhance comfort Ensure adequate oxygenation of tissue Take measures towards restricting the function of the fractured bones. Maintain body mobility while keeping the injured part at rest. Protect against infection in the absence of an intact 1st line of defense. Provide adequate nutrition for healing. Prevent constipation. Promote urinary elimination. Prevent additional trauma to soft tissues. Assist in allaying anxiety. Assist patient to attain optimal level of independence. Help prevent boredom Anticipate underlying complications.

FRACTURES (cont)
1. 2. 3. 4. Complications: Early Complications: Shock (hypotension) DVT (leg pain) Pulmonary embolism( chest pain) Fat embolism ( diaphoresis, dyspnea, pallor) 5. Compartment Syndrome.

FRACTURES (cont)
Compartment Syndrome: an increase in compartment pressure of the limb caused by edema resulting to compromised circulation leading to ischemia (death) to the muscles. Five Cardinal Signs : 1. Pain: unrelieved pain 2. Pallor: pale skin or nailbeds, prolonged blanching 3. Pulselessness: Decrease pulse 4. Paresthesia: Numbness or tingling sensation 5. Paralysis: inability to move fingers or toes

FRACTURES (cont)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Late Complications: Delayed Union Non-Union Mal-Union Avascular Necrosis Heterothropic Ossification/Myositis ossificans

FRACTURES (cont)
Evaluation/Outcomes 1. Reports reduction in pain 2. Maintains neurovascular functioning of the extremities 3. Maintains skin integrity 4. Remains active participant in care without compromising treatment. 5. Avoids complications of mobility. 6. Regains complete mobility and function after healing.

FRACTURE EPONYMS

Musculo-Skeletal Related Injuries

Dislocation: displacement of the bone from its normal joint position to the extent that articulating surfaces loss contact. Causes:
1. 2. 3. Trauma Diseases Congenital condition Burning pain to joint Deformity of the joint Stiffness and loss of joint function Moderate or severe edema around joint To lessen swelling, elevate the affected extremity immediately. Keep it elevated until after dislocation is reduced because manipulation increases swelling. Assess the extremity for signs of neurovascular problems and compartment syndrome. Administer pain medication as per doctors order. Encourage patient to perform light exercise.

Signs and Symptoms:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Nursing Care:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Musculo-Skeletal Related Injuries

Sprain: is an incomplete tearing of joint capsule or ligaments surrounding a joint, which does not disrupt ligament continuity or cause joint instability. Cause: Sudden twisting of joint beyond range or motion. Signs and Symptoms: a. Pain at joint c. dislocation around joint b. Edema around joint d. decrease joint function Nursing Care: 1. To reduce swelling, apply cold treatment (icebag/cold pack) for the first 48 hours. 2. After swelling is controlled, apply warm treatment (warm compress/heat pad). 3. Provide care to patient with extremity in cast or bandage.

Musculo-Skeletal Related Injuries

1.
2. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Strain: injury to a tendon/muscle unit close to the joint it can be acute or chronic. Cause: Over stretching tendons or over using muscles. Signs and Symptoms: Acute strain produces sudden , severe pain at the time of injury which then subside to local tenderness. Swelling occurs rapidly. Chronic strain produces gradual onset stiffness, soreness and tenderness. Nursing Care: For acute strain aplly ice packs for the 1st 48 hours to control swelling. Then apply warm treatment Rest the affected part for 4-6 weeks. For both acute and chronic strains, permit only minimal movemennt of the affected area.

Treatment
Splinting: immobilization of injured limb using rigid materials. Purposes; 1. To avoid further soft tissue injury. 2. Lower the incidence of clincal fat embolism and shock. 3. Facilitates patients transportation and radiographic studies.

CAST
1. Cast: is a temporary immobilization. Types: Plaster of Paris: consist of a roll of bandage stiffened by dextrose or starch ad impregnated with hemihydrates of calcium sulfate. Fiber glass Purposes: To promote healing and early weight bearing. To support , maintain and protect realigned bone To prevent or correct deformity To immobilize the injured limb

2. 1. 2. 3. 4.

CAST
Cast Application: A cast is applied with padding first. Padding materials include the following: a. Stockinette b. Wadding sheet Apply first the stockinette Apply the wadding sheet Fiber glass or plaster cast Instruments for Cast Removal Cast cutter Cast spreader Trimming knife Bandage scissors Plaster shears Contraindications 1. Pregnancy 2. Skin diseases 3. Swelling/edema 4. Open wound 5. Infection

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

CAST
1. 2. 3. 4. Nursing Care; Handle wet cast with palms of hands not fingers Cast should be allowed to air dry. Elevate the cast with one to two pillows during drying. Observe hot spots and musty odor . These are signs and symptoms of infection. 5. Maintain skin integrity 6. Do neurovascular checks: a. Skin color d. mobility b. Skin temperature e. pulse c. Sensation 7. Assess for vascular occlusion 8. Adhesive tape petals reduce irritation at cast edges. 9. Prevent complication of immobility. a. Bedsores d. Renal calculi b. Hypostatic pneumonia e. osteoporosis c. Constipation f. muscular atrophy

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Shoulder Spica: humerus and shoulder joint

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Airplane cast: for humerus and shoulder joint with compound fracture.

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Hanging Cast: for fractured shaft of the humerus

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Functional Cast; for fractured humerus with abduction and adduction

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Short Arm Circular Cast: for wrist and fingers

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Short Arm Posterior Mold: wrist and fingers with compound affectation.

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Long arm Circular Cast: fractured radius or ulna

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Munster Cast/ Fuensters Cast: for fractured radius ulna with callus formation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Long Arm Posterior Mold: for fractured radius or ulna with compound affectation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Minerva Cast: for upper dorsal/ cervical spine affectation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Rizzers Jacket: for scoliosis

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Body Cast: for lower dorsolumbar spine affectation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Double Hip Spica Cast: for Fracture of hip and femur

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

. 1 And 1/2 Hip Spica: Hip and femur with compound affectation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Basket Cast: for severe leg trauma with open wound or inflammation.

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

. Long Leg Posterior Mold: for fractured tibia fibula with compound affectation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Long Leg Circular Cast: for fractured tibia fibula

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Cylindrical Leg cast; for Fractured patella

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Quadrilateral (Ischial Weight Bearing) Cast: for fractured shaft of the femur with callus formation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Cast Brace: for fracture of the femur (distal curve) with flexion and extension.

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Short Leg Circular Cast: ankle and foot fracture

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

PTB (Patellar Tendon Bearing) Cast: for fractured tibiafibula with callus formation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Delvet/Delbit Cast: fracture of tibia or fibula

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Short Leg Posterior Mold: ankle and foot with compound affectation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

. Boot Leg Cast: for hip and femoral fracture

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Internal Rotator Splint: for post hip operation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Collar cast; for cervical affectation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Pantalon Cast: for pelvic bone fracture

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Single Hip Spica: fracture of hip and femur

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Frog Cast: for congenital hip dislocation

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

For hip and femur with compound affection

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Double Hip Spica Mold: cervical affectation with callus formation.

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Cocked-Up Splint for wrist drop

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Night Splint: for post polio

TYPES OF CAST, MOLDS AND INDICATIONS

Single Hip Spica Mold: pelvic fracture with callus formation

TRACTION
Traction: is the act of pulling or drawing which is associated with counter traction. Traction means that pulling force is applied to a part of the body or an extremity while a counter traction pulls in the opposite direction. In straight or running traction counter traction is supplied by the patients body with the bed. Purposes: Prevent/Correct deformities Relieve pain Relieve muscle spasm Reduce/immobilize fractures

TRACTION
Principles: 1. Position should be supine 2. Avoid friction 3. Allow the weight to hang freely 4. Apply traction continuously 5. There should be an adequate counter traction 6. The line of pull should be in line with the deformity Types: 1. Skin Traction: applies pull to an affected body structure by straps attached to the skin surrounding the structure.
Kinds:
a. b. Adhesive skin traction Non-adhesive skin traction

TRACTION
2. Skeletal Traction: is applied to the affected structure by a metal pin or wire inserted into the structure and attached to the traction ropes.
Often used when continuous traction is desired to immobilize, position and align a fractured bone properly during the healing process.

Nursing Care: Skin: Monitor for vascular occlusion Maintain counter traction Maintain weights hanging freely Maintain positioning Provide daily rewrapping Detection of pressure points

TRACTION
Nursing Care: Skeletal: Inspection Dressing Traction apparatus Skin care Prevent complication of bed rest Muscles: Strengthening exercise for upper extremities Strengthening exercise for lower extremities Preparation for crutch walking Vascular Occlusion Paralysis Paresthesia Pulselessness Pallor Pain

TYPES OF TRACTIONS AND INDICATIONS

1. BST (Balance Suspension Traction): for femoral affectation. 2. Boot Leg Cast Traction: for hip and femur affectation. 3. Braun Splint Traction: temporary traction before the BST. 4. Bryants Traction: for femoral fractures and hip injuries (for children below 4 yrs old) 5. Bucks Extension: for fractured femur and hip 6. Dunlops traction: supracondylar fracture of the humerus.

TYPES OF TRACTIONS AND INDICATIONS

7. Halo Femoral: for severe scoliosis 8. Halo Pelvic Girdle: for scoliosis and back pain 9. Head Halter Traction: cervical spine affectation. 10. Pelvic Girdle: for lumbo-sacral affectation, HNP. 11. Russell's Traction: for fracture of femur. 12. Stove In-Chest: for sever chest injury with multiple fracture. 13. 90-90: fracture of the femur.

TYPES OF TRACTION

KURCHNERS WIRE HOLDER

STEINMANN PIN HOLDER

OVERHEAD

For fracture of humerus

BOOT LEG TRACTION

For Hip and Femoral Affection

COTREL
Head Halter
For cervical spine affection

Pelvic Girdle
For lumbo-sacral affection and Herniated Nucleus Pulposus

BRYANTS SKIN TRACTION

for femoral fracture, hip injuries among kids below 3 years old

HALO FEMORAL

For severe scoliosis

HALO PELVIC

For Scoliosis

90 DEGREE

For fracture of femur

STOVE IN CHEST
For severe chest injury with multiple rib fracture.

DUNLOP SKIN TRACTION

For supracondylar fracture of the humerus

HAMMOCK SUSPENSION

KRUTCHEDFIELD TONGS

VINKES CALIPER

TOWERS

TYPES OF BRACES, SPLINTS AND INDICATIONS

1. Banjo Splint: for peripheral nerve injury. 2. Bilateral Leg Brace: for polio 3. Chair Back Brace: lumbo-sacral affectation 4. Cock up splint: for wrist drop 5. Dennis Brown Splint: Clubfoot or Talipes 6. Finger Splint: for fractured digits 7. Forester Brace; lower thoracic and upper lumbar affectation 8. Jewett Brace: for scoliosis T9 and above 9. Milwaukee Brace: lower thoracic and upper lumbar affectation 10. Shantz Collar: cervical affectation 12. Unilateral leg Brace: polio unilateral affectation 13. Yamamoto Brace: severe scoliosis T9 and below.

MILWAUKEE BRACE

For Scoliosis

FORESTER BRACE
Cervico-Thoraco Lumbar Affection Spine

YAMAMOTO

For Scoliosis

TAYLOR BRACE

For upper thoracic

JEWETT BRACE

For Lower Thoracic

CHAIRBACK BRACE
For Lumbo-sacral fracture

CERVICAL COLLAR/ SHUNTZ COLLAR

For cervical affection

PHILADELPHIA

For Cervical affection

BANJO SPLINT
For Peripheral Nerve Injury

LIVELY FINGER SPLINT

For fracture of finger

DENIS BROWNE SPLINT

For Clubfoot or talipes equinovarus

UNILATERAL LEG BRACE

For Polio (one leg affection)

BILATERAL LEG BRACE

For Polio (bilateral leg)

Roger Anderson External Fixator

MOBILITY
Use of Braces and Splints: A. Purposes: Support and protect weakened muscles Prevent and correct anatomic deformities Aid ain controlling voluntary muscle movements Immobilized & protect a diseased or injured joint Provide for improvement of function B. Nursing Care: 1. Keep equipment in good repair (oil joints, replace straps when worn, wash with saddle soap) 2. Provide adequate shoes( keep in good repair, heels low and wide, high top to hold the heel in the shoe). 3. Examine the skin daily for evidence of breakdown at pressure points. 4. Check alignment of braces( leg braces: joint should coincide with body joint; back brace: upright bars in center of the back, brace should grip the pelvis and trochanter firmly, lacing should begin from the bottom). 5. Evaluate clients response to procedure.

MOBILITY
Use of Cane: A. Purposes: improve stability of the client with lower limb disability. Maintain balance Prevent further injury Provide security while developing confidence in ambulating. Relieve pressure on weight bearing joint Assist in increasing speed of ambulation with less fatigue Provide for greater mobility and independence

MOBILITY
B. Nursing Care: 1. Ascertain that the client is able to bear weight bearing on the affected extremity 2. Ensure that the client is able to use the upper extremity opposite the affected lower extremity 3. Measure to determine the length of cane required
a. b. a. b. c. d. Highest point should be approximately level with the greater trochanter Handpiece should allow 30 degrees of flexion at the elbow with the wrist held in extension. Hold in the hand opposite the affected extremity Advance the cane and the unsaffected extremity simultaneously and then the affected leg. Keep cane close to the body When climbing, step up with the unaffected extremity and then place the cane and the affected lower extremity on the step; when descending, reverse the procedure. Leaning the body over the cane Shortening the stride on the affected side Inability to develop a normal walking pattern Persistence of the abnormal gait pattern after the cane is no longer needed.

4. Explain the proper technique in using cane.

5. Observe for incorrect use of cane

a. b. c. d.

6. Observe clients response to procedure

MOBILITY
Crutch Walking: A. Purposes: Support body weight, assist weak muscles, and provide joint stability. Relieve pain. Prevent further injury and provide for improvement of function. Allow for greater independence. Nursing Care: 1. Ensure proper fit of crutches by measuring the distance from the anterior fold of the axilla to a point 15 cm (6 inches) out from the heel. a. Axillary bars must be 5 cm (2 inches) belaw the axillae and should be padded. b. Hand bars should allow almost complete extension of the arm with the elbow flexed about 30 degrees when the client places weight on the hands. c. Rubber crutch tips should be in good condition, about 5.1 to 7.6 cm ( 3-

MOBILITY
2. Assist in use of proper technique, depending on ability to bear weight and to take steps with either one or both of the lower extremities. a. Four point alternate crutch gait Right crutch, left foot, left crutch right foot Equal but partial weight bearing on each limb Slow but stable gait; there are always three points of support on the floor The client must be able to manipulate both extremities and get one foot ahead of the other (e.g. persons with polio, arthritis, cerebral palsy) b. Two point alternate crutch gait Right crutch and left foot simultaneously There are always two points of support on the floor This is a more rapid version of the four point gait and requires more balance and strength (e.g., a bilateral amputee) c. Three-point gait Advance both crutches and the weaker lower extremity simultaneously, then the stronger lower extremity Fairly rapid gait, but requires more balance and strength in the arms and good lower extremity Used when one leg can support the whole body weight and the other cannot take full weight bearing (e.g a client with a fractured hip)

MOBILITY
d. Swing crutch gait d.1 Swing-to-gait Place both crutches forward, lift and swing the body up to the crutches, then place crutches in front of the body and continue There are always two points of support on the floor This technique is indicated for anyone with adequate power in the upper arms. d.2 Swing-through-gait Place both crutches forward, lift and swing the body through the crutches. Then place crutches in front of the body and continue. Very difficult gait, because as the client swings through the crutches it necessitates rolling the pelvis forward and arching the back to get the center of gravity in front of the hips. Indicated for the client who has power in the trunk and upper extremities, excellent balance, self confidence, and a dash of daring (e.g., bilateral amputee, paraplegic with

MOBILITY
e. Tripod crutch gait e.1 Tripod alternate gait Right crutch, left crutch, drag the body and legs forward The client constantly maintains a tripod position: both crutches are held fairly widespread out front while both feet are held together in the back Necessary for the individual who cannot place one extremity ahead of the other ( e.g. persons with flaccid paralysis from poliomyelitis, one with spinal cord injury. e.2 Tripod simultaneous gait Place both crutches forward, drag the body and legs forward Because the tripod must have a large base, the clients body must be inclined forward sufficiently to keep the center of gravity in front of the hips.

MOBILITY
3. Observe for incorrect use of crutches a. Using the body in poor mechanical fashion b. Hiking hips with abduction gait( common in amputees) c. Lifting crutches while still bearing down on them d. Walking on ball of foot with foot turned outward and flexion at hip or knee level e. Hunching shoulders (crutches usually too long) or stooping with shoulders ( crutches usually too short). f. Looking downward while ambulating g. Bearing weight underarms; should be avoided to prevent injury to the nerves in the brachial plexus; damage to these nerves can cause paralysis (crutch palsy). 4. Evaluate clients response to the procedure.

MOBILITY
Use of walker A. Purposes: Maintain balance Provide additional support because of wide area of contact with the floor Allow for some ambulatory independence Nursing Care: 1. Assist in selecting a walker Device should not be used unless the client will never be able to ambulate with a cane or crutches Measure for a walker are the same as for cane The client must have a strong elbow extensor and shoulder depressor and partial strength in the hands and wrist muscles. The client needs maximum support to ensure security and enhance confidence. Device is ordinarily limited to the home because it cannot be used on steps 2. Assist in ambulating with the walker Lift the device off the floor and place forward a short distance, then advance between the walker Two wheeled walkers: raise back legs of the device off the floor, roll walker forward, then advance to it. Four wheeled walkers: push device forward on the floor and then walk to it.

MOBILITY
3. Observe for incorrect use of walker Keeping arms rigid and swinging through to counterbalance the position of the lower extremities Tending to lean forward with abnormal flexion at the hips. Tending to step forward with the unaffected leg and shuffle the affected leg up to the bar. 4. Evaluate clients response.

RELATED TERMS IN ORTHOPAEDIC, DIAGNOSTIC, PROCEDURES AND

SURGERY
Ventriculography: x-ray examination of the ventricular system brain after replacing some of the cerebrospinal fluid with air. Angiography: x-ray of the cerebrovascular tree following the injection of a radio-opaque medium into the spinal arachnoid space. Craniotomy: an incision to the soft and underlying tissues and removal of the part of the skull in order to gain access to brain to reduce a depressed fracture of the skull. Myelography: x-ray examination of the spinal cord after the injection of a radio-opaque medium into the spinal arachnoid. Cranioplasty: repair of the skull either with metal plates or a bone graft. Lumbar Sypathectomy: surgical removal of a portion of a symphatetic nerve ganglion. Open Reduction: the correction through surgical method of fracture in a dislocation by the use of nails, screws, wires, or rods with or without plates.

RELATED TERMS IN ORTHOPAEDIC, DIAGNOSTIC, PROCEDURES AND

SURGERY
Screwing: is used for fixation of bone fragment that are partially threaded. Wiring: internal fixation of fracture by means of wire cup. Bone Graft: a. Autogenous bone graft: graft taken from the patient himself, usually taken from either the tibia, fibula or ilium. b. Femogenous bone graft: graft taken from another human donor, are obtained from non-infected amputated limbs and are strored in deep freeze. Aspiration: removal of fluid on a joint by suction using a syringe and hallow needle under local anesthesia Arthrectomy: removal of loose bodies (knees), removal of a test semi lunar cartilage or removal of loose bodies which are usually osteocartilageous in nature.

RELATED TERMS IN ORTHOPAEDIC, DIAGNOSTIC, PROCEDURES AND

SURGERY

ORTHOPAEDIC, DIAGNOSTIC, PROCEDURES AND SURGERY

ORTHOPAEDIC, DIAGNOSTIC, PROCEDURES AND SURGERY

ORTHOPAEDIC, DIAGNOSTIC, PROCEDURES AND SURGERY

ORTHOPAEDIC, DIAGNOSTIC, PROCEDURES AND SURGERY

ORTHOPAEDIC, DIAGNOSTIC, PROCEDURES AND SURGERY

ORTHOPAEDIC, DIAGNOSTIC, PROCEDURES AND SURGERY