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Paleoenvironments and high-frequency cyclicity from Cenozoic South-East Asian shallow-water carbonates: a case study from the Oligo-Miocene buildups of Malampaya (Offshore Palawan, Philippines)
F. Fournier*, L. Montaggioni, J. Borgomano
Centre de SedimentologiePaleontologie, UMR-CNRS 6019, Dynamique des recifs et des plates-formes carbonatees, case 67, Universite de Provence, 3, place Victor Hugo, F-13331 Marseille cedex 03, France Received 20 June 2003; received in revised form 21 November 2003; accepted 28 November 2003

Abstract The combination of core and cuttings analyses and well-log data from the Late Oligocene Early Miocene carbonate buildup in the Malampaya gas eld (Offshore Palawan, Philippines) allowed the recognition of shelf depositional paleoenvironments and the denition of high-frequency, metre-scale, subtidal cycles, usually bounded by exposure surfaces. This is amongst the rst documentation of short-term platform-top evolution of Oligo-Miocene carbonates in response to high-frequency relative sea-level change described in South-East Asia. During the Late Oligocene, the Malampaya carbonate buildup is interpreted as an isolated platform rimmed by a barrier-reef system that has developed vertically according to the keep-up mode, with no signicant evidence for retardation in reef development during rises in relative sea-level. During the Early Miocene, the isolated platform was affected by more open conditions in its inner part due to the inability of the reef to catch up with relative sea-level rises. Strontium isotope-derived estimations of cycle durations, despite a relatively high degree of uncertainty in their calculation, are consistent with 4th to 5th-order cyclicity (10 1000 ky). q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cycles; Carbonate platforms; Paleoenvironment; Diagenesis; Oligocene; Miocene; South-East Asia

1. Introduction The development of Oligo-Miocene carbonate systems from South-East Asia has been mostly studied from seismic or outcrop data, with special reference to 3rd-order depositional sequences (e.g. Cucci & Clark, 1993; Epting, 1989; Grotsch & Mercadier, 1999; Kusumastuti, Van Rensbergen, & Warren, 2002; Saller & Vijaya, 2002; Sun & Esteban, 1994; Wilson, Bosence, & Limbong, 2000; Wilson, Chambers, Evans, Moss, & Nas, 1999; Wilson & Evans, 2002). In contrast, studies on short-term evolution of shallow-water carbonates in response to 4th or 5th-order relative sea-level uctuations (sensu Goldhammer, Dunn, & Hardie, 1990) are rare, and high-frequency sequences have only been hinted at in a very few cases (Gibbson-Robinson and Soedirdja, 1986; Kusumastuti et al., 2002; Park, Matter, & Tonkin, 1995). In the Early Miocene Batu Raja limestones from the Sunda basin (South-East Sumatra, Indonesia), Park et al.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 33-4911-06178; fax: 33-4911-08523. E-mail address: francois.fournier@newsup.univ-mrs.fr (F. Fournier). 0264-8172/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2003.11.012

(1995) dened wireline log cycles, whose frequency could be compared with 5th-order cyclicity. In addition, these authors evoked the existence of repeated exposure events related to high-frequency cyclicity and emphasized their signicant role on the enhancement of reservoir quality. Repeated hiatuses associated perhaps with subaerial exposures are hinted at in other South-East Asian carbonates of Cenozoic age; some of them could be related to highfrequency cyclicity, e.g. the Early Miocene carbonate platform of the Madura Strait, east Java (Kusumastuti et al., 2002), the Miocene Kais platform, Irian Jaya (Gibbson-Robinson & Soedirdja, 1986) and the Early Miocene Gomantong Limestone, eastern Borneo (Noad, 2001). In most cases, however, the regional development of carbonate reservoirs is thought to be mainly related to 3rdorder sea-level falls and consequent meteoric diagenesis (Sun & Esteban, 1994). Often the effect of 4th to 5th-order cycles on facies and reservoir property distribution has not been considered in detail or perhaps underestimated. Indeed, the very few studies on Oligo-Miocene outcrops

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are generally not sufciently detailed to identify such cycles. Moreover, available core data have generally been too discontinuous to give a good picture of depositional processes. In addition, many basins in the area are subsiding, thus masking the record of such high-frequency cycles. The comprehensive database (i.e. cores, side-wall cores, cuttings, and well-log data) available from the OligoMiocene carbonates of the Malampaya Camago oil and gas eld was used in this report to provide the high-resolution stratigraphic and diagenetic framework required for a more detailed characterization of reservoir ow units (Borgomano, van Konijnenburg, & Jauffred, 2001). In this regard, our study presents new data for understanding the shortterm evolution of South-East Asian Tertiary shallow-water carbonate systems. The objectives of this paper are: (1) to characterize the facies and paleoenvironments of the Malampaya shelf; (2) to document the existence of highfrequency sequences deposited on the inner-shelf during the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene; (3) to identify and quantify some of the parameters that control cyclic deposition (sediment accumulation rate, nutrient supply, water-energy, nature of carbonate producers, periodicity and amplitude of relative sea-level oscillations); and (4) to propose a model of short-term, sedimentologic and diagenetic evolution of the carbonate buildup in response to relative high-frequency sea-level uctuations.

2. Location and geological setting of the Malampaya carbonate buildup The Malampaya Camago oil and gas accumulations are situated within the block SC 38 (Fig. 1), offshore northwest Palawan Island (Philippines) below 850 2000 m of water depth (Grotsch & Mercadier, 1999; Neuhaus et al., 2003). In this area, the presence and overall development of carbonate buildups are mainly controlled by earlier block faulting. The Malampaya carbonate buildup is located in the North Palawan block, along the outer trend of carbonate prospects that formed along a SW NE trending extensional fault zone. The Nido Limestone reservoir has a maximum thickness of 700 m in the area. The Malampaya carbonate buildup developed on the crest of a tilted block (Fig. 2), during the Late Eocene rifting phase of the South-China Sea (Hall, 2002; Holloway, 1982). The break-up event related to this rifting phase was dated by mid-Oligocene magnetic anomaly 11 (Briais, Patriat, & Tapponnier, 1993). The spreading of the South-China Sea led to the southward drifting of the Calamian North Palawan North Borneo micro-continent throughout the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene. During the Late Early Miocene, collision took place between this micro-continent and the accretion wedge of the Paleogene subduction zone of North Cagayan (Schluter, Hinz, & Block, 1996), promoting the obduction of the collision belt on the North

Fig. 1. Depth (in metres subsea) of the top Nido Limestone and well locations, in the Malampaya and Camago gas eld (after Grotsch & Mercadier, 1999) within Block SC 38, offshore western Palawan, Philippines.

Palawan block and ceasing seaoor spreading (Briais et al., 1993). Many carbonate buildups in the area drowned due to the downwarping of the north-western part of the block and the important clastic supply from the uplifted Palawan island (Fulthorpe & Schlanger, 1989). The carbonate buildups of the Block SC 38 are sealed by the Early to Middle Miocene basinal Pagasa shale. The Malampaya buildup was previously studied by Grotsch and Mercadier (1999) on the basis of threedimensional (3D) seismic data and relatively sparse core and side-wall samples from four wells (MA-1 to MA-4). These authors dated the carbonates as Late Eocene to the Early Miocene in age using strontium isotope analyses of bulk-rock samples. The step-like shape of their Sr-isotope curve in well MA-3, located in the buildup ank, resulted from important time-rock gaps (0.5 2 my) in the Nido sedimentary record. The age of the Nido Limestone is also constrained by the nannofossil and planktonic dating of the overlying Pagasa shales (Grotsch & Mercadier, 1999). The nannofossils in the shales provided a NN5 (Langhian) age in well MA-1 and a NN3 (Late Burdigalian) age for MA-2, whereas the planktonic foraminiferal assemblages indicate

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Fig. 2. (a) Regional seismic cross-section showing the structural setting of the Malampaya carbonate buildup, at the crest of a tilted block; (b) cross-section from the 3D seismic reectivity data showing the overall morphology of the carbonate buildup, with location of wells MA-1 and MA-5.

a Burdigalian age in MA-3. During the Early Oligocene, the Malampaya carbonate system prograded southward with buildup aggradation and subsequent backstepping during the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene (Grotsch & Mercadier, 1999). The buildup nally drowned during the Late Early Miocene.

3. Material and methods Since the initial study by Grotsch and Mercadier (1999), the Malampaya carbonate buildup has been penetrated by six additional wells (named MA-5 to MA10). It is covered by a 3D seismic survey that has been porosity-inverted (Neuhaus et al., 2003). The average well spacing is about 500 m. The present study is based on new rock material and uses a different analytical approach than that of Grotsch and Mercadier work. Our work uses a compilation of various subsurface data from all of the available wells and seismic lines combined with petrographical, micropaleontological and geochemical analyses of core and side-wall material from the wells MA-5 and MA-7, drilled in 2000. Well-log data and cutting samples were also taken into account to complete the information in intervals where no core or side-wall samples were available. The total length of cores in MA-5 is 72 m distributed into two main intervals (Fig. 3) and 15 m in MA-7. Thin-sections from core samples were prepared with an average spacing of 0.50 m. Detailed microscopic analysis of thin-sections provided the backbone of this study. Thin-sections were impregnated with a blue-dyed resin and half-stained with an alizarine-red S potassium ferrocyanide solution for identication of carbonate minerals. All thin-sections were point-counted on the basis of 300 points. The abundance of large coral fragments was estimated

from direct macroscopic examination of the core sections. Additional analyses included measurements of carbon, oxygen and strontium isotope ratios and uranium concentrations. All of the analyses were made on selected whole-rock samples. Carbon and oxygen isotope ratios were measured at the University of Erlangen as follows: carbonate powders were reacted with 100% phosphoric acid (density . 1.9) at 75 8C in an on-line carbonate preparation line (Carbo-Kiel-single sample acid bath) connected to a Finnigan Mat 252 mass spectrometer. Results are reported in permil relative to VPDB. Reproducibility was checked by replicate analysis of laboratory standards and is better than ^ 0.02 for d13C and ^ 0.03 for d18O. Sr-isotope measurements were performed at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam. The samples were dissolved in 5N acetic acid and the Sr was separated using a ion exchange column. The Srisotope ratio was measured by a Finnigan MAT 261 mass spectrometer. The reproducibility of measurements is very good with two sigma errors between ^ 6 1026 and ^ 10 1026. Petrographical analysis has allowed the recognition of distinct microfacies that have been interpreted in terms of depositional environments by reference to modern and ancient analogues. The identication of diagenetic features from thin-sections combined with whole-rock d13C and d18O measurements allowed the reconstruction of the diagenetic history of the series. The interpretation of the data in terms of sequence stratigraphy was based nally on the vertical succession of depositional environments and diagenetic sequences in cores. Large benthic foraminiferal biostratigraphy and strontium isotope stratigraphy were used to constrain the stratigraphic framework of the Nido Limestone and to help quantify the duration of sedimentary cycles.

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Fig. 3. Correlation panel of wells MA-7, MA-1 and MA-5, showing the major sedimentary units of the Malampaya buildup, the location of rock data used and the main stable isotope results.

4. Results 4.1. New stratigraphical data on the Nido Limestone The biostratigraphical study of newly collected rock material from wells MA-5 and MA-7 as well as strontium isotope measurements on MA-1 allowed the stratigraphic framework of the Malampaya platform to be claried. The Nido Limestone interval was dated on the basis of benthic foraminiferal stratigraphy and strontium isotope analyses of bulk-rock samples. The benthic foraminiferal stratigraphy was based on the East Indian Letter Classication (Adams, 1970, 1984; Boudagher-Fadel & Banner, 1999). Biostratigraphic and strontium-derived ages are presented in Table 1. The shifts in Sr-isotope ratios are related to major sequence boundaries delimiting 40 130 m thick sedimentary units: MC1 and MC2 for the Late Oligocene, MM1, MM2, MM3 and MM4 for the Early Miocene (Fig. 3). Well correlations are constrained by biostratigraphy, seismic and well-log data. At the base of the Nido Limestone interval, a progradational unit of Rupelian age was dened; the top of this unit corresponds to the lowest exposure surface observed in the Nido Limestone. In well MA-1, strontium ages derived from Oslick, Miller, Feigenson, and Wright (1994) regressions are in

accordance with the biostratigraphy-based ages; however, the age of the MC2 unit remains uncertain since biostratigraphy gives a Lower Te age (Chattian) and Srisotope dating yields ages ranging from the latest Chattian to the earliest Aquitanian. At Eniwetak Atoll, Ludwig, Halley, Simmons, and Peterman (1988) showed that meteoric diagenetic alteration did not signicantly alter the original Miocene to the Pleistocene strontium isotope ratios, because calcite precipitated in soil and fresh-water within the interval was derived from adjacent depositional carbonates. For the Nido Limestone, the very narrow range of variation in strontium-isotope ratios within a given unit and the lack of correlation with the d13C signal (Fig. 3) similarly suggest that there was no signicant alteration of the original strontium-isotope signal during meteoric diagenesis. Later diagenetic alteration of the isotopic signal affecting the series below the Intra-Nido Marker unconformity (top MC2 unit) is believed to be responsible for the relative dispersion of the measurements in this interval. 4.2. Facies analysis and paleoenvironmental interpretations The modal analysis of bioclastic components, the composition of foraminiferal assemblages and the sedimentological features observed in cores and thin-sections allowed four Late Oligocene facies and four Early Miocene

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Table 1 Stratigraphic framework of the Nido Limestone interval based on benthic foraminiferal stratigraphy (Letter Stage Classication) from MA-1 and MA-5 and Srisotope ages obtained in well MA-1 Unit Letter stage age Sr-derived age (my) Min.a MM4 MM3 MM2 MM1 MC2 MC1 MR
a b

Max.a 19.97 21.71 22.47 23.00 24.61

Age errora 0.80 0.77 0.78 0.76 1.24 1.20

Ageb Burdigalian Aquitanian Aquitanian Aquitanian Latest Chattian to earliest Aquitanian Chattian

Lower Tf1 (Burdigalian to Early Langhian) Upper Te Lower Tf1 (Aquitanian to Early Langhian) Upper Te Lower Tf1 (Aquitanian to Early Langhian) Upper TeLower Tf1 at top Undifferentiated Te at base (Chattian to Early Langhian) Undifferentiated Te at top Lower Te (Chattian) at base Lower Te (Chattian) TcTd (Rupelian)

19.90 21.28 22.06 22.48 23.37 26.24

Age errors include measurement errors and errors associated with Oslick et al. (1994) regression, considering a 95% condence interval. Using Oslick et al. (1994) regressions; min. and max. represent, respectively, the minimal and maximal age calculated for the given interval. After Berggren, Kent, Swisher, & Aubry (1995).

facies to be recognized. The bioclastic composition is expressed as a percentage of the whole non-scleractinian biota. These facies are interpreted in terms of depositional environments (Table 2). 4.2.1. Late Oligocene 4.2.1.1. Facies C1a: coralline algal wackestone packstone (Fig. 4a). Description. This facies consists of a coarsegrained, poorly sorted, encrusting coralline algae-rich (50 70%) wackestone to packstone. Other skeletal constituents include benthic foraminifera (15 25%), echinoderms (5 20%) and bryozoans (, 5%). Thick-layered and foliose coralline algal growth-forms are dominant. The foraminiferal assemblage mainly includes arenaceous foraminifera, miliolids, amphisteginids and rare alveolinids. Paleoenvironmental interpretation. The dominance of well preserved thick-layered and foliose coralline algal growth forms in the coralline algal facies indicates a relatively quiet-water environment with stable substrate and low sedimentation rates (Nebelsick & Bassi, 2000). The colonisation of the sediment surface by coralline algae is an important indicator of stabilized bottom substrate (Bosence, 1983a,b). The common presence of miliolids supports the additional interpretation of a relatively protected environment, probably the inner part of a platform. 4.2.1.2. Facies C1b: coralline algal echinoderm wackestone packstone (Fig. 4b). Description. This facies is similar to facies C1a in containing abundant encrusting coralline algae (30 50%) but differs by its higher content of echinoderm debris (20 30%): echinoid spines and plates are dominant and associated with a few ophiuroid ossicles. Other components include benthic foraminifera (20 30%), rare geniculate coralline algae (, 5%) and planktonic foraminifera (, 5%). The benthic foraminiferal assemblage is dominated by hyaline forms (amphisteginids and rotaliids) associated with occasional occurrences of arenaceous foraminifera, miliolids and alveolinids.

Paleoenvironmental interpretation. This facies is also characterised by the low taxonomic diversity of the benthonic foraminiferal fauna and a high micritic mud content. The muddy fabric indicates low energy conditions and the foraminiferal assemblage reects protected inner-shelf afnities. The occurrence of planktonic foraminifera suggests occasional connexions with open marine environments. Holocene echinoid-rich muddy facies have been reported from the deeper and inner parts of the Bahamas Bank (Multer, 1977). The association is also known in the Oligocene lagoonal deposits of the Florida Suwanee carbonate system (Hammes, 1992). This facies coincides with the uranium-richest intervals of the studied cores. Uranium concentrations in carbonates are generally related to oxygen-poor and relatively deep environments (Saller, Dickson, & Matsuda, 1999). Therefore, facies C1b can be interpreted as deposited in a relatively deep and oxygen-decient protected inner-shelf environment, occasionally connected with the open sea. 4.2.1.3. Facies C2: coral coralline algal foraminiferal grainstone (Fig. 4c). Description. This facies is a wellsorted, sand to gravel-sized grainstone dominated by recrystallized rounded coral debris, geniculate and encrusting red algae (40 50%) and benthic foraminifera (30 40%). Other constituents include echinoderm (10 15%), molluscan and bryozoan (, 5%) debris. The grainstone forms 0.2 1.50 m thick beds; the intense bioturbation prevented the identication of sedimentary structures. The taxonomic diversity of the foraminiferal assemblage is very high, dominated by robust and rounded-shaped forms such as alveolinids (Borelis pygmaeus), rotaliids, amphisteginids, miliolids (including Austrotrillina striata) and Sphaerogypsina; heterosteginids, soritids and arenaceous foraminifera are also present, generally in the form of broken specimens. Paleoenvironmental interpretation. The absence of mud is regarded as indicative of moderate to high bottom current

Table 2 A summary of the main facies from the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene of the Malampaya shelf top: sedimentologic features, bioclastic components and paleoenvironmental interpretation

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conditions, an interpretation that is further supported by the abundance of robust benthic foraminifera such as alveolinids (Borelis), rotaliids, large miliolids (Austrotrillina), Sphaerogypsina, amphisteginids. Morever, the Austrotrillina Borelis association has been described by Chaproniere (1975) in the Australian Oligocene as typical of high-energy subseagrass environments in sheltered metahaline conditions. Epiphytic forms as Heterostegina borneensis and the soritids could reect derivation from adjacent seagrass communities. The abundant ne-grained coral debris probably come from a nearby reef rim and/or from innershelf patch reef frameworks. The biotic components and the grainstone texture of the C2 facies therefore could be interpreted as reecting deposition in high-energy sand shoals migrating across a backreef zone colonized by seagrass meadows and possibly patch reefs. However, as suggested by Pomar (2001) grainstone bodies, composed largely of shallow water-derived components, can also be deposited in deeper settings by currents. Nevertheless, the hypothesis of a shallow sand shoal environment is preferentially retained, because of the complete lack of foraminiferal deeper-water markers. 4.2.1.4. Facies C3: coral coralline algal foraminiferal packstone/oatstone (Fig. 4d). Description. This facies is a poorly sorted, coral-rich packstone to oatstone containing numerous benthic foraminifera (30 40%), geniculate and encrusting coralline algae (30 50%). Echinoderm fragments (mainly echinoids) are common (10 30%), and molluscs are occasionally present (, 10%). Coral elements are generally leached and difcult to identify; however, some of them were identied as faviids. The foraminiferal assemblage is similar to that of the facies C2 and is rich in rotaliids (including Neorotalia cf. mecatepecensis), miliolids, alveolinids, heterosteginids (mainly H. borneensis), amphisteginids and arenaceous foraminifera; soritids and lepidocyclinids are more abundant than in C2 while Sphaerogypsina is lacking. Paleoenvironmental interpretation. Soritids and at nummulitids such as H. borneensis are known to be epiphytic organisms living on the leaves of seagrasses. The H. borneensis soritids association was described by Chaproniere (1975) as indicative of seagrass environments in sheltered conditions. Rotaliids and amphisteginids are known to be tolerant to a variety of salinity concentrations; in particular, they are common in modern seagrass environments of relatively high salinities (Sen Gupta, 1999). Moreover, high mud content and very poor grain sorting are common features of seagrass facies. This facies is therefore regarded as reecting deposition within or at the vicinity of seagrass meadows in a protected inner-shelf setting. The common coral debris may have derived from adjacent patch reefs but could also have been produced in situ from isolated Porites colonies that are known to grow in seagrass environments (Brasier, 1975). Seagrass environments in inner platforms from Indo-Pacic region have been

reported at water depths lower than 15 m (Brasier, 1975; Chaproniere, 1975). 4.2.2. Early Miocene 4.2.2.1. Facies M1: echinoderm coralline algal wackestone packstone (Fig. 4e). Description. This facies is a very ne to medium-grained, wackestone/packstone, dominated by small echinoderm (30 80%) and coralline algal fragments (15 50%). Benthic foraminifera (, 30%), bryozoans (, 5%) and planktonic foraminifera (, 5%) are the main minor components. Most of the echinoderm debris consists of ophiuroid ossicle fragments. The foraminiferal assemblage is characterized by frequent planktonic foraminifera and small benthic foraminifera (Bolivina). Large benthic foraminifera such as Miogypsinoides, heterosteginids, lepidocyclinids and amphisteginids are occasional components. Paleoenvironmental interpretation. The relatively high planktonic foraminiferal content and the common presence of small benthic foraminifera such as Bolivina are indicative of relatively open and/or deep conditions. In modern and ancient environments, the occurrence of dense populations of ophiuroids implies the combination of three conditions (Aronson et al., 1997): low skeleton-crushing predation, low rates of sediment resuspension and high ux of particulate organic matter. The scarcity of corals and reef-dwelling foraminifera suggest deposition in a non-reefal environment. Facies M1 can be interpreted as deposited on a relatively open shelf devoid of true reefal environments, in moderately deep waters. The lack of reliable water-depth markers makes estimates of paleobathymetry difcult. 4.2.2.2. Facies M2a: coralline algal foraminiferal echinoderms packstone (Fig. 4f). Description. This facies is a poorly sorted packstone, enriched in coralline algal fragments (20 50%), benthic foraminifera (20 50%) and echinoderm debris represented by echinoids (15 30%) and few ophiuroids. Other components such as bryozoans, molluscs and planktonic foraminifera are generally rare or lacking. The foraminiferal assemblage is dominated by arenaceous forms and miliolids. Small benthic foraminifera such as Bolivina and diverse discorbids are present along with lepidocyclinids. Paleoenvironmental interpretation. This facies contains a relatively high echinoderm content similar to that observed in facies M1. However, benthic foraminifera are more abundant, especially the arenaceous forms. In modern reefs, arenaceous foraminifera are mostly abundant in the deeper parts of inner platforms (Hallock & Glenn, 1986; Montaggioni, 1981). The abundance of miliolids is additionally indicative of a protected inner-shelf environment (Hallock & Glenn, 1986). The facies M2a is inferred to have deposited in a relatively protected inner-shelf environment. The abundance of arenaceous foraminifera

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and miliolids indicates water-depths greater than 20 m (Montaggioni, 1981). 4.2.2.3. Facies M2b: echinoderm coralline algal foraminiferal packstone (Fig. 4g). Description. This facies is a poorly sorted packstone, dominated by echinoid and ophiuroid debris (40 60%), coralline algal fragments (20 30%) and benthic foraminifers (20 30%). Coral debris is common in the form of gravels. The M2b facies is characterized by the dominance of arenaceous foraminifera and miliolids; few planktonic foraminifera are present. Paleoenvironmental interpretation. The facies is similar to facies M2a but contains a higher content in echinoderm debris. The presence of few planktonic and small benthic foraminifera such as Bolivina indicate that marine circulation exchanges with the open sea may have occurred, but to a lesser extent compared to facies M1. The M2b facies is believed to have been deposited in a deep and moderately open innershelf environment at water-depth greater than 20 m. 4.2.2.4. Facies M3: coral coralline algal foraminiferal packstone-oatstone (Fig. 4h). Description. This facies is a poorly sorted packstone to oatstone rich in coral fragments, encrusting and articulate coralline algae and benthic foraminifera. The foraminiferal assemblage is dominated by porcelaneous benthic foraminifera (mainly soritids and miliolids) and arenaceous foraminifera. Hyaline forms such as amphisteginids, miogypsinids (Miogypsina and Miogypsinoides) and lepidocyclinids are of common occurrence. Paleoenvironmental interpretation. The prevalence of porcelaneous foraminifera strongly suggests deposition in a protected inner-shelf environment (Hallock & Glenn, 1986) while the abundance of epiphytic forms such as soritids is indicative of deposition at the proximity of shallow-water seagrass meadows. Coral fragments could have derived from adjacent patch reefs. The M3 facies is therefore thought to have been deposited in a very shallow and protected inner-shelf environment colonized by seagrass meadows and patch reefs, at water depths lower than 15 m. One of the most conspicuous features regarding the nature of the carbonate producers at Malampaya is the great scarcity of the green algae Halimeda in the entire Late OligoceneEarly Miocene interval. In modern warm sea environments, Halimeda is known to be widespread, preferentially developing in nutrient-rich waters (Davies & Marshall, 1985; Drew & Abel, 1985) and tends to compete spatially with scleractinian corals (Littler & Littler, 1985). High sedimentation rates are known to be a limiting factor for the R

development of Halimeda, a factor that does not play a major role in the Malampaya shelf (see Section 5.5). A relatively low-nutrient environment may be a possible explanation for the lack of Halimeda during the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene. However, the effect of diverse chemical, physical and biological disturbances on the development of Halimeda is not yet well understood (Mankiewicz, 1988). 4.3. Diagenesis The analysis of diagenetic features, combined with measurements of carbon isotope ratios led to an interpretation of the diagenetic environments and a delineation of a diagenetic sequence The striking feature of the diagenetic history of the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene limestones from Malampaya is the strong meteoric overprinting that affected the whole interval. Repeated exposure of the inner platform carbonates is evidenced by both the recurrent paleosols observed in cores and successive 13C-depleted intervals. 4.3.1. Diagenetic environments 4.3.1.1. Early marine diagenesis. Partial micritization of bioclasts is the most common feature of early marine diagenesis in the Malampaya inner-shelf. Micritization has preferentially affected red algae and porcelaneous benthonic foraminifera. Highly micritized bioclasts often exhibit a peloid-like appearance and are therefore difcult to identify. Micritization is a common process in shallow-water environments and has been interpreted to result from boring by microorganisms (Bathurst, 1975; MacIntyre, Prufert-Bebout, & Reid, 2000; Reid & MacIntyre, 2000). Early marine cements are poorly developed in inner-shelf environments and mainly occur in the form of thin isopachous calcite rims (Fig. 5a). They are generally associated with high-energy facies, particularly the Late Oligocene C2 grainstone facies. 4.3.1.2. Meteoric vadose diagenesis. The effect of meteoric vadose diagenesis is mostly inferred from the strong leaching of bioclasts and matrix and by the development of paleosols. Aragonite skeletal elements are dissolved or recrystallized. Pedogenic features are particularly frequent in cores penetrating both Late Oligocene and Early Miocene deposits. They can be classied in terms of soil maturity, with an increasing degree of maturity (Wright, 1994) expressed sequentially as mottles, alveolar septal structures (Fig. 5f h), massive micrite layers (Fig. 5e), pisoids (Fig. 5d), peloids (Fig. 5h) and micritic mottles (Fig. 5e), and 2 3 m thick

Fig. 4. Late Oligocene and Early Miocene microfacies from the Malampaya shelf (well MA-5). Scale bar 1 mm. (a) Coralline algal crusts (facies C1a). (b) Coralline algalechinoderm packstone (facies C1b). (c) Alveolinid-rich grainstone (facies C2). (d) Coralcoralline algal foraminiferal packstone (facies C3) with numerous rotaliid foraminifera. (e) Echinoderm coralline algal packstone (facies M1). (f) Coralline algalforaminiferal-echinoderm packstone (facies M2a). (g) Echinodermcoralline algalforaminiferal packstone (facies M2b); the micritic matrix is partially neomorphosed into microsparite. (h) Coralline algalforaminiferal packstone (facies M3) showing sections of soritid foraminifera. ech, Echinoderm; ca, coralline algae; pf, planktonic foraminifera; ar, arenaceous foraminifera; sor, soritid; mil, miliolid; b, alveolinid (Borelis).

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brecciated pisolithic horizons. The brecciated pisolithic horizons are generally rmly cemented by coarse-grained sparry calcite and represent very tight beds. Pisoids and brecciated pisolithic horizons have been encountered only in the Early Miocene. In a general way paleosols are much more mature and thicker in the Early Miocene than in the Late Oligocene cycles. The values of stable isotope ratios measured on bulk-rock samples range from 2 1.03 to 2 6.71 PDB for carbon and from 2 5.74 to 2 8.38 PDB for oxygen. The base of the meteoric vadose zones is generally associated with a strong shift in the values of carbon isotope ratios that reach up to 1 PDB downward. Fig. 5b h shows various features of a calcrete prole from the MA-7 core. The calcrete layer forms a brownish crust topped by a very irregular surface. The observed features are from base to top: coated pisoids, dark cemented layer rich in mottled structures and small-sized glaebules, massive structureless micrite layer, peloid and interval rich in alveolar septal structures. The whole rock stable isotope ratio measurements provide highly negative values: 2 6.71 PDB for carbon and 2 7.92 PDB for oxygen. Subaerial exposure surfaces were recognised on the basis of the following features occurring below the surface: sharp negative downward shifts of d13C, presence of pedogenic structures (alveolar septal structures, mottled structures, glaebules, pisoids) and intense leaching of bioclasts. The small interval range between the subaerial exposure surfaces (3 8 m) suggests that the Malampaya platform top has been subjected to repeated exposures. Negative downward shifts of d18O are not systematically observed below exposure surfaces. 4.3.1.3. Meteoric phreatic and early burial diagenesis. The precipitation of non-ferroan drusy calcite spars is the main cause of porosity reduction in the inner-shelf carbonates from Malampaya. They postdate the formation of micrite envelopes and may represent successive phases of meteoric diagenesis related to the repeated exposure events. Drusy calcite cements have been reported from meteoric phreatic as well as shallow burial environments. Aragonitic bioclasts are commonly replaced by non-ferroan mosaic calcite spars. Leaching of bioclasts is a common feature of meteoric phreatic diagenesis in Malampaya. In the grainstone facies C2, the drusy cements are generally better developed in the intergranular space than within the moulds derived from solution of skeletal particles (see Figs. 4c and 5a). This suggests that the dissolution of bioclasts occurred near

contemporaneously with the precipitation of drusy cements (Tucker & Wright, 1990; Wilson & Evans, 2002). The values of stable isotope ratios in intervals affected by both marine and meteoric phreatic diagenesis range from 1.35 to 2 1.18 PDB for carbon and from 2 5.66 to 2 6.96 PDB for oxygen. These intervals generally exhibit a regular trend in carbon isotope composition without noticeable shifts in values (see Fig. 7, interval 3327 3338 m). 4.3.1.4. Late burial diagenesis. Matrix neomorphosis is a very common event affecting the whole Nido interval: the micritic matrix is generally transformed into microsparite and occasionally into mosaic spar. Stylolites and microfractures are commonly observed in the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene cores. Fractures can be enlarged during late burial leaching. Dolomitization was not observed in the platform top of the Malampaya Late Oligocene Early Miocene carbonates. 4.3.2. Diagenetic sequences All the diagenetic sequences begin with early marine diagenetic features. As a consequence of the repeated subaerial exposure pattern of the Malampaya top-shelf, the whole Late Oligocene Early Miocene interval has been affected by meteoric diagenesis. Two distinct types of diagenetic sequences occur. The early marine stage (1) can be present in both types of sequence. 4.3.2.1. A. Diagenetic sequence from meteoric vadose zones. (1) Micritization and/or rim cement precipitation (mostly in high-energy depositional settings) during the early marine diagenetic stage. (2) Strong leaching of bioclasts and matrix, formation of vugs and/or development of paleosoils during earlier meteoric vadose diagenetic stage. (3) Moderate leaching and partial to complete occlusion of pores by drusy calcite probably during later meteoric phreatic phases. (4) Matrix neomorphosis, stylolitization and microfracturing during burial. Stages 3 and 4 could have been partly coeval. 4.3.2.2. B. Exclusive meteoric phreatic diagenetic sequence. (1) Micritization and/or rim cement precipitation (mostly in high-energy setting) during early marine diagenetic stage. (2) Moderate leaching and partial to complete occlusion of pores by drusy calcite during successive meteoric phreatic phases. (3) Matrix neomorphosis, stylolitization and Q

Fig. 5. Meteoric diagenetic features from the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene limestones of the Malampaya shelf. (a) Foraminifer-rich grainstone showing intense leaching of miliolid foraminifera (mil) and drusy calcite cementation (dc) occluding primary intergranular pores (drusy calcite cements are more developed in the intergranular space than in the biomoulds); a leached mollusk fragment (mol) is recognizable by its residual micrite envelope; (Late Oligocene, MA-5), scale bar 1 mm. (b) View of a cored interval (3202.453202.13 m) from well MA-7, Early Miocene. (c) Details of a caliche prole; note the dark colour of the calcrete crust. (d) Coated pisoids (pis), scale bar 1 mm. (e) Bottom: calcrete mottles (mot) and glaebules (gl); the inter-mottle space is occluded by drusy calcite cements; top: massive, structureless calcrete crust, scale bar 1 mm. (f) Alveolar septal structures (alv); the inter-septal space is partially lled by drusy calcite cements, scale bar 1 mm. (g) Details of an alveolar septal structure showing the good preservation of needle calcite needles and local partial recrystallization into smaller micrite-sized crystals, scale bar 50 mm. (h) Complex network of alveolar septal structures (alv), between peloids (pel); the inter-septal space is partially lled by drusy calcite cements, scale bar 1 mm.

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microfracturing during burial. Maximum drusy cementation is often observed just below the water table. 5. Discussion 5.1. High-frequency sedimentary cycles Based on the vertical succession of facies and diagenetic features, the Late Oligocene Early Miocene interval can be subdivided into 3 10 m thick depositional cycles (Figs. 6 and 7). These high-frequency cycles (or parasequences) are considered to be the smallest set of genetically related facies formed during a single sea-level cycle. Some of these cycles are bounded by unconformities that are, in most cases, exposure surfaces. In this case, the term high-frequency sequence is applicable (Lehrmann & Goldhammer, 1999; Van Wagoner et al., 1988). Such sequences are usually capped by exposure surfaces commonly associated with paleosols. Typical intertidal or supratidal features that locally occur in the Indo-Pacic recent inner-reef environments (Coudray & Montaggioni, 1986; Defarge & Trichet, 1990; Montaggioni & Hoang, 1988), such as early geotropic cementation, beach-rock with associated fenestrae and microbial laminations, were never observed. In addition, the subtidal nature of the cycles is identied by the following features: (1) the cycles generally exhibit a coarsening-upward trend that is a classic feature of subtidal

cycles (Osleger, 1991); (2) no sharp change is observed in the uppermost part of the cycles that could represent a subtidal intertidal transition; (3) the relative high taxonomic diversity of organisms found throughout the whole section is an additional attribute of upper subtidal environments. Three main mechanisms are generally proposed to explain the generation of metre-scale carbonate cycles: autocyclicity (Ginsburg, 1971), episodic tectonism (Cisne, 1986) and sea-level oscillations related to Milankovitch astronomical rhythms (Goldhammer, Dunn, & Hardie, 1987; Koerschner & Read, 1989). The presence of welldeveloped exposure surfaces suggesting prolonged exposures, associated with several metres-thick meteoric vadose zones implies a relative sea-level fall and therefore excludes the possibility of an autocyclic model. Episodic tectonic events and/or eustatic oscillations more satisfactorily explain the prolonged exposure periods, followed by platform ooding at high-frequency scales. Figs. 8 and 9 present conceptual subtidal cycles of Late Oligocene and Early Miocene age, recorded in inner-shelf areas. 5.1.1. Late Oligocene cycles (Fig. 8) These display the following features: (1) gradual upward replacement of coralline algal facies C1a or coralline algalechinoderm facies C1b by coral

Fig. 6. Simplied core log section, biotic zonation, diagenetic features, geochemical results and sequence interpretation of two Late Oligocene cores (in unit MC1) from the well MA-5.

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Fig. 7. Simplied core log section, biotic zonation, diagenetic features, geochemical results and sequence interpretation of an Early Miocene cored interval from the well MA-5. The base of unit MM3 is characterized by a water deepening event as evidenced by the nature of biological associations, and the strong shift in C-isotope values in relation to a change of cycle type (exposure-bounded cycles or not).

coralline algalforaminiferal packstone facies C3. The grainstone facies C2 is generally interbedded between C1a (or C1b) and C3 or within the seagrass facies C3; (2) upward-increase in the amount of framework-derived elements (corals) and coarsening grain texture upward; (3) 13C-depleted values and occurrences of scattered pedogenic structures indicative of exposure events; most of the Late Oligocene sequences observed in cores are capped by an exposure surface. The hypothesis of a permanent coral reef rim or other form of barrier surrounding the inner-platform area is supported by the general occurrence of relatively protected environments. The presence of a reefal barrier is also inferred from the facies types described in the Late Oligocene interval from the Malampaya shelf top, the abundance of scleractinian remains, the composition of foraminiferal assemblages and, nally, by the overall morphology of the buildup as observed from the seismic data. However, no true reef frameworks have been drilled to date. A keep-up reef barrier (i.e. coral

growth having kept pace with relative sea-level) and a catchup inner-platform (i.e. deposition having caught up with relative sea-level rise) are inferred for the Late Oligocene time span. The deepening-upward hemi-cycles generally are limited in thickness and correspond to an empty bucket stage in the sense of Schlager (1981), punctuated by occasional low oxygen conditions as suggested by the higher uranium content near the base of the cycles (Fig. 6, at 3633.50 and 3630.00 m). The development of shallowing-up stages during sea-level highstands is enhanced by relatively high sediment accumulation rates that are considered to be controlled by carbonate production in seagrass beds and, possibly, from mid-shelf patch reefs. Seagrass environments are known to shelter dense populations of carbonate producers and to trap great quantities of derived particles (Brasier, 1975). The subtidal nature of all of the facies encountered indicates that accommodation space has not been completely lled up during the relative sea-level highstands; the exposure surfaces that truncate subtidal deposits at the top of the cycles without intervening intertidal

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Fig. 8. Conceptual model of the Late Oligocene high-frequency cycles from the Malampaya inner-shelf (example of an exposure-capped cycle). (A) Model describing the idealized cycle controlled by sea-level uctuations (the effect of sediment compaction is not considered in this model). (B) Growth model of the Malampaya buildup in response to short-term, relative sea-level uctuations.

or subtidal stage suggests a rapid relative sea-level drop. During the lowstands of relative sea-level, carbonates deposited at the shelf top were submitted to intense leaching, cementation and pedogenesis during subaerial exposure. It is noteworthy that possible accumulation of sediment may have

occurred inter- to supratidally but could have been removed by erosion during the stage of subaerial exposure or during the subsequent marine transgression. Subsequent sea-level rise has resulted in the inundation of the platform once more and thus favoured the deposition of subtidal material.

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Fig. 9. Conceptual model of the Early Miocene high-frequency cycles from the Malampaya inner-shelf (case of an exposure-capped cycle). (A) Model describing the idealized cycle controlled by sea-level uctuations (the effect of sediment compaction is not considered in this model). (B) Growth model of the Malampaya buildup in response to short-term relative sea-level uctuations.

5.1.2. Early Miocene cycles (Fig. 9) These cycles are characterized by the following features: (1) gradual upward replacement of echinoderm and coralline algal facies M1, by coralline algal

echinoderm-foraminiferal facies M2a and M2b, and by coral coralline algal foraminiferal facies M3 successively; (2) increasing content of framework-derived elements (corals) and grain coarsening from base to top;

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(3) common occurrence of pedogenic structures and/or highly negative carbon isotope ratios at the top of the sequences, indicating exposure events. The Early Miocene sequences are not systematically overlain by exposure surfaces; the non-exposed sequences only exhibit a M1 M2 facies succession and the seagrassrelated facies M3 is lacking. The occurrence of an Early Miocene coral reef barrier remains unclear in Malampaya. The facies described on the shelf top indicate relatively shallow water with open marine environments at the base of the sequence (deposition of facies M1). This basal facies is interpreted as deposited in a transgressive system tract or an early highstand system tract. More restricted conditions seem to have occurred during deposition of the upper part of the M1 facies. These conditions were enhanced when the M2 and M3 facies were deposited. The establishment of more sheltered conditions could be related either to the development of a reef barrier or sand shoals at the shelf margin or to local variations in bottom topography. However, the maximum abundance of scleractinians that is close to the top of sequence, strongly suggests that a reef barrier and/or reef patches grew coevally with the later part of the HST. The complete cycles (including the M1 M2 M3 intervals) have been generally exposed at their tops. Similar to the Late Oligocene deposits, the sediments may not have aggraded to sea-level. The exposure surface is consequent upon a rapid sea-level drop, mostly characterized by the development of 1 5 m thick paleosoils, intense weathering of subtidal inner-shelf carbonates and the partial occlusion of pores by low-magnesian drusy calcite. In the cycles devoid of subaerial signatures, the lowstand or stillstand deposits cannot be distinguished from the highstand deposits and are generally represented by the coralline algal foraminiferal-echinoderm facies M2b. In this case, there is no evidence of sea-level drop. At the top of the cycle, the sequence boundary is marked by a sudden change in depositional environments recorded by the recurrence of the M1 facies. 5.2. Subtidal nature of the cycles Antecedent topography features, combined with waterenergy factors, probably played a key-role in the control of sediment deposition. Three scenarios can be proposed to support the apparent absence of inter- or supratidal deposits in the upper parts of the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene cycles of the Malamapaya buildups. (1) The deposition of purely subtidal facies might result from the existence of an energy threshold that has prevented the sediment to aggrade above this limit and, consequently, prevented the total inll of the available accommodation space (Osleger, 1991). The subtidal nature of high-frequency cycles from Malampaya therefore could reect current control on the transport

and deposition of carbonate particles, as suggested by Grotsch and Mercadier (1999). These authors pointed out that the western margin of the buildup had been subjected to strong currents and documented the existence of prevailing winds from the North-East sector. Important offbank transport from the buildup top to the leeward ank and the subsequent formation of progradational lobes have been advocated by these authors for the Oligocene interval. (2) The absence of inter- and supratidal structures at the top of cycles could have resulted from a fast sea-level drop that did not allow beach-rocks or microbial mats to develop. (3) The third alternative is that tidal deposits may have been removed by subaerial erosion during the phase of platform exposition and/or by marine erosion during the subsequent phase of ooding. 5.3. High-frequency cycle stacking pattern and recognition of composite depositional sequences in the Early Miocene interval Through analysis of the vertical cycle succession in the Early Miocene interval, the high-frequency cycles have been grouped into composite depositional sequences, correlatable from well to well, within the inner-platform areas. The composite depositional sequences are composed of at least three high-frequency cycles and are bounded by exposure surfaces. These sequences are dened by sharp changes in facies and cycle types: their lower parts are composed of non-exposed cycles, and comprise the M1 M2 facies succession only. A marked rise in relative sea-level is thought to be responsible for the sharp changes in facies and cycle type. Fig. 7 shows the base of the sequence MM3-1, at 3338 m deep, that is also the base of unit MM3. Sedimentary units group up to three sequences. The unit boundaries are clearly sequence boundaries and correspond to major time-rock gaps in the sedimentary record, as evidenced by Sr-isotope measurements (Fig. 3). Fig. 10 presents the cycle thickness evolution and the vertical facies distribution in the upper part of well Ma-5 (upper unit MM2 and unit MM3). These plots show that the bases of sequences can display sharp changes in cycle thickness. However, there is no clear thinning upward evolution and no correlation between cycle thickness, the proportion of shallower facies (M3) versus deeper facies (M1, M2a, M2b) in the cycle and the type of sequence top (occurrence of an exposure surface or not). The lack of correlation between cycle thickness and accommodation in subtidal cycles has been published previously by Boss and Rasmunssen (1995). Since sediments have not aggraded up to sea-level. Variations in cycle thickness are therefore more likely to reect variations in the rate of carbonate accumulation rather than variations in the accommodation space driven by eustacy.

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Fig. 10. Plot of cycle thickness and facies proportion, from the upper unit MM2 to the top of unit MM3, in the well Ma-5. Bases of composite sequences are characterized by high-frequency cycles not bounded by an exposure surface: they also correspond to jumps in cycle thickness. However, there is no clear correlation between cycle thickness, the nature of the sequence boundary (occurrence of an exposure surface or not) and the proportion of shallower facies (M3) versus deeper facies (M1, M2a, M2b) in the cycle.

5.4. Period and amplitude of the high-frequency relative sea-level cycles (Table 3) Strontium-derived ages were calculated from the MA-1 well where there is a paucity of paleontologic control, in particular in the Early Miocene interval. Duration of stratigraphic intervals was estimated for units MC2, MM1, MM2 and MM3 (Table 1) on the basis of Sr-isotope ratios within the given interval using the regressions of Oslick et al. (1994). The power of resolution of the 87Sr/86Sr regressions is relatively low (^ 640 ky for the Early Miocene and ^ 1080 ky for the Late Oligocene with a 95% condence interval) and consequently only permits rough estimates of time durations. The duration of the Early Miocene sedimentary units using Oslick et al. (1994) regressions at site 747A ranges from 406 ^ 1570 to 521 ^ 1526 ky. The age errors take into account the internal error on 87Sr/86Sr measurements and the error associated with Oslick et al. (1994) regressions. By dividing the maximum calculated duration of the unit by the number of high-frequency sequences, the cycle periods were estimated as averaging 35 ^ 102 to 48 ^ 177 ky. In spite of the large range of uncertainty of these estimations, the averages are compatible with Milankovitch frequency bands. Orbital forcing is now known to be important in dictating climate changes during the last 60 my (Palike & Shackleton, 2000). The importance of eccentricity and obliquity cycles has also been demonstrated for the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene (Zachos, Shackleton, Reve naugh, Palike, & Flower, 2001). Nonetheless, episodic tectonic control of these cycles cannot be ruled out. Moreover, some cycles may not have been recorded, in particular during short-term lowstands. This could result in

minimizing the number of cycles per unit, thus leading to an overestimation of the cycle period. The relative scatter of Sr isotopic ratios in the Late Oligocene below the intra-Nido marker unconformity, in particular, makes the duration of the composite sequence difcult to determine. In this regard, the duration of 1235 ^ 2493 ky obtained for MC2 by considering the maximal range of Sr-ages calculated for this interval, is probably overestimated. Due to the high uncertainty in paleo-water-depths estimations in the basal facies (M1, C1a and C1b), amplitudes of relative sea-level cycles are difcult to evaluate. For the Late Oligocene, the maximal cycle thickness of 10 m is suggested as a minimum value for the relative sea-level cycle amplitude. For the Early Miocene, the deepest facies (M1 or M2a b) was probably deposited in water-depth greater than 20 m, thus indicating a relative sea-level cycle amplitude greater than 20 m. 5.5. Rates of accumulation Considering the mid-point value of unit durations, accumulation rates are estimated as averaging 0.10 0.19 m/ky for the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene (Table 3). In Neogene carbonates from South-East Asia, calculated accumulation rates range from 0.3 to 1 m/ky (Wilson, 2002). For Holocene lagoons, a wide range of values is in evidence. For example, in the Mayotte lagoon (Western Indian Ocean), sedimentation rates vary from 0.12 to 4.39 m/ky (Zinke, Reijmer, & Thomassin, 2003). In the shallowing-upward cycles of Davies lagoon (Eastern Australia), rates range from 1.4 to 3.4 m/ky (Tudhope, 1989).

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Table 3 Ranges of sedimentary unit durations, cycle periods and accumulation rates for units MC2, MM1, MM2 and MM3 in well MA-5 Unit Number of cycles Calculated deposition ime of units using Oslick et al. (1994) regressions (ky) 430 ^ 1540a 410 ^ 1570a 520 ^ 1520a 1240 ^ 2490a Duration of cycles (ky) Average cycle thickness (m) Average accumulation rate (m/ky)

MM3 MM2 MM1 MC2

a b c

9 10 15 14

48 ^ 177a 41 ^ 157a 35 ^ 102a 88 ^ 178a

5.50 4.00 5.30 8.50

0.02b 0.02b 0.04b 0.003b

0.11c 0.1c 0.15c 0.1c

Age errors include measurement errors and errors associated with Oslick et al. (1994) regression, considering a 95% condence interval. Value calculated using the maximal expected value of cycle duration. Value calculated using the average expected value of cycle duration.

Similar ranges of accumulation rates are given for lagoonal environments in different locations: 0.65 m/ky in Pacic lagoon atolls (Yamano, Kayanne, Matsuda, & Tsuji, 2002), 0.5 0.6 m/ky in Belize atoll lagoons (Gischler, 2003), 0.7 2.1 m/ky in the Great Barrier Reef (Smith, Frankel, & Jell, 1998). In the Malampaya inner-shelf, changes in carbonate producers from the base to the top of sequence suggest changes in production/accumulation rates during a given cycle. The basal transgressive echinoderm coralline algal facies is probably related to lower production/ accumulation rates than the sequence top seagrass facies dominated by benthic foraminifera, corals and coralline algae. Indeed, in the modern reef environments, the respective potential carbonate production of these organisms is as follows: up to 9000 g m22 yr21 for corals (Heiss, 1995), up to 3300 g m22 yr21 for coralline algae (Chisholm, 2000), up to 900 g m22 yr21 for benthic foraminifers (Harney, Hallock, Fletcher, & Richmond, 1999). Very few studies are available concerning the potential carbonate production by echinoderms. For the echinoid genus Diadema, according to the weight and the age of adults, carbonate production rates can be estimated to about 10 g yr21 per individual (Bauer, 1976), their density averaging commonly 4 5 individuals per m2 in modern reef environments (Peyrot-Clausade, pers. comm.). Values of 40 50 g yr21 m22 can be considered reasonable estimates for potential carbonate production of Diadema. Although such rates are probably strongly dependent on echinoderm taxa, echinoderm coralline algal dominated facies are inferred to have lower potential carbonate production than that of the coral foraminiferal coralline algal facies. These accumulation rates may be affected: (1) by the relatively low resolution of Sr-isotope stratigraphy that biases an estimation of cycle durations; and (2) by a period of cycle formation that does not coincide with the period of active sedimentation. For example, cycle durations include the duration of exposure during sea-level lowstands. Additionally, Grotsch and Mercadier (1999) suggested that a large proportion of the sediment produced in the platform top was probably exported basinward and deposited in the form of leeward progradational wedges. In brief, the mean rates obtained from cycles are likely to

underestimate the actual accumulation rates during the interval of active sedimentation. 5.6. Comparison with ancient and modern analogues The Upper Oligocene Malampaya sequence differs from that of the Lower Miocene through the apparent absence of attributes characterizing deposition in an open innerplatform during sea-level transgressive and early highstand stages. In modern reef environments, sequences related to both stages are present and many authors have dened the timing and development patterns during postglacial time (last 23,000 yr). For example, Tudhope (1989) described Holocene shallowing-upward sedimentation in the Davies Reef lagoon (Great Barrier Reef, Australia), as partly subject to open marine conditions at the base (7500 yr BP) and followed by restricted lagoonal sedimentation afterwards. The high-energy window evidenced at the base of the sequence was interpreted as resulting from a rapid sealevel rise that outstripped the capacity of the reef to catch-up (Hopley, 1984). The onset of sheltered innerplatform conditions occurred as soon as the open circulation window was closed by barrier reef accretion. Such a scenario can be applied to the upward M1 M2 facies transition from open to protected inner-shelf environments. The starting growth phase of the outer reef rim may have been postponed due to a variety of environmental constraints. Such a retardation in reef initiation was also reported from the Holocene fringing reefs in New Caledonia (Cabioch, Montaggioni, & Faure, 1995). Similar to modern shallow-water carbonate environments, the differences in the depositional patterns between the Malampaya Late Oligocene and Early Miocene sequences might reect differences in water quality and conditions of larval recruitment (Cabioch, Camoin, & Montaggioni, 1999; Montaggioni, 2000). But, the open platform stage in the Early Miocene cycles could have resulted from faster changes in relative sea-level rises, possibly in conjunction with episodic tectonic events or with higher-frequency eustatic oscillations. However, the

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difference between Oligocene and Miocene cycles could be related to the development of the East Asian Monsoon in the earliest Miocene (Guo et al., 2002). The increased storminess may have affected the nature and distribution of barriers along the platform margins and caused signicant variations in the protected versus open signatures in the Malampaya inner-shelf. The most common feature of the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene cycles is that they probably have all developed subtidally and are frequently bounded by an exposure surface at the top. In ancient carbonate systems, diverse examples of such subtidal cycles have been described: Triassic of Latemar, Italian Alps (Goldhammer et al., 1987, 1990), Oligocene of Suwanee, Florida (Hammes, 1992), Pleistocene of South Florida (Perkins, 1977). All of them exhibit shallowing-upward trends, and caliche beds at the top of sequences. Such cycles are thought to have been driven by high-frequency changes in accommodation space, with rapid falls in sea-level.

Acknowledgements This work was funded by Shell Philippines Exploration B.V. (SPEX). Their support and approval to publish this paper are gratefully acknowledged. We especially thank D. Neuhaus (SPEX) and J. Borgomano (Shell Research International B.V., Rijwijk, The Netherland) for the initiation of this project. This paper largely beneted from the experience of F. Abbots-Guardiola (Shell International, Houston), C. Mercadier, P. Cassidy and G. Warrlich from the Shell Carbonate Team (Rijwijk, The Netherland). We are also grateful to D. Bosence, L. Pomar, M. Wilson, G. Conesa, J.P. Margerel and J.P. Masse, for very helpful discussions. We thank M. Joachimski (Erlangen University) for carbon and oxygen isotope analyses and the Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry at the Vrije Universiteit (Amsterdam) for Sr-isotope ratio measurements.

References 6. Conclusions Petrographical and geochemical analyses of subsurface material from the Malampaya buildup provide new information about the depositional patterns of OligoMiocene carbonates from South-East Asia, particularly with regard to the short-term evolutionary history of isolated shallow-water carbonate systems in response to highfrequency variations in relative sea-level. The vertical and lateral distribution of facies appears to be strongly controlled by short-term relative sealevel changes. In the inner-shelf area, the main types of carbonate producer have varied throughout a cycle in response to changes in water-depth and to the degree of marine circulation exchanges with the open sea. Connectivity to the open sea probably has been mainly dependent on sea-level control of reef development at the shelf margin. Relative sea-level falls caused subaerial exposure and the consequent intense alteration of cycle top carbonates. In this way, short-term changes in accommodation space controlled the reservoir properties of the Nido Limestone. Despite a relatively high degree of uncertainty, the cycles have the same time duration range as that of orbital forcing events; however, episodic tectonic controls could have mimiked Milankovitch-band frequency cycles. The response of Malampaya Oligo-Miocene, reefbearing buildups to high-frequency variations in sealevel is partly similar to that observed in Recent reef systems, particularly in the timing of reef growth relative to ooding of the antecedent substrate.
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