Addressing

The What and Where of Communication

Addressing

Addressing is necessary for any communication

To talk: Appearance, name, To call: Telephone numbers To mail: Postal address To visit: Postal address + directions To E-Mail: E-Mail addresses To instant message: ICQ#, AIM ID, etc.

These addresses allow us to uniquely identify the entity with which we wish to communicate

Addressing a la Shoch

Name/Identifier: What
Names normally identify the entity If an entity moves, the name/identity will remain the same

Address: Where
Addresses identify the location of the entity If an entity moves, the address will change

Route: How to get there

Routes identify the path to get to an entity If an entity moves, the route will change

Addressing
Addressing deals with how to define an entitys location (uniquely) Addressing is necessary for message delivery

An address is the start and end point for the route

However, routing is another subject

Where do we want the message to go?

Addresses

We have already seen MAC addresses (for Ethernet and some other LANs):
e.g. 02-60-8C-08-E1-0C 6 octet address Globally unique Defined statically by the hardware manufacturer

Most people are familiar with the IP addresses used by TCP/IP networks:
e.g. 137.207.32.2 4 octet address Not necessarily globally unique Defined dynamically by DHCP servers or negotiated by the operating system

IP Addressing
A Closer Look

IP Addresses

TCP/IP networks use IP for the network layer protocol IP defines 4 octet addresses
4 billion possible addresses

Usually written in the form A.B.C.D

A, B, C, and D are each 1 octet (0-255), normally written in decimal notation Thus, IP addresses fall in the range: 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255

IP Addresses

Originally intended for separate internets (interconnected LANs)

Thus, the 32 bit size was not a concern 48 bits is generally considered a fairly safe size for globally unique addressing Computers connected to ARPANET (and later incarnations) were just given consecutive addresses
1.0.0.0, 1.0.0.1, 1.0.0.2,

IP Addresses
Any computer connected to a TCP/IP network (e.g. the Internet) must have an IP address Further, any network interface card (NIC) using TCP/IP to access an network (e.g. the Internet) must have a different IP address

IP Addresses
Even though there are 4 billion possible IP addresses, they are running out Heres why:

Some of the bits are dedicated to header information (discussed later)

the addresses for each lost bit

Addresses are categorized, and some of the categories are running out of addresses (while others are not)

Non-Classed Addresses

Part of the address represented the network the computer resided on, and part represented the computer itself
Network: 7 bits (up to 128 networks) Computer: 24 bits (up to 1.6 million computers on each network)

Since there were very few networks on ARPANET originally, this wasnt a problem

Address Classes

When private organizations started joining the Internet, the needs became obvious
Some (fewer) networks have multitudes of computers (thousands)
e.g. The @Home network

Some (many) networks have very few computers (a few hundred or less)
e.g. The Windsor Police Department

Address Classes

Quickly, the addresses were separated into 3 classes (plus room for more classes if needed):
Class A: Fewer networks, many nodes Class B: Medium networks, medium nodes Class C: Many networks, fewer nodes

IP Address Classes
Class A:

bit index: 0 1-7 0 network

Class B: bit index: 0 1 1 0

8-31 host (machine)

2-15 network

16-31 host

Class C: bit index: 0 1 2 1 1 0

3-23 network

24-31 host

IP Address Classes

Class A:
Range: 1.0.0.0 126.0.0.0 Networks: 128 max, Machines: 65537-1.6 million e.g. huge networks, such as large military/government organizations (e.g. FBI), the @Home network, etc

Class B:
Range: 128.1.0.0 191.255.0.0 Networks: 16384 max, Machines: 257-65536 e.g. Internet service providers (ISPs) (dial-up)

Class C:
Range: 192.1.0.0 223.255.255.0 Networks: 2 million max, Machines: 1-256 e.g. Small businesses

IP Address Classes

The IP address classes are self-identifying

Which means that given the address, you can determine what class an address is
Actually, using only the first number

Examples:
137.207.32.2 (server.uwindsor.ca)
137 -> Class B

24.0.0.1 (@Home DHCP server)

24 -> Class A

Other IP Address Classes

Class D:

bit index: 0 1 2 3 1 1 1 0

4-31 Multicast group address

These addresses are used to represent multicast groups Discussed later Class E: bit index: 0 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1 0

5-31 Reserved for future use

These addresses were left open to be used and divided into classes as needed

Special IP Addresses

0.0.0.0: Used to indicate that this machine is without an assigned IP

Used during bootstrapping (e.g. requesting an IP from a DHCP server)

<all 0s (binary)><hostID>: Used to send messages to some machine on this network 255.255.255.255: Used to send broadcast messages across this machines network <netID><all 1s (binary)>: Used to send broadcast messages to the specified network 127.0.0.1: Used to send messages back to this machine (called loopback or localhost)

IP Addressing Comments

In IP addressing:
0s usually represent this 1s usually represent all

Broadcasting, although discussed here in terms of addressing, will be discussed further

Loopback

The 127.0.0.1 address, does not normally exist on the network

Either as the source address or destination address of a packet

The address is used internally by NICs

When a NIC receives a message addressed with 127.0.0.1 to be transmitted, it passes the message directly to the receiver hardware The receiver hardware returns the message to the operating system exactly as if the message were received from the network
However, the message never entered the network medium

Internal IP Addresses

Depending on the address class needed by an organization, a range of internal addresses is available:
Class A: 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 Class B: 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 Class C: 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255

IP routers outside a private (connectionshared) network, will not forward datagrams designated for addresses in these ranges

Multi-homed Machines

There is no restriction preventing machines from participating in multiple networks

A machine could have multiple NICs Each NIC would have its own MAC address On TCP/IP networks, each of these NICs would be given a different IP address

Multi-homed Machines
192.168.0.1 192.168.0.8 192.168.0.2 192.168.0.3

192.168.0.4M

Class C private network

M 192.168.0.7 M M
192.168.0.6

M
192.168.0.5

172.16.3.17 M 172.16.3.18

172.16.3.16

172.16.3.15

172.16.3.14

Class B private network

172.16.0.1

172.16.0.2

172.16.0.3

172.16.0.4

Multi-homed Machines
192.168.0.1 192.168.0.8 192.168.0.2 192.168.0.3

192.168.0.4

Class C private network

192.168.0.7

192.168.0.6

192.168.0.5

172.16.3.17 172.16.3.18

172.16.3.16

172.16.3.15

172.16.3.14

Class B private network

172.16.0.1

172.16.0.2

172.16.0.3

172.16.0.4

Routers

Routers are multi-homed machines

They have a number of network ports, each of which represents a different path

Routers use tables that relate destinations to network paths

Internet routers relate destination network addresses with one of their network ports When a datagram arrives at a router:
Its destination address is used to determine the network address The network address is used to look up the destination port in the routing table

Network Addresses

An IP address can be used to calculate the address of the network The machine address is passed through a filter (called a subnet filter):
This filter extracts the bits of the address that represent the network and sets the bits that represent the machine to zero The filter determines which part of the address represent the network address, by using the subnet mask

Subnet Mask

The subnet mask is a binary number, that has 0s in the machine portion of the address, and 1s in the network portion Most networks of each type use a constant subnet mask
Class A: 255.0.0.0
(Binary: 11111111000000000000000000000000)

Class B: 255.255.0.0
(Binary: 11111111111111110000000000000000)

Class C: 255.255.255.0
(Binary: 11111111111111111111111100000000)

Using Subnet Masks

Example:
Address: 137.207.32.2 Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0

Address: 10001001110011110010000000000010 Mask: 11111111111111110000000000000000 Net Address: 10001001110011110000000000000000

Network address: 137.207.0.0

Routing in Action
Network N1 (Class B) Address: 137.207.0.0
P1
137.207.0.0
24.0.0.0

Internet
P4
P1
P3 P4

194.201.61.0 P2

P2

P3

Network N2 (Class C) Address: 194.201.61.0

Network N3 (Class A) Address: 24.0.0.0

IPv6
Next Generation Addressing in TCP/IP Networks

IPv6
Due to the limited nature of existing IP addressing (IPv4), a new version of IP addressing was developed This new scheme uses 16 octets for addresses, instead of 4 octets Written using hex notation:

3A57:0000:0000:9CD5:3412:912D:6738:1928

IPv6 Features

16 octet addresses (128 bits) Larger numbers of address classes

More accurate control of network/machine counts

Variable-sized headers
Optional information can be placed into the header when needed Reduces header size in most cases

Extendible protocol
IPv6 allows for new header information to be added to support different protocols

IPv6 Features

Automatically reconfigurable
Addresses can be automatically reassigned dynamically e.g. when a certain number of nodes join the network, a different address class may be desired

Autoconfigurable
The use of autoconfiguration (such as DHCP) allows dynamic private addressing and dynamic public addressing

IPv6 Datagram Format

optional

header

extension headers

data

IPv6 Header Format

0 version 32 payload length 4 traffic class 48 next header 12 flow label 56 63 hop limit 31

64
source address

96
destination address

128

IPv6 Integration

Will IPv6 replace IP addresses?

Who knows?

Currently, temporary solutions have made IPv4 addresses capable of lasting longer than originally predicted If and when IPv6 is to be integrated, the process must be a transition
Closing the entire Internet down to convert hardware and software to IPv6 not going to happen Some stations may take longer to transition than other stations
e.g. Bobs Internet Shack vs. the Telus Network

IPv6 Integration

NAT (network address translators) provide one example of such a temporary solution NATs provide three benefits:
1. NATs provide IP masquerading
Messages using these addresses pass through a network address translator (NAT) to be transformed into external IPs ISPs for example, have many customers, but significantly less at any given time are logged onto their system
IP addresses can be assigned dynamically to these customers when they log in

2.

NATs provide IP sharing

3.

NATs provide schemes to allow networks to use either IPv4 or IPv6

Addresses would be converted as they pass through a NAT

IPv6 Integration

Another method that may be used for the transition between IPv4 and IPv6 is address inclusion:
IPv4 addresses could be embedded into IPv6 addresses
Translation between the two types of addresses is possible without any other information

Some problems exist with this approach, but in general it simplifies communication between IPv6 networks and IPv4

Special IPv6 Addresses

0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 Used to indicate that this machine is without an assigned IP

Used during bootstrapping (e.g. requesting an IP from a DHCP server)

0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 Used to send messages back to this machine (called loopback)

These two addresses are not valid on the actual network medium (same as with IPv4)

00: Reserved (including IPv4 and IPX address inclusion) FF: Multicast addresses

IPX
Internetwork Packet Exchange Addresses

IPX
IPX was originally created to replace IP In reality, it is used primarily on LANs In conjunction with the SPX protocol, formed one of the two protocol suites used in Netware networks

SPX is to TCP, what IPX is to IP

Still can be (although rarely is) used today in Windows networks

IPX Addresses

IPX uses a 2 component address (like IP):

The network portion (4 octets) The machine portion (6 octets)

Unlike IP, these sizes are constant

So there are no IPX address classes

IPX uses sizes large enough to accommodate all categories of networks

IPX Addresses

The network portion of an IPX address is 4 octets (32 bits)

This allows for 4.29*109 networks (4 billion) This is almost enough for everyone on earth to have their own network

The machine portion of an IPX address is 6 octets (48 bits)

This allows for 2.81*1014 machines on each network (281,475 trillion)

IPX Addresses
The scalability of IPX addresses is not their only benefit The constant size of the network and machine address portions simplifies extracting each portion

As a result, machines that process IPX networks can process IPX datagrams more quickly
Such as network nodes, routers, etc.

IPX Addresses

Why 48 bits for the machine portion?

48 bits allows for way too many machines, more than will be needed for many years
By the time machine IDs run out, network hardware and software will have been obsolete by many years!

Using 48 bits allows hardware to use the machines MAC address as the machine portion
This makes auto-configuration (dynamic IPX address assignment) easier/faster

IPX Addresses

If IPX has been around since the NetWare days, why dont we use it for the Internet, instead of IP?
Good question! Why dont we? Frankly, IPX has a bad reputation, because initially it was used with SPX and other bandwidthmunching protocols IPX can be used in conjunction with TCP (TCP/IPX), and it would make an excellent replacement for TCP/IP
However, standards organizations (e.g. ISO) want to use the protocols they develop, and not ones developed by corporations, such as Novell

Fragmentation & Reassembly

Packets can arrive out of order in connectionless networks Packets must be reordered during reassembly During fragmentation, the portion of data that each fragment represents must be identified
Since the length of a packets data can always be determined, all that is necessary is to use the offset of the start of the packets data in the larger data chunk

Fragmentation & Reassembly

0 1500 3000 4500 6000 6800

Logical Data Chunk

Length:1500 Length:1500 Length:1500 Length:1500 Length:800 Offset:0 Offset:1500 Offset:3000 Offset:4500 Offset:6000 Packet 1 Packet 2 Packet 3 Packet 4 P5

Fragmentation & Reassembly

Why do we use the data offset, and not just a sequence of numbers to determine packet order?
Sometimes, packets can be fragmented at one location, and must be re-fragmented at another location (such as while passing through a network incompatible with larger frame sizes) These situations would require renumbering of all packets in the sequence, which is not always possible

Fragmentation & Reassembly

Length:1500 Length:1500 Length:1500 Length:1500 Length:800 Offset:0 Offset:1500 Offset:3000 Offset:4500 Offset:6000 Packet 1 Packet 2 Packet 3 Packet 4 P5

Packet 1

Packet 2

P3a

P3b

Packet 4

P5

Length:1000 Offset:3000

Length:500 Offset:4000

Fragmentation & Reassembly

Re-fragmentation (at gateways, routers, ) is expensive

The re-fragmenting node must process each packet, fragmenting it into smaller packets Another reassembling node must collect these packets and assemble them into larger packets Each of these operations involved memory processing, which is expensive when applied to many packets per second

Fragmentation & Reassembly

Re-fragmentation (particularly in routers) should be avoided at all costs

To virtually eliminate re-fragmentation in a network, the maximum transmission unit (MTU) should be determined and used as the packet size A networks MTU is the largest size that can be used for packets that will not result in any refragmentation by any routers, or other multihomed nodes Schemes for determining the MTU dynamically have been developed, but are beyond the scope of this course

IP Datagrams

IP datagrams are packets sent over IP networks using connectionless messaging Datagrams can be used directly within network-capable programs by sending datagrams via UDP (user datagram protocol) Datagrams are used transparently by TCP to provide connection-based transport

IP Datagrams
bits 4 4 8 16 16 1 1 13 Name Version IHL TOS Length ID DF MF Offset Description Version (equal to 4) Header length Type of Service (obsolete) Total length of datagram (header included) Identifier: used in reassembly to identify packets Should the datagram be re-fragmented, if necessary? Are there more fragments in the sequence? Offset of data that this datagram represents Used For All All All Reassembly Routers (re-frag) Reassembly Reassembly

8
8 16 32 32

TTL
Protocol Checksum SA DA

Hop limit
Transport protocol used for this packet (UDP, TCP) Checksum of the header Source address Destination address

Routers
Acknowledgement All All All

Options

Future features

Padding

Fills remaining space

IP Datagram Routing

When an IP-enabled router receives a datagram, it:

Receives a datagram through one of its ports Deletes the datagram, if the hop count (TTL in IPv4, Hop limit in IPv6) has a non-positive value If the hop count is positive, it is decremented and processing continues Determine the destination address network address Uses the destination network address to find an entry in the routing table Uses the routing table entry to determine to which port the datagram should be sent Sends the datagram through the correct port

IPv6 Datagrams
bits 4 8 20 16 Name Version TOS Flow label Length Description Version (equal to 6) Type of Service (status info) Future features Length of data in the datagram (header not included) Used For All All All

8
16 16 ? ?

Hop limit
SA DA H2H SRH

Hop limit (decremented to zero)

Source address Destination address Hop to hop header Source routing header

Routers
All All Routing Routing

FH

Fragment header

Reassembly

E2E

End to end options

Reassembly

Header Checksums

Networks sometimes result in corrupt data Information in the header is equally susceptible to this corruption However, header information, when corrupt, can cause more serious difficulties
For example, the destination address may have a few bits changed, or the hop count, etc. Corruption like this, is not always easy to detect and fix Corrupt data (determined by another checksum) can be fixed by re-issuing the datagram Header checksums are used to ease identification of header corruption

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