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D4 - Live Sound
D4 - Live Sound
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As well as there being 2 types of mixing desks, in the live sound sector there are 2 main uses for a desk. The most obvious is for bringing all the signals to the main speakers and creating the mix, this is known as front of house (FOH). The other is for stage monitoring, creating a mix or separate mixes for the musicians particular taste(s). At bigger events, often there are 2 desks in play, one for the front of house and one specically for the on stage monitoring.
EM LIVE LOUNGE
FOH mixers
Front of house mixers usually come with a set number of input channels; 12, 16, 24, 32, 40 and 48 channels are what is usually found, specialized mixers used for bigger rigs can be sizably larger. The use of this large number of channels can range from the close micing of a drum kit and guitar amps, to the music used between acts and pre recorded tracks used in a set. Another use for having so many channels is if a show with many acts on the bill is taking place, and bands settings need to be set. However, with the advancement of digital desks with recall systems and ying fades, needing to manually save a live mix has almost become a thing of the past. The features on a mixing console vary with the expense of the desk, but the regular features include:
- Input sockets (typically XLRs for mic and DI signals) - Phantom power, phase inversion (important for sorting out phase issues in a live mix, especially is the mix contains identical signals, e.g. the mix and line signals from a bass guitar) - Pad (reduces the signal by a set amount, typically -10db, this is useful for controlling over loud signals, such as a over eager guitarists amp) - Gain control (to set each signal at a sensible level before mixing) - Equalisation (this comes on all desks, both live and studio based, however in live the tendency is to use an external graphic Eq in order to meticulously notch out those problem frequencies) - High and Low pass lters - Panning - Auxiliary send (used for effects and vastly used later for the monitor desks One feature of most, if not all desks, that is utilised greatly in live sound are the sub group faders. This means that once a sub mix (e.g. the drum kit) is mixed, the faders can be assigned to a sub group with a singular fader to bring the whole mixed up or down as one. This is a great time saving device when mixing on your feet! Also on more sophisticated desks, other groups such as solo and mute groups are present so certain parts can be muted together if needs be.
Monitor Mixes.
In a smaller set up, the monitor mixes are usually done from using the Aux sends. This will work but there are not usually enough of these to create a
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As well as these advanced features, monitor mixes also contain many controls identical so the FOH desks, thought they can still often be used in a different manner. These features include: Phantom power, PFL/AFL, FX sends and returns (used for effects such as vanity reverb), and of course, Eq. On monitor set ups, Eq are used more because it is more prone to feedback, being closer to the microphones on stage.
Power amps
These are essential to a live sound set up, they work as power converters as the signals in the PA up to the point of the power amps are too lightweight in current and voltage for the speaker system to recognize and the sound to be loud enough for a gig. They work the same way as pre-amps in the actual mixing desk. The way a power amp works is that the currents signal swing increased to raise it to the optimum level for the speakers, and ampliers voltage swing can be elevated by between 10 and 50 times (compared to the line levels which can be as low as 2 volts). Power amps have many classes (A through to H) and generally come with balanced XLR inputs.
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Gating can clean up the FOH sound, stopping unnecessary spil . . live sound manual
EQ - This comes in different, versatile forms. From the simple 3-band eqs found on budget mixing desks with hi, mid and low eq pots, to the more elaborate forms such as graphic and parametric. Graphic equalisation is generally found when using monitors, this is because, due to the fact that monitors are near to, and have so many mics pointing towards them, the eq needs to be very advanced in order to notch out those problem frequen-
cies. It is called a graphic eq because the notches used give u an accurate representation of the curve that is formed when changing the frequencies, they generally have 28 to 31 bands. GEQs are usually outboard equipment, as they need to be big
Parametric equalisation is the most powerful form of Eq. This is because not only will it allow an engineer to notch out those pesky problem frequencies, but because it contains a Q control, this helps control the spread of a frequency peak, this means that one is able to precisely effect the narrowest of areas if needs be. Now that most desks used in live are digital, any engineers now use the built-in equalisation features that come with the more high end models. These are usually coupled with a digital representation of the Eq. The advantages of using digital as apposed to G and PEQs are that the eqs can in theory be perfectly matched channel by channel, and these settings can be saved in an internal system. Also, in higher end systems, one is able to see a visual of the sound coming through the channel, therefore seeing which problem frequencies to notch out and how they are being affected in real time. Effects - such as reverb and delay can be found as both internal, and outboard equipment. These are essential to create a cohesive mix and comes even in most budget mixers big enough to put on a gig. It can add different kinds of space to a mix, pushing instruments back and forward in a mix, and generally blending the sounds together as a whole, especially in outdoor events, where there is nothing for the sound to bounce off. Reverb is generally coupled with some kind of Eq on an Aux send channel, this can help to brighten the sound of a room articially. Delay, or echo, has been used in different forms in live sound since rock n roll slap-back in the mid 50s. It has since been used on almost everything to create its own sense of space and ambience. Most delays, be it outboard or internal, runs once again through an aux send, and comes with features like delay time, decay and usually a tap tempo button to adjust the speed. Gates & compressors - these are essential in a live sound set up. Gates help to cut out spill on single hit channels such as the snare and sometimes backing vocals, this helps cutout spill which could otherwise make a mix seem muddy. They work by setting a volume threshold at which the sound will be let through when reached. Gates can come in outboard or onboard formats, and once again can be useful as onboard equipment because visual representation can be a feature on higher end desks. A more advanced feature on some gates is side-chain, this means the gate can be control by things such as Eq, so instead of just a volume threshold, the gate can be worked by a certain frequency (e.g. for feedback).
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Compressors are also very important pieces of equipment in a live sound set up. It is essential for controlling sounds, tightening them up and making them more punchy. Compression can also be used to make sounds louder, bringing up the quieter parts of the sound and raising it as a whole to make it more useable in a mix (this could be useful on quieter instruments such as utes). Another example of this type of compression being useful is in vocals, most vocalist, however experienced, have unexpected jumps of volume in their singing, so compression is pretty much the only way to deal with this. Compressors work in a similar way to gates. They have a threshold which sets the level above which the compression takes effect. The ratio tells the compressor how abruptly it will work (if a compressor is above around 15:1 it becomes a limiter), and it features attack and release functions, to dictate how fast the compressor will work and how quickly it will cease to have an effect. Also, more advanced compressors again feature sidechain functions.
Microphones
There are many kinds of microphones used in audio engineering. In live, those mics which are robust and durable are generally favoured for obvious reasons. The type of microphones that are used in live work are mostly dynamic mics. The two main reasons for this is because they posses the durability previously mentioned (the other main type, condenser mics, are quite delicate and can be damaged easily if for instance they are used on a tour) and because they have a very directional quality, perfect for close micing which is used for the most part in live as the engineer is usually dealing with micing guitar amps, kick/snare drums and of course vocals. Condenser mics are used, but only when needs be, such as with drum overhead micing, where a bigger audio spread is needed. Mics with switchable polar patterns are also desirable in live sound work. An example of this is using a gure of 8 pattern, if two vocalists were using the same microphone, this pattern is equally sensitive at the front and back of the mic.
A mics response pattern changes as soon as someone picks it up, even if its designed to be handheld. .
live sound manual
Speaker Systems The speakers are the face of a PA system, they are nal part in puzzle that is live sound. This means they have to be of a high quality, carefully matched to the power amps to create the best sound for the audience. A speaker can be broken down into individual parts. The cabinet, which encloses the speaker as a whole, this can be shaped to emit the sound in a certain ways, usually to put out the best sound of course! These cabs, like the microphones used in live are built very solidly. This shows a vast difference to their studio equivalents, which are often catered much more towards being aesthetically pleasing or compact. Inside this casing lies the heart of the speaker, usually referred to as the drive-unit.
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A drive unit, or driver, is a transducer like that found in a microphone, but with the difference that it works in reverse, this means it takes electrical currents and transforms it into sound waves. Like in microphones, the most commonly used transducer using moving coil principles (just like dynamic mics!), this is again because they are the most reliable and economic. The diaphragm in a speaker is what the coil connects to, it used usually made from a paper pulp and vibrates when the signal is passed through it. Most speakers contain two of these diaphragms, both held lightly in place by a metal chassis. One for bass frequencies (which takes its name from this chassis) and another for the higher range, referred to as tweeters, these tweeters require a light but rmer cone. Basically, bass frequencies equals more vibration, which equals a bigger cone needed to cope with this. The driver units are the real worker parts of the PA system. For most systems, a singular driver unit can cover a chunk of audible range, around 3 octaves worth. Most high quality sound systems use multiple drivers to cover the 10 to 12 octaves that are present in human hearing, these are divided up by means of a crossover.
FOR MANY ARTISTS & AUDIENCE MEMBERS, THE SPEAKER CABS ARE THE PA!
live sound manual
Pinking the room - Pinking is the process in which live sound engineers blast pink noise through the PA system
at a high volume level. Whilst the well known white noise is a concoction of every frequency, its pink equivalent is a blast of random frequencies. This helps to identify problem frequencies in the pre-sound check.
RT60 management - RT60 is a reference to how long the reverb takes to decay below 60 decibels. For RT60
management in live sound, a loud noise is produced and the RT60 time calculated. This helps the engineers gure out how much natural reverb is present in the room, and therefore how much articial reverb to add later.
Inverse square law - Testing this process is much more relevant when mixing at bigger venues. The inverse
square law states that a quantities size is directly proportional to the distance it has travelled. This helps to decipher how loud the PA should be, depending on how far the sound has to travel.
Mic placement - Mic placement is important as a practice, it helps to improve the mix and save time! Many live
engineers spend ours Eqing channels during soundcheck, when the simplest solution could be to spend more time on getting the best direct sound with placing the mic on the sound source.
Avoiding monitor feedback - As mentioned earlier, because the on stage monitors are very near to, or have microphones pointing at them regularly, there is a tendency for feedback to occur. Therefore careful Eq using a graphic or ideally a parametric eq, to identify the problem frequencies in the monitor mix before working on the FOH sound.
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