Identity Construction: New Issues, New Directions Author(s): Karen A. Cerulo Source: Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.

23 (1997), pp. 385-409 Published by: Annual Reviews Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2952557 . Accessed: 25/10/2011 10:45
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Annu.Rev.Sociol. 1997.23:385-409 Copyright 1997 byAnnual Reviews All rights Inc. reserved

IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION: New Issues,New Directions

KarenA. Cerulo
New New of Department Sociology, Rutgers University, Brunswick, Jersey 08903-5073;e-mail:cerulo@rci.rutgers.edu
social KEY WORDS: identity collective identification construction, identity, processes, movements, virtual identity

ABSTRACT The study identity of forms critical a cornerstone within modern sociological of Introduced theworks Cooley and Mead, identity have thought. by studies evolvedandgrown central current to sociological discourse. Microsociological perspectives dominated work published through 1970s. Sociologists the focused primarily the on formation the"me," of exploring waysinwhich the interpersonal interactions moldan individual's senseof self. Recent literature constitutes an antithesis suchconcerns. to refocus attention theindividual from to Manyworks others thecollective; discourse thesystematic over of prioritize scrutiny behavior; some researchers as rather thana approach identity a sourceof mobilization of of product it; andtheanalysis virtual identities competes now with research on identities established thecopresent in world. This essay explores such all in since1980. I close with looktoward a agendaas raised keyworks published thefuture, aimedat synthesizing traditional current and suggesting trajectories concerns.

INTRODUCTION
The study identity of forms critical a cornerstone within modern sociological thought. Introduced theworksof Cooley and Mead, identity by studies haveevolved grown and to central current sociological discourse. Microsociologicalperspectives (socialpsychology, symbolic interactionism), perspectives focusedprimarily theindividual, on the dominated workpublished through 0360-0572/97/0815-0385$08.00 385

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on of focused 1970s.ISociologists primarily theformation the"me," exploring interactions an individual's mold thewaysinwhich senseofself. interpersonal research thepasttwodecadesproves of antithetical traditional to But identity a fueled three trends. concerns, shift largely by important movements thepast three 1. Social and nationalist of decadeshave shifted scholarly attention issues of groupagencyand politicalaction. As a to studies havebeenrelocated thesiteofthecollective, result, identity to with the of and gender/sexuality, race/ethnicity, class forming "holytrinity" the in to field discursive (Appiah& Gates1995:1). Writings attend, particular, a that that which constitutescollective thepolitical and implications result from collective definitions. withagency the 2. Intellectual concerns and self-direction re-energized have of study identification processes. thelevelofthecollective, At scholars are examining mechanics which the by distinctions created, are maintained, and changed. 3. New communication technologies freed have interaction therequirefrom ments physical of thesetechnologies expanded array copresence; have the of generalized others contributingtheconstruction theself. Several to of foci research emerge from development: substance "I,""me," this the of and thegeneralized in other a milieu voidofplace,theestablishment "comof munities themind," of and thenegotiation copresent cyberspace of and identities. Thisessayexplores eachofthese research agenda.Becauseofthe literature's to since 1980. My review expanse,I limitdiscussion keyworkspublished includes several nonsociological works, strategy a demanded themakeup by of thisfield.(I revisit issuein theconclusion.) this The essaycloses with look a toward future, I suggest the as trajectories aimedatsynthesizing traditional and current concerns.

THE "NATURE"OF COLLECTIVE IDENTITY

Collectiveidentity a conceptgrounded classic sociologicalconstructs: is in Durkheim's "collective Marx's "class consciousness," conscience," Weber's and So the addresses the Verstehen, Tonnies'Gemeinschaft. rooted, notion "we-ness' of a group,stressing similarities sharedattributes the or around whichgroupmembers coalesce. Earlyliterature theseattributes approached or as "natural" "essential" from emerging physiologcharacteristics-qualities ical traits, or psychological predispositions, regional features, theproperties
'For recent in directions thisliterature, Stryker see (1992).

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of structural locations. A collective's members werebelievedto internalize these qualities, suggestingunified, a singular socialexperience,single a canvas against which socialactors constructed a senseofself. Recent treatmentscollective of identity question essentialism collective the of attributes images.Anti-essentialist and inquiries promote socialconstructhe as tionofidentity a more viablebasisofthecollective self.Other works stress in theproblems inherent collective categorization, presenting postmodern a to of challenge arguments unified group experiences.2

The Social Constructionism: Anti-Essentialist View

In concert theories WI Thomas, of with Peter Berger, Erving Goffman, Howard Becker, others, social constructionist and the approach identity to rejects any category setsforward that essential corefeatures theunique or as of property a collective's From perspective, this members. every collective becomes social a artifact-an entity molded, refabricated, mobilized accord and in with reigning cultural scripts centers power. and of Social constructionism on informs muchofthework gender identity. Such studieschallenge essentialist dichotomies gender of of and dismissnotions gender's primordial roots.Constructionists conceptualize gender an interacas tionalaccomplishment, identity an via excontinually renegotiated linguistic and From stance, change socialperformance. this researchers explore also subof and and to jectivedefinitions femininity masculinity, attending thesymbols norms initiate sustain and that either/or classifications Bem 1993,Connell (e.g. 1995,Coser 1986,C Epstein 1988,Fausto-Sterling Gailey1987,Gerson 1985, & Peiss 1985,Hearn1992,Kupers Marshall 1993, Margolis 1985, 1991, Probyn 1993, Richardson 1989, D Smith1987, 1990, West & Zimmerman 1987, Wittenstrom Wittig works scrutinize 1995, 1981,1986). Constructionist often of their the agents socialization, delineating roleingender identity acquisition: et family (e.g. Caldera al 1989,MacDonald& Parke1986,Ross& Taylor 1989, & Whiting Edwards1988),theschools(e.g. Best 1983,Cookson& Persell 1985,AJDavis 1984,Eder 1995,Gilligan1990,Hyde& Linn 1988, Hyde et al 1990,Raissiguier & 1994,Sadker Sadker1994,Thorne 1995,Trepanier and & Romatowski culture media(e.g. Atkin1982,Eilberg1985),popular & Schwartz Doniger & 1995,Gaines1991,Kalisch Kalisch1984,Kaplan1983, CL Miller1987, Sidel 1991, Signorielli & 1990, Signorielli Morgan1988). Whilesuchstudies reflect all numerous intellectual traditions, are concerned with waysin which the the socialization andproject affective, agents organize a and data use self. cognitive, behavioral individuals toform gendered of An important constructionism withworksthat rests outgrowth gender in the link.Researchers dissect differences male the problematize gender-sex
of and the thesebroadlabels forease of presentation fully 2I employ acknowledge variety in subsumed eachcategory. perspectives

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system particular. quesin By biology-thebodyandreproductive andfemale scholars expose socialrituals, the distinctions, meaning biological of tioning the into such and that symbols, practices transform differences socialfacts.In so thisliterature demonstrates inscription gender thebody,sithe of on doing, the as from body(e.g. of dismantling notions gender emergent multaneously 1988,Bordo1993,Corea 1985,Martin et Acker1989,Arditi al 1985,Bartky 1987,Medicine1983,Nanda 1990,Oakley1984,Papanek1990,Sault 1994, 1987,Stacey& Thorne1985). In highShilling1993,Spallone& Steinberg do of constructionistsnotdeemphasize nature gender, lighting subjective the defined malethat socially Rather, argue they theeffects gender of categories. definitions behavior. Subjective constrict human severely nessandfemaleness Dorothy action expectation. and of in imprison individuals spheres prescribed alienation utterof of within dubbing "the it scholarship, Smith writes this effect powers that ance ... models speaking, of writing, thinking took(women's) and (1990:199-201). Gender of expression awayfrom evenas we usedthem" us and these and emotions, language, treating scripts behaviors, scripting attitudes, to bothsuccumb andrecreate as natural ensures social members that signals, stereotypes. of identity the"armor" gender literthe complement gender to approaches sexualidentity Constructionist the of and Taylor NancyWhittier ature.Important entries include work Verta Taylor Whittier & and (1992) on lesbianidentity lesbiansocial movements. that of itemizing theconstructionboundaries both (a) process, mapa three-step sexualcolfrom dominant the groups nonmainstream insulate differentiate and nonmainand consciousness goalsamong of lective, theemergence shared (b) that a and of stream sexualgroups, (c) processes politicization valorize group's sexto approach adolescent Janice (1994) takes similar a Irving minority status. nine domains" 11) that identifies "axes of constructed (p. ual identity. Irvine and gender relations, to experience: building identity-based contribute identity sexual languageand and strategies behavior, reproductive sexual identities, the sexuality, purpose the nonreproductive publicdiscourse, roleofthefamily, and of and ofsex andtheroleofpleasure, knowledge meaning thebody, sexual that the also explores cultural differences can colorsexual violence. Irving exemplify as social locations.Theseworks identificationit occursin varying and the a muchbroader literature meaning, renegotiation exploring origins, of sexualcommunities D'Emilio 1983,Faderman 1981,Faraday1981, (e.g. Troiden 1994). 1988,Whatley Plummer 1994,E Stein1992b, 1981,Raymond of another stronghold constructionism. Race and ethnic studies represent historical excursion a example, provides fascinating F. James Davis (1991),for the in of that charts definitions blackness America.Davis documents history the He for ofthe"onedrop a rule," vehicle racialclassification. unpacks rule's alternatives. Davis its over and highlights triumph competing development

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to its itemizing rolein thestruggle mainfollows one droprulein action, the with experience the He taintheslavesystem. also contrasts US classification thoughtful specuwith nations. Davis concludes in racialcategorization other of rule'simpact thefuture US racerelationson lation the regarding onedrop in of shifts. another In arena, Balibar demographic particularlylight developing landscape, within broadanalytical a & Wallerstein (1991) viewracialidentity constructionist and with race considering inconjunction nation class. Blending are the lensesforwhich authors renowned, with socioeconomic the premises and imposed racialization selfanalyze both thoughtfully Balibar Wallerstein & repression, the and racialidentity collective variantly considering racialization, shelter. for and for autonomy, thesearch collective struggle collective voiceinto incorporate subject's the identity Several works racialandethnic on Richard Alba's (1990) workon Europeantheir Examplesinclude inquiries. with constructionist Alba argues Americans. keeping In premises, descended social structures. in ethnic anchored strongly that ethnic identity no longer is "concerned withthesymentity he ethnicity a symbolic as Rather, presents themselves" rather thanwiththecultures (1990:306). bols of ethnic cultures to ethnicities easilyreshaped response varyare in Alba argues that symbolic one social needs. His datasuggest such contexts growing and ingsituational under the descendents that renegotiation unitesEuropean reconstruction-a that identity umbrella a European-American of Alba identity. argues this broad the prosocial benefits thoseit encompasses; shift for shift bearssignificant face with more comfortable as they base videswhite-Euro descendents a larger, nonwhite a rapidinflux non-Euro, of immigrants. to Waters's shifts their are (1990) and implications alsocentral Mary Identity ethnicity. symbolic forward constructed, a brings research. Like Alba,Waters with her the However, workproblematizes relentlessness whichindividuals in of scrutinizes ethnic identificationlight itssocial Waters clingto ethnicity. for Euro-descendents she that negligible white, payoff-rewards, argues, prove non-Euro for of lineage. Ultiand potentially negative Americans nonwhite, of ethnic as Waters comesto understand identity theproduct personal mately, or Her decidetoadopt stress. reindividuals choice-a socialcategory actively switch amend and the those mixed of search documents waysinwhich ancestry of affiliations. thisway,Waters In locatestheattraction their ethnic primary to idenAmerican value.Commitment ethnic within double-edged a ethnicity lacking a based needforcommunity-community stemsfrom culturally tity individual cost. as shifts a ethnic In another identity Nagel (1995) examines arena,Joann (1960-1990), Nagel Using US Census figures phenomenon. sociopolitical She American identification. explains of documents changing patterns Native federal factors: with to three shifts reference changing sociopolitical identity

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Indian policy, increased American ethnic politics, growing and American Indian political activism. Nagelargues these that factors raised Native American ethnic and consciousness, shetraces waysinwhich the policy politics and encouraged an ethnic renewal.(Also see Blakely1993,Conzenet al 1992,DeVos 1992, Dyson1993,Farley 1991,Frankenberg Hout& Goldstein 1993, 1994,Ignatiev 1995,Jewell 1993,Shively 1992,Smedley 1993,Wade 1993,Williams 1990.) Social constructionism a multifaceted drives literature national on identity. A richcollection sociohistorical of works commemoration, on narrative, and chart waysin whichactors, the symbolization particularly elites, create, maor nipulate, dismantle identities nations, the of citizenships, allies,andenemies (e.g. Agulhon 1981,Beaune1991,Berezin1997,Brubaker 1992,Corse 1996, Fine 1996,Gillis1994,Griswold 1992,Hobsbaum 1992,Hobsbaum Ranger & 1983, Kubik1994,Lane 1981,Schudson1992,Schwartz 1987, 1991, Spillman 1997,Wagner-PacificiSchwartz & 1991,Y Zerubavel 1995). In related several studies with constructionist as they the work, grapple issues consider constitution theAmerican (e.g. Bellahet al 1985, 1991,Hewitt of self 1989, innovative Meyer1987). One also finds elaborations constructionism, of such as Benedict Anderson's (1991) workon imagined community. Anderson apas bothspatially proachesnational identity a sociocognitive construct-one and temporally bothenabledand shapedby broader social forces. inclusive, of culHe documents moments identity times which key construction, during in tural(language)and social factors convene (capitalism, print technology) a particular historical collective moment, effectively remaking imagesof the national (also see Bloom 1990). self the scholar'seye,national idenYet,morethananyarenabefore identity workpresents multivoiced a with excursion. Works nationalism tity probing to to reference thestateand worldmarkets continue thrive (e.g. Armstrong 1982,Gellner 1983,Giddens 1984,Tilly1990). "Newinstitutionalism" brings to and structures organizamiddle-range questions bear,examining political and on and tional influence policy, principles their political agenda, ultimately & collective self-definition Birnbaum (e.g. 1988,Boli 1987, 1989,Jepperson include Yasemin Meyer1991,Skocpol1985). Newertrends Soysal's (1994) of memmodel," which addresses definitions national "postnational changing Western the bership. Soysalexamines different strategies which by European nations into She incorporate guestworkers thenational citizenry. arguesthat collectives ties citizen are not increasingly defined bytheir primordial toa territo but from a discourse tory, according entitlements emerging both transnational human anda setofstructures & celebrating rights see Shapiro Alker (also 1995). D the to Anthony Smith (1991) poses perhaps greatest challenge constructo tionism. Smith adoptsa middle-ground approach national identity, linking socialconstructionism tomore views.He defines essentialist national identity as a product both of "natural" and Natural continuity conscious manipulation.

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continuity emerges from pre-existing ethnic identity community; and conscious manipulationachieved commemoration, is via ideology, symbolism. and Smith compliments duality this with socialpsychological a dimension, citing "need a as to for community" integral identity work. Smith's In view, tri-part this combination distinguishes national identity, making themostfundamental it and inclusive collective of identities. (Complimentary positions includeConnor 1990, Greenfield 1992,Hutchinson 1987. Calhoun1993 and Hutchinson & extensive Smith 1994offer literature reviews.)

Postmodernism: Deconstructing Categories

the Whilesupporting antiessentialism drives that constructionist on inquiries identity, postmodernists serious cite flaws theschool'sapproach. in Somefind constructionism's agendainsufficient, suggesting itsimply that catalogues the construction identity process.Further, contend the many that constructionist approach implies identity categories through built interactive effort. Sucha stance the underemphasizes roleofpowerin theclassification process(e.g. Connell "a flow 1987,Gilman1985),mistakenly suggesting multidirectional of influence and agency" (Calhoun1995:199). Theseweaknesses leavepostmodern of identity theorists skeptical social constructionism's trajectory, fearing that theparadigm ultimately approximates very the essentialism fights it against. in Diane Fuss elaborates evaluating constructionist the approach gender: to moreprecisely of "specifying thesesubcategories 'woman'does notneceswoman'or 'Anglo-American essentialism. 'French sarily preclude bourgeois in that lesbian,'whilecrucially emphasizing their very specificity 'woman'is nonetheless reinscribe essentialist an byno meansa monolithic category, logic levelofhistoricism" at thevery (Fuss 1989:20). In an effort broaden socialconstructionist to the exagenda, postmodernists essentialist identiaminethe"real, and reasons present political other day why tiescontinue be invoked often to and felt" deeply (Calhoun1995:199).Further, within in thestudy identity, viewthevariation of they identity categories-i.e. as class-as important thevariation bewomen, African-Americans, working a in advocate shift analytic tweenidentity categories. Finally, postmodernists with observation deduction elevating and and concerns focus, deemphasizing of Michel publicdiscourse.In thespirit JeanBaudrillard, JacquesDerrida, scholar and the Foucault, Jean-Francois Lyotard, postmodern-identity deconrhetoric an in structs established and identity categories their accompanying the range "being." effort explore full to in call of Works this tradition into questionmodelsthat withtruth; equatediscourse they exposethewaysin which objectified truth as and sustains collective discourse bothforms definitions, of social arrangements, hierarchies power. and and For students identity, of works gender sexuality on postmodern prove Hill Collins(1991), JaneFlax (1990), richest.Judith Butler (1990), Patricia

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Garber Marjorie (1992),DonnaHaraway (1991),bellhooks(1984), andTrinh T Minh-Ha (1989) reconsider gender identity, giving voicetowomen color, of thoseofvarious socialclasses,andlesbianandbisexual women.Theyexpose in thedangers approaching gender collectives homogeneous as entities urge and careful consideration thecomplex, of often contradictory, ofcollective nature existence. contrast thesocialconstructionist, In to postmodern gender theorists the nature whichgender traditionally challenge dualistic, oppositional by is framed.Patricia Hill Collins(1991), forexample, notesthatelements such as race and social class produce multiple variations "women"and "men," of that distinctions many societies tobuildcomplex use hierarchical stratification of alerts to theflawsof systems.The existence thesemultiple categories us on us binary gender conceptualizations, focusing instead thewaysin which affiliations of multiple identity qualitatively changethenature human experiDill ence(see alsoAgger1993,Baca Zinn& Thornton 1994,Fraser 1989,Leps & 1992,Nicholson1990,Nicholson Seidman1995,Raissiguier 1994,Riley 1988). works sexualidentity on follow similar Corepostmodern a thrust, problemasexualcategories contesting and sexualhierarchies tizing (Butler 1993,Connell to of 1987,Sedgwick 1990,Seidman treatmentssexual 1992). In contrast prior the sexualidentity identity studies (i.e. of exploring construction a particular orcommunity-e.g. advohomosexual, lesbian, etc),current "queertheories" of simultaneous considerations catean inclusive approach. Theysuggest, first, heterosexual homosexual and and serious focus identity construction, second, or on identities excluded thehetero/homo by duality-e.g. bisexual transgenderidentities (also see De Lauretis 1984,S. Epstein 1992,Stein1992,Warner a 1991). These basic tenets carry provocative methodology. Queertheorists of advocatea new "reading" materials usingan "inside/outside" opposition. the In suchan analysis, reader must assumetheconnotation homosexuality of in the must a product in thedenotation heterosexuality; reader of reinterpret the of terms a homosexual of presence. Further, explication a cultural product's must of direct readers all excluded to forms sexuality hetero/homo opposition as well. Anyworkunderanalysis mustbe readwithan eye forthatwhich it itemizes thussimultaneously and read implies.Whenqueertheorists televisionsitcomLaverneand Shirley Hitchcock's film (Doty 1993) or Alfred a Rope (DA Miller 1991) from homosexual "subject-position," contest they current hierarchical structures sexuality. of alternative Constructing readings ofthe of a work'ssexualimplications deconstructs taken-for-grantedness the to dominant sexualmodel. Reminiscent Garfinkel's of approach identifying "invisible" normative structures, theory's queer subject-positioned readings jolt thevery ofclassification. andFuchs& Ward1994offer process (Agger1991 reviews postmodernism.) of recent, comprehensive

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and by raised socialconstructionists postdifferences, issues the Despite their to struggle self-name, attention a collective's to scholarly modernists direct alike the Suchconcerns underscore and self-characterize, claimsocialprerogative. politics identity. of

Mobilization and Collective Identity Politics

an and movementsspurs it constitute important identity thepolitical Collective cited scholars.Issues ofpolitics raisedin previously are concern identity for the and politics also provides focus works gender/sexuality race. Identity on of works theformation experiencing socialclass (e.g. Blumin on and for many & 1985,Davidoff Hall 1987,Dudley1994,Eichar 1985,Carter 1989,Burawoy 1993,Form1985, 1995,Gallie 1983,Gans 1995,Garcia 1991, 1989,Farrell & & Halle 1984,1993,Katz 1993,Katznelson Weir1985,Katznelson Zolberg 1989). HowMcNall et al 1991,Vanneman Cannon1987,Wright & 1986, trinity" of beyond "holy this politics movescholars concerns identity with ever, confield.Animal environmentalists,health the thediscursive protectionists, current counterculture-in of members the1960sstudent scious,thehomeless, moved issuesofcollective by collectives these too literature, groups exemplify and signification, power. definition, Spurred not properties. collectives on distinct take moved identity, by When than movements rather act orresource mobilization, identity-based byideology for to not mobilize choice it; freedom, to achieve they fight expand react;they in central thisarea,notes: than Alberto Melucci, rather emancipation.
has to by The freedom havewhichcharacterized industrial ... society beenreplaced the industrial caphas the to to freedom be. Theright property been,andremains, basisofboth there society, emerges and model,'realsocialism'.In post-material italism itscompetitor existence to a further of right, right existence, rather, a moremeaningful the to or type (1989:177-78;also see Calhoun1991a:51,Giddens1991:207-17).

collective In thisway,identity politicscreates"new social movements," actions on and focused theexpressive initiatives areself-reflexive sharply that ofcollective members (Melucci1989:60,1997). of form agencya and suggest special Identity politics newsocialmovements ensue and "collective Identities a self-conscious emerge movements agency." members coordinate consciously becausecollectives action; group consciously and and differentiate, mark, insulate, consciously developoffenses defenses, enand and agency persuade coerce. In sucha context, cooperate compete, of one's social environand compassesmorethanthecontrol transformation of and Charles discussion agency the from Taylor's ment.Rather, borrowing a thatcollective self(1985:287), I suggest agencyincludes conscioussense in is collective of groupas agent.Further, agency enacted a moralspace. A

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collective the pursues freedom be because'that to which frames collective's the defines their identity existence right good (Taylor as and 1989). In connection withissuesof identity politics and collective agency, David William Snow,Robert Benford, Gamson, Doug McAdam,andothers address theframing schematization identity it occurswithin and of as social movein ments.Studies thisareadelineate frame the alignment processes bring that focusand shared bothgroup to collectives specific identity particular at historicalmoments.Further, theseworksitemize waysin whichresulting the collective identities direct then movement participants defining paramby the etersand appropriate arenasof collective action. Such analyses remain fully mindful thewaysin which of movement participants' perceptions history, of social structures, cultural and arrangements constrain enhance interpreor the tiveprocesses. This work'sappealrestsin itsmultifaceted theoretical base. with By merging sociocognitive construction processes concerns structural for and organization this creates exciting an factors, literature conceptual bridge, micro macroanalyses, and cultural socialconcerns. and Such linking linking works a forces simultaneous the consideration thought, of provide modelthat and & articulation, action (see e.g. Benford 1993,Benford Hunt1992,Cohen & 1985, Fantasia1988,Gamson1992,Gamsonet al 1982, Gerhards Rucht et & 1992,Huntet al 1994,Jasper Nelkin1992,Johnston 1991,Johnston al 1994,Laranaetal 1994,Lichterman 1996,McAdam1982,1988,1994,Morris & Muellar1992,Snowetal 1986,Snow& Benford 1992,Tarrow 1992,Taylor & Whittier 1992). Recent literature concerns raises the socialconsequences regarding long-term writes identityof of identity politics.MichaelJPiore(1995), forexample, as of Because based movements isolated, cohesive"communities meaning." to Piore such groupsare narrowly focused and formed relative distinctions, find themselves of arguesthat they incapable cross-boundary exchange.Furof conditions he suchgroups often remain unaware theeconomic ther, believes Piore their that collective mayconstrain goals. Based on theseobservations, in rootsof individualism. locatesidentity movements America's ideological He suggests thatcurrent socioeconomic conditions beckona changein this stance. Usingcognitive theories derived from sociologyand anthropology, Piorepresents five-step aimedatreplacing a with shared a plan identity politics commitment a unified to national structure.

IDENTIFICATION PROCESSES
Attention collectives the to and establishmenttheir of identities re-energized has in A interests theidentification itself. growing literature exscholarly process establish plores the mechanicsby which collectivescreate distinctions,

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Suchworks closelylinked are hierarchies, renegotiate ofinclusion. and rules Bourdieu's theories distinction, of to important knowledge theories, including genealogy epistomes, semiotic of the Derrida's focuson difference, Foucault's work sociomental on classifimodelsofSaussure Pierce, Zerubavel's and and elaborates a variety identification on of processes currently cation.Thissection under study. the boundaries the in MicheleLamont(1992) documents roleof symbolic of from interviews construction valuedidentities. Usingrichdatadrawn with men Lamont the States, specifies upper-middleclass in FranceandtheUnited under whichmoral,socioeconomic, cultural and succonditions boundaries conditions socioeconomic of In create inequality. contrast cessfully objective Lamont maintains tri-part a that to Bourdieu, focus, demonstrating theimporvariesacrossspace andtime.Her workalso emphatanceofboundary types her indicate only those boundaries sizes boundary that firmly strength; findings in shared sufficiently togenerate strong hierargrounded widely meaning prove identities relative valuetocollective (Lamont 1995,1997; also chyandconfer & Jill see Cohen1986,Lamont Fournier 1992,Sahlins1989). In related work, and Forbes(1995) use cultural sociallensestoexplore Quadagno& Catherine identification distinction and The amongUS JobCorpsparticipants. authors of and examine workings bothsymbolic the boundaries structural barriers as to and Concerns these factors contributegender inequality. reproduction gender in withsymbolic boundaries characterize recent inquiries lifecourseresearch as well. Works Gaines (1991), Jeffreys (1989), Modell (1989), Postman by soci(1982), Waksler (1991),Winn(1983), andZelizer(1985) helptorefocus whichage categories constructed, are on contexts within ologists thecultural are and occur. age identities built, age transitions issuesofidenSomers White (1992) approach Margaret (1994) andHarrison of that the or tification specifying cultural by repertoires systems meaning charcommunities. Theseauthors especially are concerned acterize various symbolic enabletheinvoking with waysin which the socialcontext sociallocation and In Paul DiMaggio's(1982, 1987,1992) landof suchrepertoires. thisregard, on the mark research theartsalso proves important. DiMaggiodemonstrates and and status solidify categories waysin whichartacquisition classification the the distinguish elitefrom ordinary. In a different Jane Bachnik Charles & Quinn(1994) focuson indexarena, and itsrole in theconstruction Japanese of on identity. Building the icality "uchi"(inside)and"soto"(outside), various authors explore Japanese concepts thewaysin which these distinctions direct collective orientation and boundary In all consider comboth behavior. probing linguistic pattern identity, authors their munication social practice and linkage context.Elsewhere, to through his of a that Eviatar Zerubavel (1997a) offers specialedition brings concepts

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and lumping splitting life.Authors to chart these complementary sociomental processes they as explore identification distinction monetary and in exchange, fetal classification, construction sexualidentities, other the of and interesting areas(also see E Zerubavel 1991, 1997b). Amongsocialpsychologists, John C Turner presents depersonalization a process as enabling collective identities. His work mapsthe waysinwhich depersonalization permits socialstereotyping, and groupcohesiveness, ethnocentrism, cooperation altruism, emotional concollective and et tagionandempathy, action, other processes (Turner al 1987, & fivestepsof James Aho (1994) invokes 1994). Finally, Berger Luckman's of reification elaborate to boththeconstruction deconstruction political and in of enemies.Aho situates analysis a variety recent his incidents, including of theRubyRidgeaffair, dissolution theSoviet the and of Union, a case study a KKK defection. Usingmediareports, government documents, interviews, and of Aho carefully explores development collective the moral righteousness. He notestheprocesses which by suchsentiments legitimate destruction the the of with "other." Grappling thequestion "Can onestruggle effectively against evil without becometainted it?",Aho buildsan interesting foran enemy by case "them" "us." and that both is The study objectsalso proveskeyto recent of research identification. on Severalworksnotethe ways in whichindividuals groupsuse artoband and jects (Martorella 1989),commodities commodity signs(Appadurai 1986, Hennion &Meadel 1993, O'Barr1994),orclothing Goldman 1992, (Rubenstein and identities. this 1995)toarticulate project Complimenting agenda, Dauber's of French (1992) work Pueblopottery, on Mukerji's (1994,1997)studies formal of use to structures objects better andZukin's(1991) exploration city gardens, in the the contexts which understand political, cultural, social,and economic esobjectsareproduced. Finally, Nippert-Eng (1996) andSilver(1996) offer in excursions theroleofpersonal on peciallyinteresting possessions bridging transitions. identity in of Severalworks, anchored thestudy discourse symbolization, and provide a multitiered of analysis collective identification theideologies and that to suchstudies identiit. support In contrast deterministic theories, approach and fication a process as that unfolds relation economic, in to historical, political contexts. such,multitiered As view atcritical investigations identification in junctures a collective's history, including periodsof identity production, its institutionalization, periodsof identity and these interpretation. Further, works identity cast discourse symbols mediators structure action. and as of and Robert Wuthnow's of the on (1989) work communities discourse exemplifies Wuthnow the and conapproach. explores general cultural, political, economic ditions enabledthree that the specific ideologies:theProtestant Reformation, socialism. After sources of and the Enlightenment, Marxist charting historical

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theseagendas, Wuthnow traces modesbywhich the eachideology instituwas tionalized, taking readers through schools, the religious scientific and groups, andthegovernments mediathat and modeled disseminated perspecand each tive. Finally, Wuthnow examines audience reception reaction, and analyzing thecollective application experience thethree and of ideologies through the decades. Wuthnow's inquiry rich demonstrates complex the chainby which movement and ideologies resulting identities both are born sustained. and FollowingWuthnow's example,Valentine Moghadam(1994) adoptsthe multitiered approach, analyzing fundamentalist discourse itsrelationship and to genderand national identities. Other multitiered worksincludeMichele Dillon's (1993, 1996) studies discourse divorce abortion. works of on and Her explore waysin which the political climate theinstitutional and of status discourse to producers relates both nature the the and effect discursive of strategies. In a similar vein,David Campbell(1992) examines American the "discourse ofdanger," the sucha discourse exploring waysinwhich of shapesvisions the American "us,"the and enemy "them," ultimately, form American the of foreign policy.Cerulo(1995),too,appliesa multitiered in of perspective herstudy national identity symbolization. the of Probing various contexts anthem flag and she a adoption, identifiessetofsocialstructural variables appear delimit that to general rulesof symbolic expression. Ceruloalso explores institutionalthe ization identity of symbols, a suggesting newtheoretical modelfor predicting symbol her on change.Finally, inquiries symbol and reception interpretation elucidate faulty thus identity the symbolization, specifying conditions under whichsymbols failto capture fervency those can the of they portray.

TECHNOLOGY AND IDENTITY

In thepresent one environment, cannot consider without reference identity to newcommunication the technologies (NCTs). NCTs havechanged backdrop is which against the identity constructed; havereframed generalized others they andthe"generalized elsewheres" which selftakes the (Meyrowitz 1989) from itscues. Joshua the to the (1985,1989,1997)wasamong first fully Meyrowitz explore link. the examine waysin which electronic mediareNCT/identity His works the of organize sites socialinteraction. to NCTs weaken According Meyrowitz, orsever connections the between and physical social"place."Inthis NCTs way, locatetheselfin newhybrid arenasof action;they meshpublicand private, beckonnewtypes performances, form collective of and new configurations:
Television fostered riseofhundreds "minorities"-people in perceiving has the of a who wider to as in isolated somepocket it.Television of has world, begin seethemselves unfairly the and disenfranchisedgiving them accesstosocialinformation empowered disabled the by

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in spiteof their physical isolation.Television givenwomen outside has an viewof their incarceration thehome. Television weakened in has visibleauthorities destroying by the distance mystery onceenhanced and that their auraandprestige. Andtelevision been has ableto do this without requiring disabled leavetheir the to wheelchairs, without asking the housewife stopcooking to dinner, without and demanding theaverage that citizen leavehis orhereasychair (1986:309).

According Meyrowitz, placesenabled NCTs reconfigure boundto the by the ariesthat distinguish collectives. Thusatthepresent socialmoment, differthe children encesdividing from adults be than may lessstark those distinguish that thecomputer literate from nonliterate. linethat the The homefrom separates work to maynowpale in comparison online/offline borders. David Altheide in (1995) posescomplementary positions hiswork NCTs on and theself. He argues that NCTs enablenewcommunication formats-new modesofselecting, In organizing, presenting and information. turn, these new formats reshape socialactivity; modify dismantle or they current practices, and spuror shapenewones. In thisway, NCTs create newenvironments selffor and new for development identification; present opportunities collective they affiliation mobilization. and Altheide's on illuswritings keyboard technology trate theseideas. In considering human experience withtelephones, ATMs, videogames,calculators, television and computers, the casts controls, author thekeyboard a newdoorto interaction. argues as He technolthat keyboard a of ogyinitiates largemajority modern exchange. But whilekeyboards may us transport to places noteasilyaccessedin thepast,Altheide that the argues limits directs form substance thesocial interaction and the and of technology it enables. For example, keyboard technology reduces distance the between children adults, often and a of socialization. promotingtype reverse Similarly, and adult work playsites;keyboards keyboard technology homogenizes merge workand playworlds, linkadultworkspaces children's and playspaces,and reconfigure children's play via theworldof adulttools(1995: chaps.2, 3). communication also explores intersection the Beyondspecific tools,Altheide ofcommunication, He the and power, socialcontrol. considers waysin which some withthe and communication formats technology its resulting provide a whileleaving others vulnerable therealto powerto define social situation ityof crafted Altheide outlines the images. In theseand similar discussions, communication formats "block"thesocial stage, can waysin which scripting action eveninrealms to emergent thought possessan internal logic. In thespirit Meyrowitz Altheide, of and the of many explore impact NCTs on formation resulting and collective community identity. Beniger (1987) initiated communities thisagenda,suggesting specific waysin which media-generated works describe techa provide "pseudo-gemeinschaft" experience. Subsequent communities more as and nologically generated tangible real. Severalauthors the document processes which the NCT's build"we-ness," by demonstrating

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concrete effects techno-links charting of and emergent cultures reference of that canunify oncedisparate socialactors (Cerulo al 1992,Cerulo Ruane1997, et & Dayan 1992,Liebes 1990,Purcell1997,Steuer 1992,Tichi1991). Butothers areless enthusiastic regarding impact NCTs on community identity. the of and Schlesinger (1993),for example, notes both potential thesurprising the and failureofelectronic mediain constructing a unified European identity among the nations comprise Euro-community see Morley Robins1995). that the (also & Fisher's(1992) sociohistorical Similarly, research thetelephone on suggests that structure be remarkably can resilient technological to community change. of to soOverall,Fisher(1997) remains skeptical NCT's ability reconfigure cial bonds(also see Postman 1992). These contradictory positions haveled sometoinitiate multidimensional models to models, designed address disand forms NCT-generated of tinguish bonds(see Calhoun199lb, Cerulo varying 1997). Relatedworksmagnify identification processeswithin specific NCT domains. Sherry Turkle onlinecommunities (1995), forexample, explores and their on impact personal construction. follows of identity She members a viras tualcommunity they interact "multi-user in domains" (MUDS). Testimony ofMUD members, alongwith Turkle's keeninsights, provide uniquepicture a the and of detailing building experiencing online Turkle docupersona. Further, the ments waysinwhich individuals online relative other to negotiate identities of the selvesand"real" facets theself.By probing balancebetween "virtual" work forces to question perspective places virtual us that selves,Turkle's any In secondto theconcrete. another Reeves& Clifford experience arena, Byron Nass (1996) approach to communication mediaas objectsrelevant identityinteractions. essence, authors that In find mediaobjects becomea the building in building self, they of humanviable"other" the and outline waysinwhich the mirror Reeves& Nass to-machine human relationships purely relationships. for that with voicesdifferdiscover, instance, peopletreat computers female than thosewith malevoices;peoplearepolite computers though even ently to of theydon't need to be; thesize and movement TV screenimagesaffects and in of physical responses perceptions personal bodyspace waysidentical to real-life motion.Thesepatterns implications identity hold for studies and to beyond.Indeed, relevant communication the efficacy, authors suggest that thehuman brain notsufficiently evolved to has relative technology's rapidadvancement. Reeves& Nass suggest this can waysinwhich knowledge improve future technological products.

CONCLUSION
Theliterature reviewed here an constitutes antithesis traditional to studidentity built The research fronts. works cited here refocus ies,anantithesis uponseveral

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from scholarly attentions theindividual thecollective.These works to often prioritize discourse overthesystematic scrutiny behavior. of Manystudies approach identity a sourceofmobilization as rather a product it. Finally, than of theanalysis virtual of identities competes now with research identities on esin world. considering old andthenewofidentity, In tablished thecopresent the one finds field a This ripeforsynthesis. section suggests potential avenues for that such The works exemplify efforts. works chosen here are synthesis, noting not"idealtypes," rather but suggestive models-modelsthat illustrate can what is from the careful reflection pastandpresent. on be gainedwhen future mined Some have achieveda productive of the synthesis identity workthrough of for reconciliation theory. In recent workon genderidentity, example, Judith Lorber (1994) synthesizes constructionist postmodern and concerns of theday withissuesraisedby sex roletheorists Marxist and feminists past of decades. Her efforts result an interesting in that theory frames gender a as social institution-a of free-standing that entity establishes patterns expectaorders socialprocesses, drives In tions, and socialorganizations. another arena, Norbert Peircian Meadianparadigms form neoand to a Wiley(1995) merges pragmatist oftheself-the selfas a three-dimensional view dialoguebetween "I," "you," "me." Wileythen notions reflexivity of and works with pragmatist and Durkheimian to a a solidarity concepts create modelof "a semiotic self," sui generis resistant socialdetermination.a historical spurred self In era to by that of self identity politics, Wileyargues conceptions a suigeneris mayprove of vitalto thedefense democratic principles. in Others attend macro-micro to the linkages promoting causeofsynthesis.3 theoretical advancesrelevant identity to studiesrest Indeed,severalrecent on successful macro-micro workon habitus, Giddens's linkages:Bourdieu's or structuration theories communicative of action. Furtheory, Habermas's a of discussedhave successfully estabther, number the worksheretofore lishedthe linksof whichI speak. Researchon social movements sevor illustrations. Other eral of themultitiered identity projects represent prime determined eradicate to macro-micro initiatives underway. example, are For elements DeidreBoden(1994) innovatively combines themicro-macro divide, idenofeach arena, thus a to building uniqueanalytic approach organizational Bodenmapsconversational acrossvaried and tity, form, function. exchanges of the organizational settings, usingthesedata to configure structure talkin She thenexamines as talkstructures vehiclesthatconstitute organizations. within as organizations, analyzing organizations they emerge dailyinteraction. Boden arguesthat "thewaysin whichorganizational actors realizeboththe
this at advocate path(Collins1986,Huber1991,Ritzer1990), 3Within sociology largemany of the to in particular, reference issues addressing intersection thesocial and thecultural with (Schudson1989,Sewell 1992,Swidler1986).

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to in environmentscritical what is working constraints opportunitiestheir and " (p. 32). ForBoden, an themicro-processes actually constitutes 'environment' a of the (Snow 1987 offers of talkbecomethemacro-structure organization. on talkand identity.) another In arena,Cerulo project similarly interesting narratives violence.She of linkages analyzing in (1997b)pursues macro-micro in theinstitutionalization of storytelling formats thisarea and docexplores of the suchformats haveon audienceevaluations violent can uments impact her the under which macro-social In essence, study elucidates conditions acts. of can and micro-patternscognition norms communication direct of complex PeggyThoits& LaurenVirshup identification. Amongsocialpsychologists, of merger hingeson social theories the that (1997) proposea macro-micro self-schema might unify theory mind.Specifically, suggest they waysinwhich on and identity. inquiries individual collective of also revisit identity might In thecause of synthesis, scholars collective micro-level studies thearea.Muchcommon in existsbettraditional ground earlier I and to weentraditional newapproaches thetopic.Forexample, noted mulscholars currently the are exploring waysinwhich identity that collective of affiliations the experience. qualitatively change nature human tipleidentity focusing on similar themes, the addressed During 1980s,socialpsychologists' exand of resulting identities, theimpact bothon human multiple roles,their 1980,Thoits1986). To be perience (see e.g. Burke& Franzoi1988,Stryker of collective micro-level and different elements "human inquiries pursue sure, of socialpractices, and processes, experience." Yet,knowledge thecognitive and projected is is toolswithwhichidentity constructed, enacted, symbolic efforts translate to focused to each schoolof thought. Knowing this, integral from social psychological the realm themacrolevelcould to certain findings for collective studies. holdrich rewards identity rests blendan site level, important ofsynthesis inthecareful Atthebroadest Within pasttwodecades,thehumanist the ing of intellectual perspectives. the to has or cultural studies approach identity dominated field. To be sure, for a cannot to of afford ignore these provide works, they sociologists identity viewsthat conrituals, world and treatment thesymbols, of richandthorough this At the must consider literature stitute identity. thesametime, sociologist withsome care. At present, cultural the studies position appearssomewhat in conclusion locatestheconstructed that nature culture of trapped a singular of socialaction frequently frame inthesole service power. Further, works such constituted. tapping In materias a processthatis fully identity culturally from cultural mustdiligently als garnered the studies sociologists approach, distinction between social and thecultural the maintain critical the analytic and consideration actors, of Schudson1997). Via careful collectives, (see via attention livedexperience the to and broader socialinstitutions, thoughtful

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cultural and products rituals associated with. suchexperience, sociology the of identity fully can elucidate intricate the linksbetween social and cultural the domains.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanksto Paul DiMaggio and MicheleLamont helpful for comments an on earlier version this of manuscript.
VisittheAnnualReviews home page at http://www.annurev.org.

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