1

DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF ADVANCED COMPUTATIONAL TECHNIQUES

FOR PROJECTILE AERODYNAMICS

J. Sahu
*
and K.R. Heavey
U.S. Army Research Laboratory
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21005-5067

ABSTRACT
This paper describes the progress made in the
development and application of two advanced state-of-
the-art computational techniques for numerical prediction
of projectile aerodynamics. The first method deals with
time-accurate coupled computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) and rigid body dynamics (RBD) techniques for
prediction of the unsteady aerodynamics and free-flight
aerodynamics of projectiles. The second method deals
with a new time-accurate sweep procedure for rapid
generation of aerodynamic coefficients for flight dynamic
simulation purposes. The coupled multidisciplinary
technique allows virtual fly-out of projectiles on
supercomputers, and predicts the unsteady free-flight
aerodynamics and the flight dynamics in an integrated
manner. A new novel time-accurate sweep procedure has
been developed for rapid generation of aerodynamics and
has been demonstrated to produce quasi-steady solutions
for a range of angles of attack in one sweep very
efficiently compared to traditional steady-state methods.
1. INTRODUCTION
Understanding the aerodynamics is critical to the
design of stable projectile configurations and contributes
significantly to the overall performance of weapon
systems [1-5]. Numerical simulations have the potential
of greatly reducing design and development costs while
providing a detailed understanding of the complex
aerodynamics associated with each change. Development
of advanced computational predictive capabilities is thus,
necessary for accurate numerical simulations and
characterization of projectile aerodynamics.
Improved computer technology and state-of-the-art
numerical procedures enable solutions to complex, three-
dimensional problems associated with projectile and
missile aerodynamics. For maneuvering munitions
however, there is a lack of knowledge and understanding
of the unsteady aerodynamics associated with control
maneuvers. Accurate numerical modeling of this
unsteady aerodynamics is still a challenging problem both
in terms of time-accurate solution techniques and
computing resources required. Our research efforts are
thus directed at providing state-of-the-art high fidelity
physics-based computational tools.

On one extreme, our goal is to be able to perform
time-accurate multidisciplinary-coupled computational
fluid dynamics (CFD), rigid body dynamics (RBD), and
flight control system (FCS) computations for complex
guided projectiles with control maneuvers with jets and/or
control surfaces such as fins/canards. As part of a DOD
High Performance Computing Grand Challenge Project,
our recent efforts have been focused on the development
and application of advanced state-of-the-art time-accurate
coupled CFD /RBD/FCS techniques for prediction of the
unsteady free-flight aerodynamics and flight behavior of
projectiles in actual flights.

This multidisciplinary research has initially resulted
in a predictive capability that allows virtual fly-out of
projectiles on supercomputers and predicts the fight path
of a projectile and all the associated unsteady free-flight
aerodynamics in an integrated manner [6]. The coupled
CFD/RBD or virtual fly-out approach offers an ideal way
to compute the aerodynamic coefficients (both static and
dynamic) with one simulation. This coupled technique
essentially provides a capability for performing virtual
analogs of flight tests and has been successfully applied to
simultaneously determine the flight trajectory and the
associated unsteady free-flight aerodynamics of a finned
projectile at supersonic velocity [6] and a spinning
projectile at a subsonic speed [7]. This virtual fly-out
technique has now been extended and applied to the free-
flight of the same spinning projectile in the more difficult
transonic speed regime [8, 9].
On the other extreme, faster techniques are also
needed to address the preliminary design problem where
fast turn-around of multiple designs is needed. The idea
here is to rapidly generate the aerodynamic database with
high fidelity models (with as minimum loss in accuracy as
possible) and impact the preliminary design cycle in the
development of new projectiles. Research efforts are thus
directed at the development and application of a new
time-accurate sweep procedure [10] for rapid generation
of aerodynamic coefficients for flight dynamic simulation
purposes.
This paper describes both the coupled CFD/RBD
technique and the time-accurate sweep procedure and
their applications to projectile aerodynamics. These
techniques have been exercised on spinning and fin
stabilized projectiles. The basic CFD technique used in
the present research is described first followed by the
description of the two advanced computational
techniques.

2
|
u

X
Z Y

Figure 1. Rigid Body Dynamics Schematic.
2. BASIC CFD SOLUTION TECHNIQUE
The complete set of 3-D time-dependent Navier-
Stokes equations is solved for simulations of for CFD and
CFD/RBD coupled virtual fly-out simulations. The basic
numerical framework contains unified-grid, unified-
physics, and unified-computing features and can be found
in references 11 and 12. The 3-D, time-dependent
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations are
solved using the following finite volume method:
| |
} } }
= +
V V
dV dA dV
t
H G F W
c
c
(1)
where W is the vector of conservative variables, F and G
are the inviscid and viscous flux vectors, respectively, H
is the vector of source terms, V is the cell volume, and A
is the surface area of the cell face.

Implicit local time-stepping and relaxation are used.
Use of an implicit scheme circumvents the stringent
stability limits suffered by their explicit counterparts, and
successive relaxation allows update of cells as
information becomes available and thus aids convergence.
Second-order discretization was used for the flow
variables and the turbulent viscosity equation. The
turbulence closure is based on topology-parameter-free
formulations. A RANS two-equation turbulence model
[13] model was used for the computation of turbulent
flows. This model is ideally suited to unstructured book-
keeping and massively parallel processing due to its
independence from constraints related to the placement of
boundaries and/or zonal interfaces.

For time-accurate simulations such as virtual fly-outs
that are of interest here, dual time-stepping was used to
achieve the desired time-accuracy. The term dual-time-
step implies the use of two time steps. The first one is an
outer or global (and physical) time step that
corresponds to the time discretization of the physical time
variation term. This time step can be chosen directly by
the user and is typically set to a value to represent 1/100
of the period of oscillation expected or forced in the
transient flow. This time step is applied to every cell (not
separately varying). An artificial or inner or local
time variation term is added to the basic physical
equations. This time step and corresponding inner-
iteration strategy is chosen to help satisfy the physical
transient equations to the desired degree. The time step
for the inner iterations is allowed to vary spatially. Also,
relaxation with multigrid (algebraic) acceleration is
employed to reduce the residues of the physical transient
equations. It is found that an order of magnitude
reduction in the residues is usually sufficient to produce a
good transient iteration. This may require a few internal
iterations to achieve, between 5 and 25 depending on the
magnitude of the outer time step, the nature of the
problem, the nature of the boundary conditions and the
consistency of the mesh with respect to the physics at
hand.
3. ADVANCED NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES
The two advanced numerical procedures, the coupled
CFD/RBD technique and the time-accurate sweep
procedure are described below.

3.1 Coupled CFD/RBD Virtual Fly-Out Technique
A real time-accurate approach is used in the present
work. This approach requires that the six-degrees-of-
freedom (6-DOF) body dynamics be computed at each
repetition of the fluid flow solver. In three-dimensional
space, a rigid object has six degrees of freedom: three
translations and three rotations. The 6-DOF code
computes linear and angular velocities as well as the
orientation of the projectile, which are used as input to the
computational fluid dynamics code. In turn, the
aerodynamic forces and moments obtained from the flow
solver are used to solve the 6-DOF body dynamics before
moving on to the next time step. This procedure allows
one to perform time-accurate multidisciplinary-coupled
CFD/RBD computations for the partial or entire flight
trajectory of a complex guided projectile system.
The CFD capability used here solves the Navier
Stokes equations described above and incorporates
advanced boundary conditions and grid motion
capabilities [6]. An unique feature of the present coupled
approach is the full grid motion capability that allows the
grid to move (translate and rotate) as the projectile flies
down range, since the grid velocity is assigned to each
mesh point. To account for rigid body dynamics, the grid
point velocities are set as if the grid is attached to the rigid
body with six degrees of freedom. As shown
schematically in Figure 1, the six degrees of freedom
consist of the three spatial coordinates (x,y,z) and the
three Euler angles, roll, pitch, and yaw (|, u, +). For the
rigid body dynamics, the coupling refers to the interaction

3
between the aerodynamic forces/moments and the
dynamic response of the projectile/body to these forces
and moments. The forces and moments are computed
every CFD time step and transferred to a 6-DOF module
which computes the bodys response to the forces and
moments. The response is converted into translational
and rotational accelerations that are integrated to obtain
translational and rotational velocities and integrated once
more to obtain linear position and angular orientation.
The grid point locations and grid point velocities are the
set from the dynamic response. Both CFD and RBD
computations are performed at every time step in a fully
coupled manner.
The projectile in the coupled CFD/RBD simulation
along with its grid moves and rotates as the projectile flies
downrange. Grid velocity is assigned to each mesh point.
This general capability can be tailored for many specific
situations. For example, the grid point velocities can be
specified to correspond to a spinning projectile. In this
case, the grid speeds are assigned as if the grid is attached
to the projectile and spinning with it. Similarly, to
account for rigid body dynamics, the grid point velocities
can be set as if the grid is attached to the rigid body with
six degrees of freedom. As shown in Figure 1, the 6-DOF
comprises of the inertial position components of the
projectile mass center (
, , x y z
) and the three standard
Euler angles (
, , | u
), roll angle, pitch angle, and yaw
angle, respectively.

In order to properly initialize the CFD simulation,
two modes of operation for the CFD code are utilized,
namely, an uncoupled and a coupled mode. The
uncoupled mode is used to initialize the CFD flow
solution while the coupled mode represents the final time-
accurate coupled CFD/RBD solution. In the uncoupled
mode, the rigid body dynamics are specified. The
uncoupled mode begins with a computation performed in
a steady state mode with the grid velocities prescribed
to account for the proper initial position (
0 0 0
, , x y z
),
orientation (
0 0 0
, , | u ), and translational velocity
(
0 0 0
, , u v w
) components of the complete set of initial
conditions to be prescribed. After the steady state solution
is converged, the initial spin rate (
0
p
) is included and a
new quasi-steady state solution is obtained using time-
accurate CFD. A sufficient number of time steps are
performed so that the angular orientation for the spin axis
corresponds to the prescribed initial conditions. This
quasi-steady state flow solution is the starting point for
the time-accurate coupled solution. For the coupled
solution, the mesh is translated back to the desired initial
position (
0 0 0
, , x y z
) and the remaining angular velocity
initial conditions (
0 0
, q r
) are then added. In the coupled
mode, the aerodynamic forces and moments are passed to
the RBD simulation which propagates the rigid state of
the projectile forward in time. The time-accurate coupled
CFD/RBD simulation provides a full flow solution
including the aerodynamic portion of the total applied
force and moment along with the full state of the rigid
projectile (
, , , , , , , , , , , x y z u v w p q r | u
) at every time
step in the solution.
3.2 Time-Accurate Sweep Procedure
A new time-accurate sweep procedure has been
developed for rapid generation of static aerodynamic
coefficients across a range of angles of attack for a fixed
side slip angle, for example. In this procedure, the first
step involves generating a steady-state solution at the
lowest angle of attack in the desired sweep. This steady-
state solution serves as the initial condition for the angle
of attack sweep which is done in the time-accurate mode.
Dual-time-stepping as described below is used to in the
time-accurate sweep procedure. Starting with the steady
state solution, the first time-step is run in the unsteady
(time-accurate) mode at the starting angle of attack.
Subsequently, at every time step after the first one, the
computational grid is rotated by a small increment (on the
order of 0.5) across the range of angles of attack and
computed solutions are obtained in the unsteady mode
basically at the selected increment in angle of attack for
the entire range of angle of attack. Figure 2 shows the
location of the projectile at various stages of the sweep.
In this example, the rotation point is at the end of the
projectile; however, it can also be conveniently chosen to
be the center of gravity of the projectile as well. Here,
the idea is to generate a number of steady-state solutions
rapidly, using the solution generated for each angle as an
initial guess for the next time step (angle). The rotation
angle is chosen small enough to capture any non-linear
aerodynamic effect that may be present.
Alpha Sweep Alpha Sweep

Figure 2. Location of the projectile at various stages of
the sweep procedure.

Generally, dual time-stepping method is used to achieve
the desired time-accuracy between the time-steps for
time-accurate simulations of projectile aerodynamics. In

4

Figure 3. Spinning projectile.
the dual time-stepping procedure, the outer time step is
typically set to a smaller value to provide the desired
time-accuracy. In the present time-accurate sweep
procedure, we make use of the time-accurate dual time-
stepping method to determine a quasi-steady solution at
each time-step or increment of rotation angle very
quickly. Therefore, the present sweep procedure requires
the use of a very large time step of the order of 1.0 sec
which is ten to hundred thousand larger than a time-step
required for actual time-accurate solutions. The larger
time step drives the rate of change of flow variables with
respect to angle of attack, for example, to zero as fast as
possible. The solutions obtained are therefore, not time-
accurate, but are efficiently obtained using a time-
accurate procedure. Typically, 25 inner iterations are
found to be adequate in the present simulations using the
time-accurate sweep procedure. This inner iteration is a
critical parameter in the use of the present time-accurate
sweep procedure to obtain the final solution at each time-
step or rotation angle increment.
4. RESULTS
Numerical simulations have been performed using
the advanced techniques described above at the U.S.
Army Research Laboratory (ARL) Department of
Defense Supercomputer Resource Center (DSRC) using
up to 128 processors on a Linux Cluster as part of a Grand
Challenge Project. Virtual fly-out simulation results have
been obtained using the coupled CFD/RBD technique at
transonic speeds on a spinning projectile. Computed
results have also been obtained for a finned projectile and
a complex missile to demonstrate the capability of a
newly developed time-accurate sweep procedure for rapid
generation of aerodynamic coefficients.
4.1 CFD/RBD Virtual Fly-Out in Transonic Flights
As part of a grand challenge project, our recent
research efforts have been directed towards extending the
application of the coupled Navier-Stokes and 6-DOF
method to transonic projectile flights [8,9]. Computed
results have been obtained at an initial transonic speeds M
= 0.95 and 1.1 for a spinning projectile using an
unstructured time-accurate Navier-Stokes computational
technique that included grid motion capabilities. In
addition, the projectile in the coupled CFD/RBD
simulation actually moved along with its grid as it flew
downrange.
The spinning projectile modeled in this study is an
ogive-cylinder-boattailed configuration (see Figure 3).
An unstructured computational mesh (see Figure 4) was
generated for this projectile. In general, most of the grid
points are clustered in the boundary-layer and the wake
regions. The unstructured mesh was generated using the
Multipurpose Intelligent Meshing Environment (MIME)


Figure 4. Unstructured mesh near the body.



Figure 6. Computed pressure contours, M = 1.1,
= 8.5
o
.


Figure 5. Computed pressure contours at initial
angular orientation, uncoupled solution, M = 0.95

5


Figure. 7 Euler pitch angle vs. range, M = 0.95


Figure. 8 Euler yaw angle vs. range, M = 0.95

grid-generation software recently developed by
Metacomp Technologies.
Coupled CFD/RBD virtual fly-outs computations
were made for the spinning projectile starting sets of
initial conditions. The entire initial state is required at the
beginning of the calculations. Figure 5 and 6 show the
computed pressure contours at a given time or at a given
location in the trajectory for both initial Mach = 0.95 and
1.1 cases, respectively. These figures clearly show the
orientation of the body at that instant in time and the
resulting asymmetric flow fields and the shock structures
due to the body at angle of attack. The orientation of the
projectile of course changes from one instant in time to
another as the projectile flies down range. As part of the
computed solution the entire state is known at every time
step of the solution. This included the positions and the
orientations of the projectile. Figures 7 and 8 show the
variation of the Euler pitch angle and yaw angle with
distance traveled. As seen in these figures, both the
amplitude and frequency in the Euler angle variations are
predicted very well by the computed results and match
extremely well with the data from the flight tests.
Although not shown here, good agreement has also been
observed between computed positions and the measured
data from the flight tests.
The virtual fly-out simulations use the total
aerodynamic forces and moments to move the projectile
from one time step to the next. The same procedure used
to extract the aerodynamic coefficients from the flight test
data can be also be used to extract the aerodynamic force
and moment coefficients. Both static and dynamic
derivatives are extracted from the one virtual fly-out
simulation. An example of this is shown in Table 1. The
extracted aerodynamic coefficients (static coefficients
such as the drag, normal force, pitching moment, and
dynamic derivatives such as the pitch damping moment
coefficient, Magus moment coefficient, and roll damping
moment coefficient) from the virtual fly-out simulation
match very well the coefficient data from the flight test.
Table 1 Comparison of extracted aerodynamic
coefficients with test data.
Data
Source
Zero-
Yaw
Axial
Force
Coeff.,
0
D
C

Normal
Force
Coeff.
Deriv.,
o
N
C

Pitching
Moment
Coeff.
Deriv,
o
m
C

Pitch
Damping
Moment
Coeff.,
Cm
q

Magnus
moment
Coeff.
Deriv.,
o
p n
C

Roll
Damping
Moment
Coeff.,
lp
C

Spark
Range
0.17 2.08 4.92 -17.1 1.00 -0.026
CFD 0.19 2.43 4.81 -18.4 1.24 -0.024

4.2 Demonstration of Time-Accurate Sweep Procedure
on Finned Projectiles
Another advanced CFD technique being developed is
the time-accurate sweep procedure. It allows rapid
generation of aerodynamic coefficients over a large range
of angles of attack analogous to experimental sweeps in
wind tunnel testing.
This technique is demonstrated here first on a canard-
controlled finned projectile with an angle of attack sweep
from o = 0 to 20. Figure 9 shows the computed
pressure contours at M = 2.0 and at three angles of attack,
o = 0, 10, and 20. The flow field becomes more
complex with increasing angle of attack. Figures 10 and
11, respectively, show the computed normal force and the
pitching moment coefficients for a range of angle of
attack from 0 to 20 obtained in one single sweep. Also
shown here for comparison are predicted normal force
and pitching moment coefficients obtained at three angles
of attack (o = 0, 7, and 20) using traditional steady-
state methods. As see in these figures, the aerodynamic

6
coefficients obtained at forty angles of attack from the
sweep procedure compare very well with the steady state
results, but are also obtained very rapidly in less time than
it takes for two steady-state results.
This new time-accurate sweep procedure has also
been successfully applied to an even more complex non-
axisymmetric (elliptic) missile configuration [10,14] with
a multiple sets of fins (see Figure 12). Figure 13 shows a
typical computed Mach contour plot for this complex
configuration at a supersonic speed, M = 2.5 and at an
angle of attack, o = 20. It clearly shows the complex
flow pattern and asymmetry. Computed results were
obtained using the sweep procedure from angle of attack
o = -4.5 to 31. A critical parameter in this sweep
procedure is the number of inner time iterations. The
effect of the number of inner iterations on the computed
solutions was studied in detail. A number of steady-state
results were also obtained for comparison purposes.
Figures 14 and 15 show representative results for the



Figure 9. Computed pressure contours, M = 2.0,
= 0
o
, 10
o
, and 20
o
(from top to bottom)

Figure 10. Normal force vs. angle of attack, M = 2.

Figure 11. Pitching moment vs. angle of attack, M = 2.


Figure 12. Schematic diagram of a complex non-
axisymmetric (elliptic) missile.



Figure 13. Computed Mach contours for the pitch
symmetry plane, M = 2.5, | = 0 and o = 20.
.

7
normal force and the pitching moment, respectively.
These results clearly show that 25 inner iterations are
adequate to provide the desired accuracy. Computed
results obtained from the sweep procedure using 25 inner
time iterations match very well with the steady-state
results at all angles of attack considered here.
The sweep results not only match well with the
traditional steady-state results, but they were obtained
very efficiently. Table 2 provides a comparison of
computational time and resources used between the
traditional steady-state approach and the new time-
accurate sweep procedure. The sweep procedure provides
seventy-two solutions in about the same amount of
computer time needed for traditional three steady-state
runs. These numerical results were obtained utilizing the
high performance computing resources at the ARL DSRC
at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. All solutions
were obtained using 16 to 128 processors on MJM, a
Linux Networx Advanced Technology Cluster with 4400
cores and 8.8 TB of memory.


Table 2. Computational time and resource
requirements.
Run Type Steady-State Sweep (25
inner
iterations)
Solutions per Run 1 (one angle of attack) 72 (in 0.5 deg
increments)
Total Processing
Hours
48 hrs 90 hrs
CPU Time 6 hrs on 8 CPUs 5.5 hrs on 16
CPUS

5. SUMMARY
Steady progress has been made in the development of
two advanced computational techniques: a
multidisciplinary coupled CFD/RBD method and a new
time-accurate sweep procedure. The two methods have
been exercised and demonstrated on different projectiles.
The coupled CFD/RBD method was successfully
extended to transonic flights of a spinning projectile.
Computed 6-DOF variables and extracted aerodynamic
forces and moments were compared with flight test data
and were found in good agreement with the data. The
coupled virtual fly-out method has been shown now to
provide unsteady aerodynamics and flight dynamics of
projectiles across the flight regime. The ultimate goal of
this research activity is to create a one-of-a-kind coupled
predictive capability for affordable precision munitions
which will provide detailed insight into important
nonlinear behaviors and address aerodynamic and flight
dynamic behaviors that are not possible with other
methodology.
A new time-accurate sweep procedure has been
developed for rapid generation of aerodynamics in order
to impact the preliminary design cycle with higher fidelity
physical models. This research is directly applicable to
many Army munition development programs. The
efficiency of this new sweep procedure has been
demonstrated on a finned projectile and a complex missile
configuration. Clearly, the new sweep procedure
provides results that compare very well with the
traditional steady-state solutions, but require significantly
less resources, producing accurate aerodynamic data for
simple and complex configurations in a timely and
efficient manner. Research efforts are ongoing to extend
this technique to include variable side slip angles and
other speed regimes.

Figure 14: Normal force coefficient as a function of
angle of attack, M = 2.5, | = 0.

Figure 15: Pitching moment coefficient as a function
of angle of attack, M = 2.5, | = 0.


8
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th
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