rm Rio Nolb\ cess Netan 1 — An Intefactive Approach aos __» to Language Pedagogy @ SECOND EDITION H. DOUGLAS BROWNCONTENTS Preface xi Text Credits xv PART I. FOUNDATIONS FOR CLASSROOM PRACTICE Chapter 1 Getting Started 2 ‘A Classroom Observation, 3 Beneath the Lesson, 9 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 11 For Your Further Reading, 12 Chapter 2 A “Methodical” History of Language Teaching 13 Approach, Method, and Technique, 14 Changing Winds and Shifting Sands, 16 The Grammar Translation Method, 18 Gouin and the Series Method, 19 The Direct Method,21« The Audiolingual Method, 22 Cognitive Code Learning, 24 “Designer” Methods of the Spirited Seventies, 24 ‘Community Language Learning, 25 Suggestopedia, 27 The Silent Way, 28 Total Physical Response, 29 ‘The Natural Approach, 31 Beyond Method: Notional-Functional Syllabuses, 32 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 36 For Your Further Reading, 37iv contents Chapter 3 The Present: An Informed “Approach” 39 An Enlightened, Eclectic Approach, 40 ‘Communicative Language Teaching, 42 Learner-Centered Instruction, 46 Cooperative and Collaborative Learning, 47 Interactive Learning, 48 ‘Whole Language Education, 48 Content-Based Instruction, 49 ‘Task-Based Instruction, 50 Toples for Discussion, Action, and Research, 51 For Your Further Reading, 52 Chapter 4 Teaching by Principles 54 Cognitive Principles, 55 Meaningful Learning, 56 ‘The Anticipation of Reward, 57 Intrinsic Motivation, 59 Strategic Investment, 59 Affective Principles, 61 Language Ego, 61 Self-Confidence, 62 Risk-Taking, 63 The Language-Culture Connection, 64 Linguistic Principles, 65 ‘The Native Language Effect, 65 Interlanguage, 67 Communicative Competence, 68 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 70 For Your Further Reading, 71 Chapter 5 Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom 72 Defining Motivation, 72 ‘A Behavioristic Definition, 73 Cognitive Definitions, 73 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation, 75 Intrinsic Motivation in Education, 77 Intrinsic Motivation in the Second Language Classroom, 80 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 83 For Your Further Reading, 84 -_— =m im oe oh oe oe Oe oe ee ek ee onPART H. CONTEXTS OF TEACHING Chapter 6 Learner Variables J: Teaching Across Age Levels Teaching Children, 87 Intellectual Development, 87 Attention Span, 88 Sensory Input, 89 Affective Factors, 89 Authentic, Meaningful Language, 90 Teaching Adults, 90 Teaching Teens, 91 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 93 For Your Further Reading, 94 Chapter 7 Learner Variables I: Teaching Across Proficiency Levels Defining Proficiency Levels, 96 Teaching Beginning Levels, 98 Teaching Intermediate Levels, 103 Teaching Advanced Levels, 110 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 113 For Your Further Reading, 114 Chapter 8 Sociopolitical and Institutional Contexts Sociopolitical Contexts, 115 Second and Foreign Language Contexts, 116 English as an International Language, 118 Language Policy Issues, 119 Institutional Contexts, 120 Elementary and Secondary Schools, 121 Institutions of Higher Education, 122 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 125 For Your Further Reading, 126 86 96 115 PART UI. DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING CLASSROOM LESSONS Chapter 9 Techniques, Textbooks, and Technology Techniques Redefined, 128 Greporizing Techniques:A -A Bit of History, 130 (Ocher Written Texts, 141 Techaology in the Language Classroom, 143 128vi CONTENTS ‘Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL), 145 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 147 For Your Further Reading, 148 Chapter 10 How to Plan a Lesson 149 Format of a Lesson Plan, 149 Guidelines for Lesson Planning, 152 Sample Lesson Plan, 156 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 161 For Your Further Reading, 162 Chapter 11 Interactive Language Teaching I: Initiating Interaction 164 What Is Interaction?, 165 Interactive Principles, 166 Roles of the Interactive Teacher, 166 Foreign Language Interaction Analysis, 168 Questioning Strategies for Interactive Learning, 169 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 174 For Your Further Reading, 175 Chapter 12 Interactive Language Teaching UI: Sustaining Interaction Through Group Work 176 Advantages of Group Work, 177 Excuses for Avoiding Group Work, 179 Implementing Group Work in Your Classroom, 182 Selecting Appropriate Group Techniques, 182 Planning Group Work, 187 Monitoring the Task, 189 Debriefing, 189 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 190 For Your Further Reading, 19) Chapter 13. Classroom Management 192 The Physical Environment of the Classroom, 192 Your Voice and Body Language, 194 Unplanned Teaching: Midstream Lesson Changes, 195 ‘Teaching Under Adverse Circumstances, 196 ‘Teachers’ Roles and Styles, 200 Creating a Positive Classroom Climate, 202 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 204 For Your Further Reading, 205WUUUUUVUUUUUPWVWWVWVVVVVBD VU WT VOUT We weve oO wow we Chapter 14 Strategies-Based Instruction Strategic Investment, 208 Good Language Learners, 209 Styles of Successful Language Learning, 210 Developing Student Selfawareness of Styles, 211 How to Teach Strategies in the Classroom, 217 “Packaged” Models of SBI, 220 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 227 For Your Further Reading, 228 PART IV. TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS Chapter 15 Integrating the “Four Skills” Why Integration?, 233 Content-Based Instruction, 234 Theme-Based Instruction, 235 Experiential Learning, 238 The Episode Hypothesis, 240 Task-Based Teaching, 242 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 245 For Your Further Reading, 246 Chapter 16 Teaching Listening Listening Comprehension in Pedagogical Research, 247 An Interactive Model of Listening Comprehension, 249 ‘Types of Spoken Language, 250 What Makes Listening Difficult?, 252 ‘Microskills of Listening Comprehension, 255 ‘Types of Classroom Listening Performance, 255 Principles for Designing Listening Techniques, 258 Listening Techniques from Beginning to Advanced, 260 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 265 For Your Further Reading, 266 Chapter 17 Teaching Speaking Oral Communication Skills in Pedagogical Research, 267 ‘Types of Spoken Language, 269 What Makes Speaking Difficult?,270 Microskills of Oral Communication, 271 ‘Types of Classroom Speaking Performance, 271 Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques, 275 Teaching Conversation, 276 — contents vii 207 232 247 267Teaching Pronunciation, 283 A Model for Correction of Speech Errors , 288 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 294 For Your Further Reading, 295 Chapter 18 Teaching Reading 298 Research on Reading a Second Language, 298 ‘Types of Written Language, 302 Characteristics of Written Language, 303 Microskills for Reading Comprehension, 306 Strategies for Reading Comprchension, 306 ‘Types of Classroom Reading Performance, 312 Principles for Designing Interactive Reading Techniques, 313 ‘Two Reading Lessons, 316 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 331 For Your Further Reading, 332 Chapter 19 Teaching Writing 334 Research on Second Language Writing, 334 Types of Written Language, 341 Characteristics of Written Language: A Writer's View, 341 Microskills for Writing, 342 ‘Types of Classroom Writing Performance, 343 Principles for Designing Writing Techniques, 346 Evaluating Student Writing, 356 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 358 For Your Further Reading, 360 Chapter 20 Form-Focused Instruction 361 The Place of Grammar, 362 To Teach or Not to Teach Grammar, 363 Issues About How to Teach Grammar, 365 Grammar Techniques, 368 Grammar Sequencing in Textbooks and Curricula, 373 A“Word” About Vocabulary Teaching, 375 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 380 For Your Further Reading, 382contents ix PART V. ASSESSING LANGUAGE SKILLS Chapter 21 Language Assessment I: Basic Concepts in Test Development 384 ‘What Is a Test?, 384 Practicality, 386 Reliability, 386 Nalidity, 387 Content Validity, 388 Face Validity, 388. Construct Validity, 389 ‘Rinds of Tests, 390 #Exorical Developments in Language Testing, 392 Lacge-Scale Language Proficiency Testing, 394 ‘Oral Proficiency Testing, 395 ‘Gritical Language Testing: Ethical Issues, 397 ics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 399 | For Your Further Reading, 400 Chapter 22 Language Assessment I: Practical Classroom Applications 401 Assessing, Testing, and Teaching, 401 Eecent Developments in Language Testing, 403 Paaciples for Designing Effective Classroom Tests, 408 Some Practical Steps to Test Construction, 411 sbermative Assessment Options, 415 Self- and Peer-Assessments, 415 Journals, 418 Conferences, 418 ] Portfolios, 418 Cooperative Test Construction, 419 assesment and Teaching: Partners in the Learning Process, 420 Tupics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 421 Your Further Reading, 422 PART VI. LIFELONG LEARNING Chapter 23. Continuing Your Teacher Education 426 | Pexk Performers, 427 Te “Good” Language Teacher, 429 ‘Gesezoom Observation, 429 | Gxxsroom Research, 431 Tezcher Collaboration: Learning from Each Other, 440X — CONTONTS Critical Pedagogy, 443 Agents for Change, 445 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 445 For Your Further Reading, 447 Bibliography Name Index Subject Index' As we now gradually travel beyond the millennial milepost, we can look back with some pride at the recently completed century's accumulation of knowledge about second language learning and teaching. Such was not always the case. The first forty years of the twenticth century saw little if any development of a field of Ian- guage pedagogy. But by the middle of the century, language teachers witnessed the “birth” of a disciplined approach to sccond language learning and teaching: methodological frameworks were the subject of applied linguistic research on the nature of language learning and the successful acquisition of languages in class- rooms. Yet the nascent profession was hard put to come up with viable answers to questions about how to teach interactive skills in the classroom. By the 1970s, second language acquisition was establishing itself as a discipline in its own right, asserting its place not merely as an offshoot of linguistics or psychology. The ! resulting research of this adolescent profession was beginning to provide some pro- found observations about communicative language teaching. As the field gathered momentum, journals, professional organizations, university departments, and ] research studies grew with amazing speed. By the last decade of the twentieth century, our storchouse of information about how to successfully teach foreign languages had attained a remarkable level of sophis- tication. Dozens of respected periodicals and hundreds of textbooks and anthologies ] currently offer ample evidence that language teachers must be technicians, well versed in the pedagogical options available to meet the needs of the various ages, pur- poses, proficiency levels, skills, and contexts of language leamers around the globe. PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE This Second Edition of Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy synthesizes that accumulation of knowledge into a practical, principled approach to teaching English as a second or foreign language. It is a : book for prospective and new teachers who need to learn haw to walk into a class- )room and effectively accomplish communicative objectives. It primarily addresses the needs of those in teacher education programs who have never taught before, but it secondarily serves as a refresher course for those who have had some expe- rience in the classroom. The book speaks both to those who are in English as a Second Language contexts (in English-speaking countries) and to those who are in English as a Foreign Language situations. And the book is designed to be read and studied and enjoyed by those with little or no previous work in linguistics, psy- chology, or second language acquisition. The use of the term approach in the subtitle of the book signals an important characteristic of current language-teaching pedagogy. For a significant part of the twentieth century, teacher education programs were expected to deliver a handful of different methods—relatively homogeneous sets of classroom practices that sprang from one particular theoretical perspective. ‘Thus, the Audiolingual Method, with its behavioristic underpinnings, was at one time touted as a method for all occasions. Or teachers would learn how to use the Silent Way, Community Language Learning, or Suggestopedia, each with its own “formula” for success and its own theoretical bias. We have today graduated beyond such a restrictive concept of classroom practice. While we may indeed still appropriately refer to classroom “methodology? the various separately named methods are no longer at the center of our concern. Instead, our current—and more enlightened—foundations of lan- ‘guage teaching are built on numerous principles of language learning and teaching about which we can be reasonably secure. A principled approach to interactive lan- guage pedagogy is onc that is built on such principles. So, Teaching By Principles (TBP) is a book that helps teachers to build a reper- toire of classroom techniques that are firmly embedded in well-established princi- ples of second language acquisition. Most of these principles are treated comprehensively in my companion volume, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (PLLD (Pearson Education, 2000), now in its fourth edition. Those who use the present book in their teachertraining program would benefit from (a) having first read Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (PLLT), or (b) using PLIT as a companion text. However, Teaching By Principles (TBP) can be used effectively without its companion, since major principles on which current pedagogical practice are based are summarized here in the carly chapters. PRINCIPAL FEATURES ‘The features of the first (1994) edition are all retained: + A practical focus grounded in fundamental principles of second language acquisition, + Reader-friendly prose that talks to teachers in plain, understandable ian- guage, with a minimum of distracting references to the dozens of poten- tially related research studies.+ A step-by-step approach to teaching language interactively that helps the novice teacher to become confident in directing interactive, student- centered, cooperative classrooms. + Separate treatment of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, but with special emphasis on the integration of skills. + End-of-chapter topics for discussion, action, and research, many of which model an interactive classroom by providing tasks for pairs or small groups. + Suggestions for further reading at the end of each chapter, annotated to facilitate judicious choices of extra reading. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SECOND EDITION A number of improvements have been made in this Second Edition, following the comments and suggestions of teachers, students, and reviewers who have used TBP in its First Edition. Here are the major changes: + Updated references throughout. In six years, the field of language peda- gogy has made some significant advances that are reflected in every chapter of the book. Especially noticeable are new and updated sugges- tions for further reading at the end of cach chapter. + New topics. Some new arcas of focus include technology in language classrooms (Chapter 9); form-focused instruction (Chapter 20),a new modcl for error treatment (Chapter 20); basic concepts in language assess- ment (Chapter 21,a revised version of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Third Edition, Chapter 10,"Language Testing”); practical classroom assessment options (Chapter 22); teacher collaboration (Chapter 23);and critical pedagogy (Chapter 23). + Permuted chapter sequences. Feedback from teachers and reviewers prompted some changes in sequence of chapters. In Part I, the history of language teaching and current approaches are now placed before the two chapters on the 12 principles and intrinsic motivation. The chapters on lesson planning and classroom management have been moved from the end of the book to to the earlier discussion of designing and implementing classroom lessons (Part III), where they more appropriately belong. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Teaching by Principles is in many ways a product of my three decades of instruc- tion and research in teaching English as a Second/Foreign Language. During that time, it has been my pleasure and challenge to teach and to learn from hundreds of students in my courses. 1am grateful for all those inquisitive minds—now scattered around the world—whose insights are well represented here.Iam also indebted to teachers in many countries of the world, especially in those countries where I have had the honor of lecturing and teaching: Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Egypt, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Portugal, Singapore, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, Yugoslavia, and of course the US. I learn so much from the exchanges of ideas and issues and stories from these contacts! Special thanks go to my graduate assistant, Kaoru Koda, who was most efficient in her help in an extensive bibliographical search. Finally, 1 wish to acknowledge the feedback I received from my faculty associates, Professors Jim Kohn, Tom Scovel, May Shih, and Barry Taylor. The nurture and camaraderie among these and other colleagues at the American Language Institute and San Francisco State University are a source of professional stimulation and of personal affirmation that what we are all trying to do is most certainly worth the effort. H. Douglas Brown San Francisco, California June 2000[EXITCREDITS Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following publishers and authors for per- mission to reprint copyrighted material. American Council on Teaching Foreign Languages (ACTFL), for material from: AGTEL Proficiency Guidelines (1986); G. Moskowitz, “Interaction analysis usage for supervisors,’ Foreign Language Annals 5 (1971):211-21. Cambridge University Press, for material from J. C. Richards and TS. Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (1986); D. Nunan, Designing Tasks for the Communicative Curriculum (1989); G. Elis and B. Sinclair, Learning to Learn English (1989). Georgetown University Press, for material from M. Swain, “The language of French immersion students: Implications for theory and practice," in J.E.Alatis (ed.), Georgetown University Round Table on Languages andl Linguistics (1990). Heinle & Heinle Publishers, for material from R. Mackay, “Teaching the infor- mation gathering skills” in M.H. Long and J.C. Richards, Methodology in TESOL (1987);A.F Kruse, “Vocabulary in context,’ in Long and Richards (1987); G. Crookes and C. Chaudron, “Guidelines for classroom teaching; in M. Celce-Murcia (ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (1991); P.W. Peterson, “A syn- thesis of models for interactive listening,” in Celce-Murcia (1991);A. Chamot, J. M. O'Malley, and L. Kupper, Bufiding Bridges (1992); R. Oxford, Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know (1990). Language Learning, for material from RB. Kaplan,“Cultural thought patterns in intercultural education? Language Learning 16 (1) (1966): 1-20. Oxford University Press, for material from M. Finocchiaro and C. Brumfit, The Functional-Notational Approach: From Theory to Practice (1983); R. Nolasco and L. Arthur, Conversation (1987). Pearson Education, for material from H. D. Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Fourth Edition (2000); H. D. Brown, Vistas:An Interactive Course in English @rentice-Hall Regents 1992); H.D. Brown, D. Cohen, and J.O"Day, Challenges: A Process Approach to Academic English (Prentice-Hall Regents 1991); 1. Boone, J. Bennett, and L. Motai, Basics in Reading: An Introduction to Americanxvi CONTENTS Magazines Qateral Communications 1988); R. Wong, Teaching Pronunciation: Focus ott English Rhythm and Stress Prentice-Hall 1987); D. L. E Nilsen and A. P. Nilsen, Pronunciation Contrasts in English (Regents 1971). Simon & Schuster International, for material from D. Nunan, Language Teaching Methodology:A Textbook for Teachers (Cassell 1991);D.Cross,A Practical Handbook of Language Teaching (Prentice Hall 1991); $. McKay, Teaching Grammar: Form, Function, and Technique (Pergamon 1985). ‘Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), for material from J.C. Richards, “Listening comprehension: Approach, design, procedure,” TESOL Quarterly 17 (2) (1983); M. Celce-Murcia, “Grammar pedagogy in second and for- eign language teaching,’ TESOL Quarterly 25 (3) (1991); S. Bassano and M.A. Christison, “Teacher self-observation,’ TESOL Newsletter (August 1984). University of Minnesota Press, for material from B.W. Robinett, Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages: Substance and Technique (1978). Donna Jurich, Kate Kinsella, Tim Murphey, Karen Tenney, and Lauren Vanett, for unpublished material.GETTING STARTED So you've decided to be a language teacher! Welcome to a profession that will guar- antee you more than your fair share of challenges, growth, joy, and fulfillment. Challenges await you at every turn in your professional path because the discipline of language teaching has only begun to solve some of the perplexing questions about how people learn foreign languages successfully. Opportunities for growth abound because, for as long as you continue to teach, you will never run out of new questions, new possibilities, new ways of looking at your students, and new ways of looking at yourself. The joy of teaching lies in the vicarious pleasure of witnessing your students’ attainment of broader and broader vistas of linguistic proficiency and in experiencing the communal bond that you have been instrumental in creating in your classroom. And, ultimately, few professions can offer the fulfillment of knowing that your scemingly insignificant work really can make a difference in a world in need of communication that transcends national borders and interests. At present, all those lofty ideals notwithstanding, you may be a little apprehen- sive about what sort of a teacher you are going to be: What will it be like to be in front of a classroom full of expectant ears and eyes, hanging on my every word and action, ready and waiting to pounce on me if 1 make a false move? How will I develop the composure and poise that I've seen modeled by“master® teachers? Will Tbe able to take the sea of theoretical information about second language acquisi- tion that I have studied and by some miracle transform it into practical classroom applications? How do I plan a lesson? What do I do if my lesson plan falls apart? Where do I begin? Before you ask any more questions, which might at this stage overwhelm you, sit back for a moment and tell yourself that you can indeed become a teacher who will fully meet the challenges ahead and who will grow in professional expertise, thereby opening the doors of joy and fulfillment. This textbook is designed to help you take that developmental journey one step at a time. The first step in that journey is to come with me into a language classroom and ‘observe what happens. Take special note, as the lesson unfolds, of each choice that the teacher makes: choices about how to begin the lesson, which activity will comeaueree 1 Geuing Stared 3 next, how long to continue an activity, whom to call on, whether to correct a stu- dent,and so on. Everything a teacher says and does in the classroom is the result of conscious or subconscious choices among many alternatives. Many of these choices are—or should be—the result of a careful consideration of a host of under- lying principles of second language learning and teaching. A CLASSROOM OBSERVATION The classroom we arc about to enter is in a private language school in a metropol- itan area in the US. Inside the classroom, a course in English as a Second Language GSI)" is taking place. The fifteen students in the course are relatively new arrivals. They come from several different countries. One or two of them have already man- aged to find employment; most are still searching. This is a beginning level class; students came into the class with minimal survival English proficiency. They are lit- erate in their native fanguages. ‘Their goal in the class is to be able to use English to survive in the country and to find some sort of employment, They are highly moti- vated to learn. ‘The course is a “whole language” course integrating the four skills of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. The textbook for the course is Vistas: Ant Interactive Course in English (Brown 1992). At this stage, ten weeks into the course, the students have made good progress. They are able to engage in simple social conversations, make numerous practical requests, and negotiate uncompli- cated business transactions (shopping, travel, etc.) and other routine daily uses of English, The lesson we are about to observe is reasonably well planned, efficiently exe- cuted, and characteristic of current communicative language-caching methodology. Itis not, however, necessarily “perfect” (are there ever any perfect lessons?), so what you are about to see may have a few clements that you or others could take issue with. Please remember this as you read on and, if you wish, take note of aspects of the lesson that you might question; then compare these notes with the comments following the lesson description. * ESL is used in this book in two ways: (a) as a generic acronym to refer to instruction of English to speakers of other languages in any country under any circumstance, and (®) to refer to English as a Second Language taught in countries (such as the US, the UK, or India) where English is a major language of commerce and education, a lan- guage that students often hear outside the walls of their classroom. Most instances of reference in this book to“ESL” arc in the generic sense. EFL (English as a Foreign Language) always refers specifically to English taught in countries (such as Japan, Egypt, or Venezuela) where English is not a major language of commerce and educa- tion. See Chapter 8 for important pedagogical and curricular implications of cach type of English language teaching.4 couprer 1 Getting Started We take our seats in the rear of the classroom and observe the following sequence of activities. 1. Ms. Miller, the teacher (hereafter “T”), begins the 50-minute class hour with some small-talk with the students (hereafter “Ss”), commenting on the weather, one S's previous evening's shopping attempts, etc. 2. She then asks the Ss to keep their textbooks closed and directs them to the chalkboard, where she has already written the following: How often do you How often does he/she How often do they always = all of the time usually = generally; most of the time often = frequently; much of the time sometimes = at times; every now and then seldom = not often; rarcly never = not ever; none of the time 3. T calls on individual Ss and asks them questions about their lives. For example: How often do you come to class, Alberto? ‘Yoko, how often does Sook Mi drive to class? Katherine, how often do you cook dinner? etc. 4, Ss respond with a few prompts and selected corrections from theT. In two or three cases, Ss make errors (€.g.,“She usually drive to school”) which T chooses not to correct. 5. After a few minutes of this conversation,T directs them to the meanings of the six adverbs of frequency listed on the board, explaining one or two of them further. 6. Ss are then directed to work in pairs and make up their own questions using the three “how often” question models on the board, and to respond appropri- ately, in complete sentences, using one of the six frequency adverbs. Before splitting Ss into pairs,T models some of the questions and responses that they have just gone over. During the pair work,T circulates and listens in, offering an occasional comment here and there. 7. Following the pair work, Ss are told to open their textbooks to Unit 8, page 98. Here they see the following passage accompanied by a picture of a secretary typing a letter:cuworee 1 Gottng Stated 5 Keiko is a secretary. She enjoys her work, and she always works hard. She is always on time for work. In fact, she is often early. She is never late, and she is never sick. Keiko usually types letters and answers the telephone. She some- times files and makes copies. She seldom makes mistakes when she types or files. She always answers the phone politely. Keiko is intelligent, and she has a good sense of humor. She is never angry. Everybody in the office likes Keiko. 8. T directs Ss to the picture of Keiko and asks questions to establish the context: ‘Who do you sec in the picture? ‘Where is she? ‘What's she doing? ‘What's Keiko’s occupation? 9. Ss are then encouraged to ask each other questions about the picture. After some silence, two $s venture to ask questions: “What's this?” (pointing to the typewriter) and “How much money she makes?” (other Ss laugh). T quickly moves on. 10. T then calls $s’ attention to some vocabulary items in the passage: enjoys, in fact, early, late, sick, makes copies, makes mistakes, politely, intelligent, ‘sense of humor, angry. T calls on Ss to attempt definitions or synonyms for each word. A couple of words—politely and sense of bumor—are difficult to define. T clarifies these, 11. T reads the passage aloud twice. Ss listen. 12. Next, she makes statements, some right and some wrong, about Keiko and asks individuals to volunteer their response by saying either “That's right” or “That’s wrong.” If the information is wrong, $s are told to give the correct information. For example: T: Keiko’s a lawyer. Siz That's wrong. She’s a secretary. T: She enjoys her work. 2: That's right. 13. T next directs Ss’ attention to the next page of the textbook, on which an exercise is found:6 cuapreR 1 Coting Stared Read the paragraphs on page 98 again. Then choose the appropriate adverb of frequency. Keiko works hard. She is on time for work, She is late or sick. She is early for work. She types letters. She files. She makes copies. ‘She makes mistakes when she types. She answers the phone politely. She is angry. never__eeklor sometimes often usualy shave Beer a reer always works hard. always on time for work. Been 14, T calls ona $ to read aloud the directions, followed by other Ss reading aloud the ten sentences about Keiko. 15. T calls on two other $s to do items 1 and 2 aloud. A third $ is asked to do item 3 aloud. With item 1, the § mispronounces the word zvork (S pro- nounces it /wak/). ‘T models the correct pronunciation and has the § make several attempts at a correct pronunciation. She then turns to the class and says, “Class, listen and repeat: work” Ss’ initial cacophonous attempts to respond in unison improve by the third or fourth repetition. 16. T tells Ss to write the responses to items 3-10 in their books, which they do in silence for a few minutes. 17. Individual Ss are called on to read their answers aloud. Other Ss are asked to make any corrections or to ask questions. 18. For item 5, one $ says: “She types usually letters.” T explains that with the verb be, the frequency adverb usually follows the verb, but in affirmative statements with other verbs, the frequency adverb usually precedes the verb. T writes examples on the board: Keiko is always on time. Keiko always works hard.| carrer 1 Getting Started 7 19. In the next exercise, the textbook shows six little scenes with frames of pos- sible statements about each scene. For example, items 4 and 5 look like this: = SSae id > 4. Pravit is a mechanic. 5. Mareo is a security guard. He is lazy. He is busy. He wears dirty clothes. He sits down, He works in a garage. He does dangerous work. He fixes cars. He works alone. 20, T asks Ss to define or explain certain vocabulary words that may be difficult: tired, garage, security guard, dangerous. 21. T tells Ss to work in the same pairs as before and to usc their imagination as they fill in the blanks with different adverbs. Again T circulates and offers assistance here and there, but most pairs seem quite able to do the activity without help from'T. 22. T calls on pairs to say their responses aloud and, in some cases, to explain why they chose a particular adverb. Ss who had different adverbs are asked to say their responses and explain. Ss display quite a bit of pleasure in noting differences in their responses and in carrying out little mock arguments to support their conclusions (for example: “Marco is seldom busy.’ claims one S, while another S—who currently works part time as a night security guard— argues that he has many duties to perform). 23. T then skips the next several exercises in the textbook, which offer practice in the use of frequency adverbs in various contexts. One pair of activities depicts a waiter in a French restaurant who, in the first activity,“seldom does a good job, .. is never polite to his customers, ... sometimes drops food on his customers; ctc. In the second activity, however, the waiter's boss is in the restaurant, so now the waiter “always speaks politely, ... never drops food,” etc. (T later explains to us that because of time constraints—the school wants the book to be completed by the end of the session, two weeks hence—she isn’t able to cover every exercise in the textbook.) 24. The next exercise of this class period shows cight different characters (see Exercise 7 on the following page), each with a different emotion. T asks Ss to look at the pictures, and then asks for volunteers to define the eight adjec- tives, using other words or gestures. WVVUVUVUHUD DOVVVTDVUPVODDUOUEDEDEBVOBDBVBDS8 © camerer 1 Getting Started 25. T explains that it’s common to ask questions like ‘Are you ever nervous?” and that the response usually contains a frequency adverb. 26. T then models several exchanges, asking Ss to repeat chorally: Are you ever angry? 3: Are you ever angry? Yes, I'm often angry. Yes, I'm often angry. Is Alberto ever nervous? Ss: Is Alberto ever nervous? T: No, he’s seldom nervous. Ss: No, he’s seldom nervous. This choral drill continues for, at most, one minute. 27. T next has all the $s leave their seats with a pad of paper and pencil in hand and “interview” at least five other people in the class to find out three things about each person (for example, whether they are ever “angry” or “lonely”) and to be prepared to give a*report” of their findings afterward, Brera Find out about different people in your class, [ax] € —e s angry A: Are you ever angry? B: Yes. I'm often angry. (No. I'm seldom angry.)