Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Investment Banking Project
Investment Banking Project
At a very macro level, Investment Banking as term suggests, is concerned with the primary function of assisting the capital market in its function of capital intermediation, i.e., the movement of financial resources from those who have them (the Investors), to those who need to make use of them for generating GDP (the Issuers). Banking and financial institution on the one hand and the capital market on the other are the two broad platforms of institutional that investment for capital flows in economy. Therefore, it could be inferred that investment banks are those institutions that are counterparts of banks in the capital markets in the function of intermediation in the resource allocation. Nevertheless, it would be unfair to conclude so, as that would confine investment banking to very narrow sphere of its activities in the modern world of high finance. Over the decades, backed by evolution and also fuelled by recent technologies developments, an investment banking has transformed repeatedly to suit the needs of the finance community and thus become one of the most vibrant and exciting segment of financial services. Investment bankers have always enjoyed celebrity status, but at times, they have paid the price for the price for excessive flamboyance as well. To continue from the above words of John F. Marshall and M.E. Eills, investment banking is what investment banks do. This definition can be explained in the context of how investment banks have evolved in their functionality and how history and regulatory intervention have shaped such an evolution. Much of investment banking in its present form, thus owes its origins to the financial markets in USA, due o which, American investment banks have banks have been leaders in the American and Euro markets as well. Therefore, the term investment banking can arguably be said to be of American origin. Their counterparts in UK were termed as merchant banks since they had confined themselves to capital market intermediation until the US investments banks entered the UK and European markets and extended the scope of such businesses. Investment banks help companies and governments and their agencies to raise money by issuing and selling securities in the primary market. They assist public and private corporations in raising funds in the capital markets (both equity and debt), as well as in providing strategic advisory services for mergers, acquisitions and other types of financial transactions. Investment banks also act as intermediaries in trading for clients. Investment banks differ from commercial banks, which take deposits and make commercial and retail loans. In recent years however, the lines between the two types of structures have blurred, especially as commercial banks have offered more investment banking services. In the US, the Glass-Steagall Act, initially created in the wake of the Stock Market Crash of 1929, prohibited banks from both accepting deposits and
underwriting securities; Glass-Steagall was repealed by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999. Investment banks may also differ from brokerages, which in general assist in the purchase and sale of stocks, bonds, and mutual funds. However some firms operate as both brokerages and investment banks; this includes some of the best known financial services firms in the world. More commonly used today to characterize what was traditionally termed investment banking is sells side." This is trading securities for cash or securities (i.e., facilitating transactions, market-making), or the promotion of securities (i.e. underwriting, research, etc.).
Definition
An individual or institution, which acts as an underwriter or agent for corporations and municipalities issuing securities. Most also maintain broker/dealer operations, maintain markets for previously issued securities, and offer advisory services to investors. Investment banks also have a large role in facilitating mergers and acquisitions private equity placements and corporate restructuring. Unlike traditional banks, investment banks do not accept deposits from and provide loans to individuals.
Relationship of the
SE
Investment banking process
Issue r
ISSUER
Market Information
INVES BAN
2
Securities
Issuer
Investment Banker
Cash
Investor
issuance. The market also has grown dramatically in recent years, increasing from approximately $4.7 billion in 1980 to its 1999 figure. Despite this tremendous growth, the private equity market is extremely small compared with the public equity market, which was approximately $17 trillion at year-end 1999
In India merchant banker can be segregated as follows, depending on the sector to which they belong. 1. Public sector Merchant bankers a. Commercials banks. b. National Financial Institutions. c. State financial institutions. 2. Private sector Merchant Bankers a. Foreign Bankers b. Indian private Banks c. Leasing Banks. d. Financial and Investment companies. The current of the investment banking industry is in state of flux. The current transition phase is witnessing a paradigm shift in the nature and composition of this industry. The industry was hitherto synonymous with issue management and underwriting. Investment bankers have stared diversifying into new function such M&A, new products, new techniques.
Front Office
Investment Banking is the traditional aspect of investment banks which involves helping customers raise funds in the Capital Markets and advising on mergers and acquisitions. Investment bankers prepare idea pitches that they bring to meetings with their clients, with the expectation that their effort will be rewarded with a mandate when the client is ready to undertake a transaction. Once mandated, an investment bank is responsible for preparing all materials necessary for the transaction as well as the execution of the deal, which may involve subscribing investors to a security issuance, coordinating with bidders, or negotiating with a merger target. Other terms for the Investment Banking Division include Mergers & Acquisitions (M&A) and Corporate Finance (often pronounced "corpfin").
Investment management is the professional management of various securities (shares, bonds etc) and other assets (e.g. real estate), to meet specified investment goals for the benefit of the investors. Investors may be institutions (insurance companies, pension funds, corporations etc.) or private investors (both directly via investment contracts and more commonly via collective investment schemes e.g. mutual funds) .
Financial Markets is split into four key divisions: Sales, Trading, Research and Structuring.
Sales and Trading is often the most profitable area of an investment bank ,
responsible for the majority of revenue of most investment banks In the process of market making, traders will buy and sell financial products with the goal of making an incremental amount of money on each trade. Sales is the term for the investment banks sales force, whose primary job is to call on institutional and high-net-worth investors to suggest trading ideas (on caveat emptor basis) and take orders. Sales desks then communicate their clients' orders to the appropriate trading desks, which can price and execute trades, or structure new products that fit a specific need.
Research is the division which reviews companies and writes reports about their
prospects, often with "buy" or "sell" ratings. While the research division generates no revenue, its resources are used to assist traders in trading, the sales force in suggesting ideas to customers, and investment bankers by covering their clients. In recent years the relationship between investment banking and research has become highly regulated, reducing its importance to the investment bank.
Structuring has been a relatively recent division as derivatives have come into
play, with highly technical and numerate employees working on creating complex structured products which typically offer much greater margins and returns than underlying cash securities.
Middle Office
Risk Management involves analyzing the market and credit risk that traders are taking onto the balance sheet in conducting their daily trades, and setting limits on the amount of capital that they are able to trade in order to prevent 'bad' trades having a detrimental effect to a desk overall. Another key Middle Office role is to ensure that the above mentioned economic risks are captured accurately (as per agreement of commercial terms with the counterparty) correctly (as per standardized booking models in the most appropriate systems) and on time (typically within 30 minutes of trade execution). In recent years the risk of errors has become known as "operational risk" and the assurance Middle Offices provide now include measures to address this risk. When this assurance is not in place, market and credit risk analysis can be unreliable and open to deliberate manipulation.
Back Office
Operations involve data-checking trades that have been conducted, ensuring that they are not erroneous, and transacting the required transfers. While it provides the greatest job
security of the divisions within an investment bank, it is a critical part of the bank that involves managing the financial information of the bank and ensures efficient capital markets through the financial reporting function. The staff in these areas are often highly qualified and need to understand in depth the deals and transactions that occur across all the divisions of the bank.
project if necessary; 2. Preparation of economic, technical and financial feasibility reports; 3. Initial project preparation, pre-investment survey, and market studies; 4. Help in raising rupee resources from financial institutions and commercial banks; 5. Underwriting and also for subscription, if necessary, to the new issues or syndication of loans, etc; 6. Assistance in raising foreign exchange resources so as to enable the industrial concerns to import machinery and technical know-how and secure foreign collaboration. 7. Advice on setting up turnkey project s in foreign countries and locating foreign markets; 8. Help in financial management and in designing proper capital structure and debtequity ratio, etc, for the company. 9. Advice on restructuring of capital, amalgamation, mergers, takeovers, etc; 10. Management of investment trust, charitable trusts etc; 11. Management aid and entrepreneurial aid (management audit providing designs of the complete system, operational research and management consultancy); and 12. Recruitment (selection of technical and managerial personnel), etc.
Services Prov
P roduct Gr
Equity Capi Equity has fiduciary role in relation to the investor. productive investment avenues. The merchant banker Markets (EC
1. Management of debt and equity offering This is the traditional bread and butter operations for most of the investment banker in India. The role of the investment banker is dynamic and it has to be nimble footed to capitalize on available opportunities. It has to assist issues that affect their finances. The main area of its role includes: Instrument Designing Pricing the issue
Debt Capit Markets (DC its clients in raising fund from the market. It may also be required to counsel them on various Debt - B onds
Debt - Loans
Corporate B an
Registration of the offer document Underwriting the support Marketing the issue
M&AGrou
2. Placement and distribution The distribution network of Investment banker can be classified as institutional and retail. The network of institutional investors consist of Mutual Funds, FIIs, bank, domestic and multinational financial institutions, PE, pension funds, etc. the size of this network represent the wholesale reach of the Investment banker. The basic requirement to create and service the institutional segment is the existence of good in-house research facilities. The investment proposal should be accompanied by high quality research reports of the Investment banker to justify the investment recommendation. The retail distribution reach depends upon the networking with the investors. Many Investment banks have associate firms which are brokers on the stock exchange. These brokers appoint sub-brokers at various locations to service both the primary market and secondary market needs of the local investors. Thus a large base of captive investors is created and maintained.
The distribution network can be used to distribute various financial products like: Equity Debt Instruments : : retail and institutional investors retail and institutional investors retail investors retail investors retail investors institutional investors
3. Corporate advisory Services - investment bankers offers customized solutions to the financial problem of their clients. One of the key areas for advisory role is financial structuring. The process includes determining the appropriate level of gearing and advising the company whether to leverage, de-leverage or maintain its current debt-equity levels. The asset turnover ratios may be analyzed to study whether the company is over trading or under trading. The companys working capital practices are studied and alternative working capital policies are suggested. The investment banker may also explore the possibility of refinancing high cost funds with alternative cheaper funds. They play advisory role in securitization of receivables. They also help their cash rich clients in deployment of their short-term surpluses.
10
4. Project Advisory - investment bankers are associated with their clients from the early stage of their project. They assist the companies in conceptualizing the project idea when it is at nebulous stage. Once the project is conceptualized, they carry out the initial feasibility studied to examine its viability. Investment bankers provide inputs to their clients in preparation of the detailed project report. They also offer project appraisal services to clients. 4. Loan syndication - investment bankers arrange to tie up loans for their clients. The first step involves analyzing the clients cash flow pattern so that terms of borrowing can be defined to suit the cash flow requirements. The important loan parameters include amount, currency, tenure, drawdown, moratorium and the amortization. The investment bankers then prepare the detailed loan memorandum. The loan memorandum is then circulated to various banks and financial institutions and they are invited to participate in the syndicate. The banks indicate the amount of exposure of service they are willing to take and the interest rates thereon. The terms are further negotiated and fine- tuned to the satisfaction of both parties. The final allocation is done to the various members of the syndicate. The investment banker also helps the clients in loan documentation procedures.
11
5. Research Services - Nearly all banks have a staff of research analysts who study economic
trends and news, individual company stocks, and industry developments to provide proprietary investment advice to institutional clients and in-house groups, such as the sales and trading divisions. Until recently, the research division has also played an important role in the underwriting process, both in wooing the client with its knowledge of the clients industry and in providing a link to the institutions that own the clients stock once its publicly traded. Indeed, in many cases, research analysts compensation was tied to investment banking revenues. However, in recent times banks have faced public and regulatory outcries over conflicts of interest inherent in having bankers and researchers work hand in hand. As a hypothetical example, consider Bank A, which counts Company X, which is facing financial difficulties, among its banking clients. Should Bank As research team pan Company Xs stock, which would benefit investors who subscribe to Bank As research, but might upset Company X to the point that it drops Bank A and hires another firm to be its investment banker? Or should it recommend the purchase of Company X stock, which would help Company X financially and keep the banking revenues from Company X rolling inand pump up research analysts bonuses, which are based in part on the success of Bank As banking operations? In an effort to end the legal scrutiny of their operations, investment banks are now attempting to reinforce the separation between their banking and research arms. You can certainly count on research playing a lesser role in selling banking deals. Also, independent research houses (e.g., Needham & Co., Sidoti & Co., and JMP Securities) are benefiting in a big way from a settlement between the investment banking industry and regulators that requires investment banks to spend a total $432.5 million over 5 years to give clients independent research. And as the full service investment banks move to purchase independent research, as theyre required to do by regulators, certain research specialistsStandard & Poors and BNY Jay hawk (which actually aggregates research from more than 100 research organizations)are looking like theyre going to make out handsomely.
6. Venture capital - Venture capital is risks money, which is used in risky enterprises either as
equity or debt capital. It may be in new sunshine industries or older risk enterprises. The funds, which finance such risky, are called venture capital funds. Venture capital is a post-war phenomenon in the business world, mainly developed as a sideline activity of the rich in USA. To connote the risk & adventure & some element of investment, the generic name of venture capital was coined. In the late 1960s a new breed of professional investors called venture capitalists emerged whose specialty was to combine risk capital with entrepreneurial management & to use advance technology to launch new products and companies in the markets place. Undoubtedly, it was venture capitalists astute ability to assess and manage enormous risks & export from them tremendous returns that changed the face of America. In developed countries,
12
this capital came from pension funds, insurance companies & even large banks. Some large companies with excess funds may provide this capital to achieve diversification, market expansion & window on technology or to share in this result of R&D of others. In India, as the majority of the above institutions are in the public sector, only the government or public financial institutions can provide the funds for venture capital. Venture capital is a post-war phenomenon in the business world, mainly developed as a sideline activity of the rich in USA. To connote the risk & adventure & some element of investment, the generic name of venture capital was coined. In the late 1960s a new breed of professional investors called venture capitalists emerged whose specialty was to combine risk capital with entrepreneurial management & to use advance technology to launch new products and companies in the markets place. Undoubtedly, it was venture capitalists astute ability to assess and manage enormous risks & export from them tremendous returns that changed the face of America. Innovative, hi-tech ideas are necessarily risky. It is here that the concept of venture capital steps in. Venture Capital provides long start up costs to high risks & returns project. Typically, these projects have mortality rates and therefore are unattractive to risks-averse bankers & private sectors companies. Venture Projects Proposals come to the venture capitalists in the form of business plans. He appraises the same, giving due regard to the credentials of the founders, the nature of the product or services to be developed, the market to be saved & the financing required. If satisfied, he will invest his own money in the equity shares of the new company, known as the assisted company. In addition to money, managerial & marketing assistance may also be provided that is, the venture capitalist not only provides funds but also on line operational advice. In short, he identifies himself with the project as much as the innovator promoter & as such works hard to accomplish ambitious targets & consequents higher appreciation of his capital. Indian Position in venture capital In India, most project financing schemes require at least 25 per cent of the project cost to be contributed by the promoters, while the latter can raise barely 5-10 percent. For long, there were a few agencies such as IFCIs subsidiary company, Risks Capital And Technology Foundation of India, which provides finance to bridge the shortfall in the promoter contribution, but they could fulfill the requirements of a great many budding entrepreneurs. As results of promoters not being able to bring in those vital initial inputs of money, many of their good projects were hanging fire. Venture capital could remedy this situation as well.
13
A beginning was made in this direction by the setting up of venture capital divisions under the aegis of ICICI, IDBI & IFCI. Encouraged by the response to technology financing, ICICI floated a separate company ---Technology Development and Information Company of India (TDICI) includes, apart from venture capital financing, technology, consultancy as well as entrepreneur escort services such as marketing, business management, vendor development etc. The successful operation of this fund will hopefully spark off some interest from the private sector, which will then consider entering this line of activity. Ultimately, it is only when venture capital financing becomes more broad-based and widespread that it will truly taking root in economy. In tune with its tradition of pioneering new ideas, ICICI deviated from the beaten path to usher in an unusual type of financial support. Addition to equity participation (up to maximum of 49 percent) undertaken by typical venture capital companies, TDICI offer the conditional loans. The entrepreneur neither pays interest on it nor does he have to repay the principal amount. If the venture capital succeeds, TDICI recoups its investment in the form of royalty on sales which ranges between two and eight percent. On the other hand, if the venture fails to take off even after five years TDICI will consider writing off the loan.
Agencies for Financing Venture Capital 1. Public financing agencies: - It is to be noted that the floating venture capital companies
are the financial institutions or banks (the Andhra Pradesh Industrial Development Corporation, Canara bank and others). This can be directly attributed to the Government guidelines, which restrict private sector participation in venture capital funds to a maximum of 20 percent. But if the concept is to make a mark in the economy it needs private sector initiative and not institutional or government patronage. In fact, herein lies the strategic significance of the venture capital. It paves, the way for the private sector to share the burden of industrial finance, particularly risk finance with the public sector. The activities of the venture capital fund of ANZ Grindlays bank include making equity investments in new companies, which may or may not involve any new technology or other such related risk. This activity of the direct subscriptions by financial institutions and banks has been going on for decades and cannot be termed as venture capital activity. The difference in ANZ Grindlays bank activity is one of the nomenclature and not of means of financing. Also, on the whole, venture capital is provided more in the nature of mezzanine loans than equity.
14
2. Private Agencies:- One Venture Capital fund set up the private sector in India is Credit
Capital Venture Capital (India) or CVF for the short, the principal shareholders of which are Credit Capital Finance Corporation, Bank of India, Asian Development Bank, and Commonwealth Development Corporation. Another set up in the private sector jointly by the ICICI 20th Century Finance Corporation, bank of Baroda, Asian development Bank and Asian Finance and investment Corporation is the 20th Century Venture Capital Corporation Ltd. One reason why private capitalists are generally shy may be the high rate of capital gains tax applicable to the profit of Venture Capital Funds. Though the guidelines provide for a concessional rate of capital gains tax, the move can hardly be deemed as a concession in view of the enormous risks involved in the activity.
15
Difficulties in India
Fundamentally, there are no private pools of the capital of finance risk ventures in India. The financial institutions perforce occupy a dominant position in the provision of long-term capital to Indian industry. They and the State development agencies do provide limited amount of equity finance to assist the development of new business but there is no private, professionally managed investment capital sources. There are no private sector insurance companies or the pension funds gathering regular premium income and virtually no private banks willing to devote a small portion of their resources to the venture capital niche. It is unlikely that such enterprises will be created in the foreseeable future to mobilize private saving for investments. As an answer the situation, mutual funds and investment trusts are permitted to set up and to commit the part of their resources to the venture capital area. As a part of the broader equity investment fund, given suitable standards of the valuation for unquoted investments, it should be possible for the fund managers to commit the portion of there portfolios to venture capital situations. The participation of the private sector in venture capital funding, as it has come to be defined in the narrow Indian context, is not possible in isolation from the opportunity to develop a broadly spread investment business.
16
4. The IPO norms are liberalized for the Venture Capital Funds for the purpose of listing.
Appraisal and finding are allowed to extent of 10% of the equity capital of a start-up company. The condition of 3 years track record of profitability is waived. Even a public issue of 10% of paid up capital is enough for the I.T companies for the purpose of listing. 5. The Government have set up a separate ministry of I.T and started an I.T Venture Fund of Rs.100crores for the financing new start up I.T projects. 6. Venture Funds were set up by ICICI, UTI, IDBI, Tatas etc.
17
7. Merger and acquisitions M&A are becoming increasingly significant in term of services
offered by the investment bankers in India. During the licensing era, several companies had indulged in unrelated diversifications depending on the availability of the licenses. The companies thrived in spite of their inefficiencies because the total capacity in the industry was restricted due to licensing. The companies over a period of time became unwieldy conglomerates with suboptimal portfolio of assorted business. The policy of decontrol and liberalization coupled with globalization of the economy has exposed the corporate sector to serve domestic and global competition. The industry is passing through a transitory phase of restructuring. The mergers and acquisitions group provides advice to companies that are buying another company or are those selves being acquired. M&A work can seem very glamorous and high profile. At the same time, the work leading up to the headline-grabbing multibillion-dollar acquisition can involve a Herculean effort to crunch all the numbers, perform the necessary due diligence, and work out the complicated structure of the deal. As one insider puts it, You have to really like spending time in front of your computer with Excel. Often, the M&A team will also work with a corporate finance industry group to arrange the appropriate financing for the transaction (usually a debt or equity offering). In many cases, all this may happen on a very tight timeline and under extreme secrecy. M&A is often a subgroup within corporate finance; but in some firms, it is a stand-alone department. M&A can be one of the most demanding groups to work for.
18
M&A benefits the following Financial: I. Benefits on account of tax shield. II. Restructuring and strengthening the balance sheet. III. Profiting from leveraged buyouts. IV. Investment of surplus cash. Marketing I. Increase in market share. II. Elimination of competition. III. Diversification of risks. IV. Growth without increase in the capacity. Production I. Horizontal and vertical integration. II. Acquisition of new technology.
Classifications of mergers
Horizontal mergers take place where the two merging companies produce similar product in the same industry. Vertical mergers occur when two firms, each working at different stages in the production of the same good, combine. Con-generic merger/concentric mergers occur where two merging firms are in the same general industry, but they have no mutual buyer/customer or supplier relationship, such as a merger between a bank and a leasing company. Example: Prudential's acquisition of Bache & Company.
Conglomerate mergers take place when the two firms operate in different industries.
19
(ii) Approaching the target: - This is one of the most critical roles played by the investment bankers in the deal. There are broadly two methods of approaching the targets- passive strategy i.e. no aggressive approach is used and active strategy i.e. acquisition may be friendly or hostile. (iii) Valuation: - valuation of the target company is the most critical task performed by the investment banker. A conservative valuation can result in collapse of the deal while an aggressive valuation may create perpetual problems for the acquiring company. The commonly used valuation methods are (a) Discounted cash flow method. (b) Comparable companies method (c) Book value method (d) Market value method (iv) Negotiation: - This is the process of formulating the structure of the deal. The investment banker plays a vital role in closing the financial side of the negotiation. From a financial standpoint, the key elements of negotiations are the price and the form of consideration. Both the elements are interrelated and affect the attractiveness of the deal. The merchant banker must ensure that the final price paid should not exceed the perceived value of the targets to the acquirer. (v) Acquisition finance: - once the negotiation is over and the price is finalized, the merchant banker has to assist the acquirer in arranging the required finance. The consideration can be paid in the form of cash, debt securities or equity of the acquiring company. Cash may be raise from the internal accruals, sale of assets, etc. It may also be refinanced by bank borrowing, public issue or private placement of debt and equity.
8. Initial Public Offerings: - Initial Public Offerings (IPO) is the first time a company sells its
stock to the public. Sometimes IPOs are associated with huge first-day gains; other times, when the market is cold, they flop. It's often difficult for an individual investor to realize the huge gains, since in most cases only institutional investors have access to the stock at the offering price. By the time the general public can trade the stock, most of its first-day gains have already been made. However, a savvy and informed investor should still watch the IPO market, because this is the first opportunity to buy these stocks.
20
can either take on debt or sell partial ownership. If the corporation chooses to sell ownership to the public, it engages in an IPO. Corporations choose to "go public" instead of issuing debt securities for several reasons. The most common reason is that capital raised through an IPO does not have to be repaid, whereas debt securities such as bonds must be repaid with interest. Despite this apparent benefit, there are also many drawbacks to an IPO. A large drawback to going public is that the current owners of the privately held corporation lose a part of their ownership. Corporations weigh the costs and benefits of an IPO carefully before performing an IPO.
Going Public
If a corporation decides that it is going to perform an IPO, it will first hire an investment bank to facilitate the sale of its shares to the public. This process is commonly called "underwriting"; the bank's role as the underwriter varies according to the method of underwriting agreed upon, but its primary function remains the same. In accordance with the SEBI act, the corporation will file a registration statement with the Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI).The registration statement must fully disclose all material information to the SEBI including a description of the corporation, detailed financial statements, biographical information on insiders, and the number of shares owned by each insider. After filing, the corporation must wait for the SEBI to investigate the registration statement and approve of the full disclosure. During this period while the SEBI investigates the corporation's filings, the underwriter will try to increase demand for the corporation's stock. Many investment banks will print "tombstone" advertisements that offer "bare-bones" information to prospective investors. The underwriter will also issue a preliminary prospectus, or "red herring", to potential investors. These red herrings include much of the information contained in the registration statement, but are incomplete and subject to change. An official summary of the corporation, or prospectus, must be issued either before or along with the actual stock offering. After the SEBI approves of the corporation's full disclosure, the corporation and the underwriter decide on the price and date of the IPO; the IPO is then conducted on the determined date. IPOs are sometimes postponed or even withdrawn in poor market conditions.
21
Performance
The aftermarket performance of an IPO is how the stock price behaves after the day of its offering on the secondary market (such as the BSE or the NSE). Investors can use this information to judge the likelihood that an IPO in a specific industry or from a specific lead underwriter will perform well in the days (or months) following its offering. The first-day gains of some IPOs have made investors all too aware of the money to be had in IPO investing. Unfortunately, for the small individual investor, realizing those much-publicized gains is nearly impossible. The crux of the problem is that individual investors are just too small to get in on the IPO market before the jump. Those large first-day returns are made over the offering price of the stock, at which only large, institutional investors can buy in. The system is one of reciprocal back scratching, in which the underwriters offer the shares first to the clients who have brought them the most business recently. By the time the average investor gets his hands on a hot IPO, it's on the secondary market, and the stock's price has already shot up.
22
SEBI has set certain limits on the maximum no of intermediaries associated with the issue Size of the issue Less than Rs 50cr Rs 50cr to Rs 100cr Rs 100cr to Rs 200cr Rs 200cr to Rs 400cr Above Rs 400cr No of lead managers 2 3 4 5 5 or more as agreed by the board
The no of co managers cannot exceed no of lead managers appointed for that issue. There can be only one advisor or consultant to the issue. There is no limit on the no of underwriters to the issue. An associate company of the issuer company cannot be appointed either as lead manager or Co manager to the issue. However they can be appointed as Underwriter or Advisor/Consultant to the issue. The lead investment banker enters into a MOU with the issuer company. The no of co managers cannot exceed no of lead managers appointed for that issue. There is no limit on the no of underwriters to the issue. An associate company of the issuer company cannot be appointed either as lead manager or Co manager to the issue. However they can be appointed as Underwriter or Advisor/Consultant to the issue. The lead investment banker enters into a MOU with the issuer company. MOU specifies the mutual rights, obligations and liabilities relating to the issue. The lead investment banker has to ensure that copy of MOU is submitted to the board along with the draft offer document. In case of more than one lead manager is appointed, all lead managers have a meeting and the entire issue related work is distributed among them. This agreement is called as Inter-se Allocation of Responsibilities. Once the lead manager(s) is/are appointed, the other intermediaries are appointed in consultation with them. The selection of the intermediary is based on their past records, ranking, previous relationship with the issuer company, fees charged etc The other intermediaries appointed are: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. Registrar to the issue Bankers to the issue Underwriters to the issue Debenture trustees (if applicable) Brokers to the issue Advertising agencies Printers of issue stationery Auditor Legal advisor to the issue
financial metric which represents operating liquidity available to a business. Along with fixed assets such as plant and equipment, working capital is considered a part of operating capital. Finance for working capital, particularly for new ventures, often needs to be syndicated on behalf of the promoters, and merchant banks assist in this as well. For existing companies, non/traditional sources such as through the issue of debentures for this purpose, and others have been successfully tapped by merchant bankers. This ensures that the firm is able to continue its operations and that it has sufficient cash flow to satisfy both maturing short-term debt and upcoming operational expenses
10. Foreign currency finance: - Of late, India has become increasingly active in the
international money markets, and this trend is likely to continue. For import of capital goods and services from overseas, the arrangement of various kinds of export credits from different countries is also required. In addition to this wide range of services, some of the larger banks are also involved in areas such as the arrangement of lease finance, and assistance in acquisitions and mergers etc.
11. Underwriting: - Underwriting refers to the process that a large financial service provider
(bank, insurer, investment house) uses to assess the eligibility of a customer to receive their products (equity capital, insurance, mortgage or credit). This is a way of placing a newly issued security, such as stocks or bonds, with investors. A merchant banker underwrites the transaction, which means they have taken on the risk of distributing the securities. Should they not be able to find enough investors, they will have to hold some securities themselves. Underwriters make their income from the price difference (the "underwriting spread") between the price they pay the issuer and what they collect from investors or from broker-dealers who buy portions of the offering. When a dealer bank purchases Treasury securities in a quarterly Treasury bond auction, it acts as underwriter and distributor. Treasury securities purchased by a primary dealer are held in a dealer bank's trading account assets portfolio, and they are often resold to other banks and to private investors. The main work of merchant banks relates to underwriting of new issues and rising of new capital for the corporate sector. Of the amount underwritten, some part devolves on the underwriters, which varies depending on the state of the capital market, and the intrinsic worth of the project. The SEBI has made underwriting Compulsory for all issues offered to Public first but later it was made optional. SEBI made it necessary for merchant bank to undertake or make a firm commitment for 5% of issued amount to the public.
implementation of innovative financial instruments and processes and the formulation of creative solutions to the problem in finance. A number of factors have accelerated the process of financial innovation. They include Interest rate volatility Exchange rate volatility Regulatory and tax changes Globalization of the market Increased competition among investment bankers
13. Securitization:- is a structured finance process, which involves pooling and repackaging of
cash-flow-producing financial assets into securities that are then sold to investors. The name "securitization" is derived from the fact that the forms of financial instruments used to obtain funds from the investors are securities. All assets can be securitized so long as they are associated with cash flow. Hence, the securities which are the outcome of securitization processes are termed asset-backed securities (ABS). From this perspective, securitization could also be defined as a financial process leading to an issue of an ABS. Securitization often utilizes a special purpose vehicle (SPV), alternatively known as a special purpose entity (SPE) or special purpose company (SPC), in order to reduce the risk of bankruptcy and thereby obtain lower interest rates from potential lenders. A credit derivative is also generally used to change the credit quality of the underlying portfolio so that it will be acceptable to the final investors. A very basic example would be as follows. XYZ Bank loans 10 people $100,000 a piece, which they will use to buy homes. XYZ has invested in the success and/or failure of those 10 home buyers- if the buyers make their payments and pay off the loans, XYZ makes a profit. Looking at it another way, XYZ has taken the risk that some borrowers won't repay the loan. In exchange for taking that risk, the borrowers pay XYZ interest on the money they borrow. From the perspective of XYZ, those loans are 10 different assets. They have value- one, if the loan fails, XYZ takes ownership of the house. Two, if the loan succeeds, XYZ gets their money back along with the interest they charge. XYZ can do two things with those loans. They can hold them for 30 years and, they would hope, make a profit on their investment. Or they could sell them to some other investor, and walk away. In doing this, they would make less profit than if they held onto them long term, but they would benefit in that they make some profit while also getting their original investment back. They give up some of the reward (profit) in exchange for not having the risk. So XYZ Bank decides they'd rather have the cash now. They could sell those 10 loans to 10
25
investors. Each investor would be taking a risk in buying those loans, because if any loan defaults, that one investor loses. Naturally, investors would not be willing to pay very much for those loans, knowing the risk involved. XYZ wants to sell those loans for the best price they can get, so they decide to securitize those loans. They combine the 10 loans into one entity, and then they split that one entity into 10 equal shares. Each investor still pays the same $100,000, but instead of owning one loan, they will own 10% of all 10 loans. If one loan fails, every investor loses 10%. The result is that XYZ bank is able to sell their assets for more money, and investors are insulated from the volatility of directly owning individual mortgages. However, if a majority of the mortgages in the asset pool act in the same way ( Correlation ) then the risk is similar to owning one mortgage. Investors incur some of the volatility and there is no inherent "insurance" against major loss.
26
Issuance
To be able to buy the assets from the originator, the issuer SPV issues tradable securities to fund the purchase. Investors purchase the securities, either through a private offering (targeting institutional investors) or on the open market. The performance of the securities is then directly linked to the performance of the assets. Credit rating agencies rate the securities which are issued in order to provide an external perspective on the liabilities being created and help the investor make a more informed decision. In transactions with static assets, a depositor will assemble the underlying collateral, help structure the securities and work with the financial markets in order to sell the securities to investors. The depositor typically owns 100% of the beneficial interest in the issuing entity and is usually the parent or a wholly owned subsidiary of the parent which initiates the transaction. In transactions with managed (traded) assets, asset managers assemble the underlying collateral, help structure the securities and work with the financial markets in order to sell the securities to investors. Some deals may include a third-party guarantor which provides guarantees or partial guarantees for the assets, the principal and the interest payments, for a fee. The securities can be issued with either a fixed interest rate or a floating rate. Fixed rate set the coupon (rate) at the time of issuance, in a fashion similar to corporate bonds. Floating rate securities may be backed by both amortizing and non amortizing assets. In contrast to fixed rate securities, the rates on floaters will periodically adjust up or down according to a designated index such as a U.S. Treasury rate, or, more typically, the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR). The floating rate usually reflects the movement in the index plus an additional fixed margin to cover the added risk.
27
have first claim on the cash that the SPV receives, and the more junior classes only start receiving repayment after the more senior classes have repaid. Because of the cascading effect between classes, this arrangement is often referred to as a cash flow waterfall. In the event that the underlying asset pool becomes insufficient to make payments on the securities (e.g. when loans default within a portfolio of loan claims), the loss is absorbed first by the subordinated tranches, and the upper-level tranches remain unaffected until the losses exceed the entire amount of the subordinated tranches. The senior securities are typically AAA rated, signifying a lower risk, while the lower-credit quality subordinated classes receive a lower credit rating, signifying a higher risk. The most junior class (often called the equity class) is the most exposed to payment risk. In some cases, this is a special type of instrument which is retained by the originator as a potential profit flow. In some cases the equity class receives no coupon (either fixed or floating), but only the residual cash flow (if any) after all the other classes have been paid. Credit enhancements affect credit risk by providing more or less protection to promised cash flows for a security. Additional protection can help a security achieve a higher rating, lower protection can help create new securities with differently desired risks, and these differential protections can help place a security on more attractive terms. In addition to subordination, credit may be enhanced through
A reserve or spread account, in which funds remaining after expenses such as principal and interest payments, charge-offs and other fees have been paid-off are accumulated, and can be used when SPE expenses are greater than its income.
Third-party insurance, or guarantees of principal and interest payments on the securities. Over-collateralization, usually by using finance income to pay off principal on some securities before principal on the corresponding share of collateral is collected. Cash funding or a cash collateral account, generally consisting of short-term, highly rated investments purchased either from the seller's own funds, or from funds borrowed from third parties that can be used to make up shortfalls in promised cash flows.
A third-party letter of credit or corporate guarantee. A back-up servicer for the loans. Discounted receivables for the pool.
28
Servicing
A servicer collects payments and monitors the assets that are the crux of the structured financial deal. The servicer can often be the originator, because the servicer needs very similar expertise to the originator and would want to ensure that loan repayments are paid to the Special Purpose Vehicle. The servicer can significantly affect the cash flows to the investors because it controls the collection policy, which influences the proceeds collected, the charge-offs and the recoveries on the loans. Any income remaining after payments and expenses is usually accumulated to some extent in a reserve or spread account, and any further excess is returned to the seller. Bond rating agencies publish ratings of asset-backed securities based on the performance of the collateral pool, the credit enhancements and the probability of default. When the issuer is structured as a trust, the trustee is a vital part of the deal as the gate-keeper of the assets that are being held in the issuer. Even though the trustee is part of the SPV, which is typically wholly owned by the Originator, the trustee has a fiduciary duty to protect the assets and those who own the assets, typically the investors.
Repayment structures
Unlike corporate bonds, most securitizations are amortized, meaning that the principal amount borrowed is paid back gradually over the specified term of the loan, rather than in one lump sum at the maturity of the loan. Fully amortizing securitizations are generally collateralized by fully amortizing assets such as home equity loans, auto loans, and student loans. Prepayment uncertainty is an important concern with full amortization. The possible rate of prepayment varies widely with the type of underlying asset pool; so many prepayment models have been developed in an attempt to define common prepayment activity. A controlled amortization structure is a method of providing investors with a more predictable repayment schedule, even though the underlying assets may be non-amortizing. After a predetermined revolving period, during which only interest payments are made, these securitizations attempt to return principal to investors in a series of defined periodic payments, usually within a year. An early amortization event is the risk of the debt being retired early. On the other hand, bullet or slug structures return the principal to investors in a single payment. The most common bullet structure is called the soft bullet, meaning that the final bullet payment is not guaranteed on the expected maturity date; however, the majority of these securitizations are paid on time. The second type of bullet structure is the hard bullet, which guarantees that the principal will be paid on the expected maturity date. Hard bullet structures are less common for
29
two reasons: investors are comfortable with soft bullet structures, and they are reluctant to accept the lower yields of hard bullet securities in exchange for a guarantee. Securitizations are often structured as a sequential pay bond, paid off in a sequential manner based on maturity. This means that the first tranche, which may have a one-year average life, will receive all principal payments until it is retired; then the second tranche begins to receive principal, and so forth. Pro rata bond structures pay each tranche a proportionate share of principal throughout the life of the security.
14. Portfolio management services:- A list of all those services and facilities that are
provided by a portfolio manager to its clients, relating to the management and administration of portfolio of securities or the funds of clients, is referred to as portfolio management services. The term portfolio means the total holdings of securities belonging to any person. Portfolio Manager: - According to SEBI, Portfolio Manager means any person who pursuant to contract or arrangements with a clients, advices or directs or undertakes on behalf of the clients the management or administration of a portfolio of securities or the funds of client, as the case may be Discretionary Portfolio Manager:- According to SEBI, discretionary portfolio manager means a portfolio manager who exercises or may, under a contract relating to portfolio management, exercises any degree of discretion as to the investments or management of the portfolio of securities or the funds of the clients, as the case may be.
FUNCTIONS
The objective of portfolio management is to develop a portfolio that has maximum return at whatever level of risk the investor deems appropriate. (A) Risk Diversification - An essential function of portfolio management is spread risk akin to investment of assets. Diversification could take place across different securities and across different industries. Diversification achieved in different industries is an effective way of diversifying the risk in an investment. Simple diversification reduces risk within categories of
30
stocks that all have the same quality rating. The portfolio managers could as well adopt the Markotiwz model whereby portfolio risk are sought to be reduced through combining assets, which are less than perfectly positively correlated. (B) Efficient Portfolio: -A portfolio manager aims at building dominant investment called efficient portfolio. An efficient portfolio consists of combination of assets that maximizes return and maximizes the risk level of expected return. The objective of portfolio management is to analyze different individual assets and delineate efficient portfolios. A group of portfolio of efficient portfolios is called efficient set of portfolios. The efficient set of portfolio comprises efficient frontier. (C) Asset allocation: - An important function of portfolio management is asset allocation. It deals with attaining proportion of investments from categories. Portfolio managers basically aim at stock-bond mix. For this purpose equally weighted categories of assets are used. (D) Beta Estimation: - Another important function of a portfolio manger is to make an estimate of beta coefficient. It measures and ranks the systematic risk of different assets. Beta coefficient is an index of the systematic risk. This is useful in making ultimate selection of securities for investment by portfolio manager. (E) Rebalancing Portfolios: - Rebalancing of portfolio involves the process of periodically adjusting the portfolios to maintain the original conditions of portfolio. The adjustments may be made either by way of constant proportion portfolio or by way of constant beta portfolio. In constant proportion portfolio, adjustments are made in such a way as to maintain the relative weighting in portfolio components according to the change in prices. Under the constant beta portfolio, adjustments are made to accommodate the values of component betas in the portfolio.
STRATEGIES
A Portfolio manager may adopt any of the following strategies as part of an efficient management: (A) Buy and Hold Strategy: - Under the buy and hold strategy, the portfolio manager builds a portfolio of stock, which is not disturbed at all for a long period of time. This practice is common in case of perpetual securities such as common stock. (B) Indexing: - Another strategy employed by portfolio managers is indexing. Indexing involves an attempt to replicate the investment characteristics of a popular measure of the bond market. Securities that are held in best-known bond indexes are basically high-grade issues.
31
(C) Laddered Portfolio: - Under the laddered portfolio, bonds are selected in such a way that their maturities are spread uniformly over a long period of time. This way a portfolio manager aims at distributing the funds throughout the yield curve. (D) Barbell Portfolio: - under this portfolio strategy, less investment of funds is made in middle maturities.
15. Sales & Trading: - Make trades in securities for the primary and secondary markets
For currencies, stocks, bonds, derivatives, futures, commodities, asset-backed treasuries etc on Behalf of institutional clients (mutual and pension funds), individual investors and for the Banks themselves. Sales are another core component of any investment bank. Salespeople take the form of: 1) The classic retail broker 2) The institutional salesperson, or 3) The private client service representative. Brokers develop relationships with individual investors and sell stocks and stock advice to the average Joe. Institutional salespeople develop business relationships with large institutional investors. Institutional investors are those who manage large groups of assets, for example pension funds or mutual funds. Private Client Service (PCS) representatives lie somewhere between retail brokers and institutional salespeople, providing brokerage and money management services for extremely wealthy individuals. Salespeople make money through commissions on trades made through their firms. In trading traders also provide a vital role for the investment bank. Traders facilitate the buying and selling of stock, bonds, or other securities such as currencies, either by carrying an inventory of securities for sale or by executing a given trade for a client. Traders deal with transactions large and small and provide liquidity (the ability to buy and sell securities) for the market. (This is often called making a market.) Traders make money by purchasing securities and selling them at a slightly higher price. This price differential is called the "bid-ask spread.
32
SEBI Guidelines
The Government has setup Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI) in April 1988. For more then three years, it had no statutory powers. Its interim functions during the period were: i.To collect information and advise the Government on matters relating to Stock and Capital Markets.
d) Persistence of odd lots and refusal of companies to stop this practice of allotting shares in
odd lots, which disappeared with the introduction of D-mat form of trading. e) Insider trading by agents of companies or brokers rigging and manipulating prices.
33
Objectives of SEBI
The SEBI has been entrusted with both the regulatory and development function. The objectives of SEBI are as follows:a)Investor protection, so that there is a steady flow of savings into the Capital Markets. b) Ensuring the fair practices by the issuers of securities, namely,
c)
SEBI POWERS
The SEBI powers on stock exchanges and their member brokers and sub brokers were exercised under SEBI (stock brokers and sub brokers) Regulations of October 23 1992. These relate to registration, licensing, code of conduct, and inspection of books accounts, etc. These powers were exercised under Section 12 of SEBI Act. SEBI was delegated more powers of administration of SC (R) Act in respect of many provisions including recognition of stocks exchanges (Sec.3, 4&5) and control and regulation of stocks exchanges under Sections 7, 13, 18, 22 and 28 etc., These were concurrent powers wielded by both Government and SEBI, effective from September1993. Subsequently, by an ordinance in January 1995, the SEBI was given further powers to impose penalties on insider trading and capital markets intermediaries for violation of SEBI regulations and companies for not complying with listing agreement. In particular penalties can be imposed in monetary terms, for failure to furnish books of accounts, failure to enter into agreements with clients, failure to redress investor grievances, defaults in case of mutual funds, and non-disclosures of acquisition of shares and take over etc. Venture capital funds like mutual funds were brought under the control of SEBI. Earlier to that, the SEBI has started licensing and regulations the underwriters, debenture trustees, collecting bankers, and all intermediaries in the capital market. SEBI in the New Millennium: SEBI has got all the needed powers to regulate the Capital Market including all affairs of listed Companies, Venture Funds, MFs, etc. Already it has been regulating the foreign
34
agencies or a body operating in the capital market and it has announced guidelines for all players in markets, including a code of conduct.
SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE BOARD OF INDIA (SEBI) MERCHANT BANKING -ROLE & FUNCTIONS
(a) Authorization
Any person or body proposing to engage in the business of Merchant Banking would need authorization by SEBI in the prescribed format. This will apply to those presently engaged in the Merchant Banking activity, including as Manager, Consultants or Advisers to issues. (b) Authorized Activity
(i) Issue Management
(ii) Corporate Advisory services relating to the issue (iii) Underwriting (iv) Portfolio Management Services (PMS) (v) Managers, Consultants or Advisers to the issue (c) Authorization Criteria All Merchant Bankers are expected to perform with high standards of integrity and fairness in all their dealings. A code of conduct for the Merchant Bankers is prescribed by SEBI which will take into account the following: (i) Professional Competence (ii) Personnel, their adequacy and quality and other infrastructure (iii) Capital Adequacy (iv) Past track record, experience, general reputation and fairness in all their transactions. (d) Terms of Authorization (i) All Merchant bankers shall have a minimum net worth of Rs.5crore. (ii) The Authorization will be for an initial period of 3 years. (iii) All issues should be managed by at least one authorized to Merchant banker functioning as the Lead Manager or sole Manager. Issue Amount Up to Rs.50crores Over Rs. 50crores not No. of Lead Not Not Managers More than 2 More than 3
35
Not
More than 4
(iv) The Merchant Bankers shall exercise due diligences independently verifying the contents of the prospectus. The Merchant Bankers of the issues shall certify to this effect to SEBI. (v) In respect of issues managed by the Merchant Bankers, they would be required to a minimum 5% underwriting obligation for issue subject to a ceiling of Rs.25lakh. (vi) The merchant bankers involvement will continue till the complete on of essential to follow-up steps including listing of the shares and dispatch of certificates. (vii) The Merchant Banker shall make available to SEBI such information, returns and reports as may be called for. (viii) Merchant Bankers shall adhere to the code of conduct which shall prepared by SEBI. (ix) Merchant Bankers to ensure that Publicity / Advertisement material accompanying the application form to the issue meets the requirement of GOI/SEBI. (x) SEBI shall be informed well before the opening of the issue the Inter allocation of activities/sub-activities, among lead managers to the issue. (xi) Merchant Bankers performing or planning to perform portfolio management services shall furnish the details in the prescribed format.
(f)
Grading of Prospectus Grading of Prospectus will be done by SEBI using the following parameters:(i) Objective description of the project, its status and implementation. (ii) Track record of the promoters and their competence. (iii) Disclosure about Demand - Supply position, Market and Marketing arrangements, Raw materials availability and infrastructural facility. (iv) Objective assessment of Business prospects and profitability.
II II III
1 2 3
36
IV
Serious defaults
Commercial banks
A commercial bank may legally take deposits for checking and savings accounts from consumers. The federal government provides insurance guarantees on these deposits through the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (the FDIC), on amounts up to $100,000. To get FDIC guarantees, commercial banks must follow a myriad of regulations. The typical commercial banking process is fairly straightforward. You deposit money into your bank, and the bank loans that money to consumers and companies in need of capital (cash). You borrow to buy a house, Finance a car, or finance an addition to your home. Companies borrow to finance the growth of their company or meet immediate cash needs. Companies that borrow from commercial banks can range in size from the dry cleaner on the corner to a multinational conglomerate. Investment banks An investment bank operates differently. An investment bank does not have an inventory of cash deposits to lend as a commercial bank does. In essence, an investment bank acts as an intermediary, and matches sellers of stocks and bonds with buyers of stocks and bonds. Note, however, that companies use investment banks toward the same end as they use commercial banks. If a company needs capital, it may get a loan from a bank, or it may ask an investment bank to sell equity or debt (stocks or bonds). Because commercial banks already have funds available from their depositors and an investment bank does not, an I-bank must spend considerable time finding investors in order to obtain capital for its client.
37
Five for
Po en
Every industry functions in an environment, which to a great extent determines the strategies to be adopted by it for survival. The term environment includes both internal as well as external factors, such as the level of competition within the industry, the level of technology used, government policy, etc., which could affect its ability to function effectively. These forces and the interplay amongst them constitute the structure of the industry. terms of the long run return on invested capital are: 1. Threat of entry 2. competition 3. pressure from substitute 4. bargaining power of buyers Five forces which determine collectively the profit potential of the industry and are measured in
Supplier
Inve ba
1. Threat of entry - new entrant into the industry may pose a threat to the existing players.
Major threats to entry into industry depend on: Economies of scale Product differentiation Capital requirement Switching cost Access to distribution channels Government policy
38
Subs
2. Competition: - competition based on factors such as prices, advertising, goodwill, product innovations, customer services, after sales services, etc., also act as major entry barrier to new firms. A unique feature of this industry is the extent of ties among the investment banks themselves. They share customers, work together, jointly underwrites deals, and negotiate with each other in M&Q transaction. However the investment banks compete for business from the same customer. In India, only 25% of the investment bankers are active in issue management while rests are involved in underwriting. The smaller Investment bankers usually take care issue of low size. Low entry barriers into the Industry have led to the mushrooming of investment banking outfit in India 3. Pressure from substitute products: - substitute products to issue management may be new innovations in the methods of raising funds. For instance, companies might prefer privately placing the issue instead of a public offering. Previously all the public issues were routed through regional stock exchanges. But with establishment of OTC in India in the year 1990 with a facility for screen based automated computerized trading system, it has acted as a substitute to smaller public issues. In OTCEI, sponsor place the scrips with member of OTC whom will in turn offload the scrips to public thus reducing the issue cost. So establishment of such exchanges like NSE and OTCEI also will act as substitute to other stock exchanges. 4. Bargaining power of buyers: - here customers of investment bankers mainly promoters on one side and investors on the other side. The main job of investment bankers is to act as an intermediary between these two sides. In designing new instrument or executing the public issue it has to keep in mind the requirement of promoters as well as of the investors. The successes of an investment bankers or reputation of investment bankers depends on the success of the issue. So the most important attribute of investment bankers is to have good expertise in its field of specialization and the ability to know the pulse of market 5. Bargaining power of suppliers: - investment banking industry being a service industry, no definite suppliers can be identified as skills of professional are utilized in the process. But persons, who support the investment banker in successful execution of the issue like registrar, printers, advertiser, underwriters, bankers, legal advisors, etc., can be considered as suppliers because their co-operation and support the public issue cannot see light. People rendering services these services are in large number in the market, hence bargaining power of suppliers
39
can be considered to be very less. Finally success of Investment banking depends on the relationship with clients, image of the firms and quality of services offered.
Liquidity risk - is the risk of negative effects on the financial result and capital of the bank caused by the banks inability to meet all its due obligations. Credit risk - is the risk of negative effects on the financial result and capital of the bank caused by borrowers default on its obligations to the bank. Market risk - includes interest rate and foreign exchange risk. 1. Interest rate risk - is the risk of negative effects on the financial result and capital of the bank caused by changes in interest rates. 2. Foreign exchange risk - is the risk of negative effects on the financial result and capital of the bank caused by changes in exchange rates. A special type of market risk is the risk of change in the market price of securities, financial derivatives or commodities traded or tradable in the market.
Exposure risks - include risks of banks exposure to a single entity or a group of related entities, and risks of banks exposure to a single entity related with the bank. Investment risks - include risks of banks investments in entities that are not entities in the financial sector and in fixed assets.
40
Risks relating to the country of origin of the entity to which a bank is exposed (country risk) is the risk of negative effects on the financial result and capital of the bank due to banks inability to collect claims from such entity for reasons arising from political, economic or social conditions in such entitys country of origin. Country risk includes political and economic risk, and transfer risk.
Operational risk - is the risk of negative effects on the financial result and capital of the bank caused by omissions in the work of employees, inadequate internal procedures and processes, inadequate management of information and other systems, and unforeseeable external events.
Legal risk it is the risk of loss caused by penalties or sanctions originating from court disputes due to breach of contractual and legal obligations, and penalties and sanctions pronounced by a regulatory body.
Reputational risk - is the risk of loss caused by a negative impact on the market positioning of the bank. Strategic risk - is the risk of loss caused by a lack of a long-term development component in the banks managing team.
41
1.
date.
3.
4.
procedures to justify them when undertaken. 5.Adequate compensation policies should be formulated to protect dealers from losses in case of disputed traders. 6.Revaluation of position may be conducted by traders to monitor positions by the controllers to record periodic profit and loss, and by the risk mangers who seek to estimate risk under various market conditions.
7. 8.
Traders should maintain professionalism, confidentiality and proper language in Management should analyze the trading activity periodically.
Risk management in the back office 1. It should have written documentation indicating the range of permissible products, trading authorities and permissible counterparties. 2. It should have limits for each type of contract or risk type. 3. The management should explicitly state the procedure for the written authorization of the trades in excess of the laid down limits. 4. Adequate procedure for promptly resolving the failure to receive or deliver securities on the settlement dates must be established. Other risk management practices 1. As with traditional banki9ng transactions, an independent credit function should conduct an internal credit review before engaging in transaction with the prospective counterparties. Credit guidelines should ensure that the limits are approved for only those counterparties that meet the appropriate credit criteria. The credit risk management function should verify that the limits are approved by the credit specialist.
2. The assessment of the counterparties based on simple balance sheet measures the
traditional assessment of the financial condition may be adequate for many types of counterparties. The credit risk assessment policies should also properly define the type of
42
analysis to be conducted on the counterparties based on the nature of their risk profile. In some instance stress testing may be needed when counterpartys creditworthiness may be adversely affected by the short-term fluctuations in the financial markets.
3. The top management has to identify those areas where the bank practices may not comply
with the stated policies. Necessary internal controls for ensuring that the practices confirm with that stated policies should be put in place.
43
otherwise of listing on the stock exchange as well as help the companies go through the process of getting their shares listed. Advertisements containing all the information legally required to be given in the prospectus must be published in all the leading proposed date of opening and closing, a summary of the companys business history, balance sheet, etc, to which a reference was made earlier. Once the issue made, the work of the merchant bank relates to arranging for the allotment of shares in consultation with the company and the stock exchange authorities with the help of Registrars.
Historically, equity research firms were founded and owned by investment banks. One common practice is for equity analysts to initiate coverage on a company in order to develop relationships that lead to highly profitable investment banking business. In the 1990s, many equity researchers allegedly traded positive stock ratings directly for investment banking business. On the flip side of the coin: companies would threaten to divert investment banking business to competitors unless their stock was rated favorably. Politicians acted to pass laws to criminalize such acts. Increased pressure from regulators and a series of lawsuits, settlements, and prosecutions curbed this business to a large extent following the 2001 stock market tumble
Many investment banks also own retail brokerages. Also during the 1990s, some retail brokerages sold consumers securities which did not meet their stated risk profile. This behavior may have led to investment banking business or even sales of surplus shares during a public offering to keep public perception of the stock favorable.
44
Since investment banks engage heavily in trading for their own account, there is always the temptation or possibility that they might engage in some form of front running.
1. Bank of America Securities LLC -Bank of America Securities is the U.S. investment
banking arm of Bank of America, one of the biggest commercial banks around. Together with Bank of Americas U.K. investment banking subsidiary, Banc of America Securities Ltd., it offers a full range of investment banking and brokerage services. The company was created in 1998, when its parent bank acquired Montgomery Securities. Later, Bank of America was acquired by NationsBank, and the combined entity took on the Bank of America name. Banc of America Securities main offices are in San Francisco, New York, and Charlotte. It employs people in areas including corporate and investment banking, the global markets group (debt capital raising, sales, trading, and research), portfolio management, e-commerce, global treasury services, and asset management.
45
Banc of America Securities offers full-time and summer associate and analyst programs in the United States and in Europe.
2. Credit Suisse first Boston LLC - Credit Suisse First Boston is the result of the 1988
merger of the investment bank First Boston and Credit Suisse, a European commercial bank. In 2000, the firm acquired Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette, and a leading underwriter of high-yield bonds with a golden reputation in research. A bulge-bracket bank, CSFB ranked fifth among all banks in 2003 in terms of global debt, equity, and equity-related issuance. CSFB has experienced trouble in recent years, with business slackening in key areas (e.g., IPO underwriting) and regulatory trouble (the firm paid a $200 million fine in 2002 for research improprieties and another $100 million in 2002 to settle charges that it received kickbacks in the form of higher commissions from clients to whom it allocated hot IPO sharesand in the process rock-star tech banker Frank Quattrone resigned and eventually was convicted of criminal charges). The firm has also been losing key bankers in recent times; epitomizing this trend, the CEO of the investment bank, John Mack, announced plans to leave the firm in the summer of 2004, reportedly due to the fact that his desire to merge Credit Suisse with another firm was not in line with the desires of the majority of the directors of Credit Suisse. After that announcement, the firms head in China announced plans to leave the firm, and as this guide goes to press the firm must surely be worried that an exodus of the firms talent in Asia will ensue.
3. Deutsche Banc Securities Inc. - Deutsche Banc Securities is the full-service North
American investment banking arm of German financial services giant Deutsche Bank AG. It includes Deutsche Bank Alex. Brown, which provides M&A, acquisition finance, and project finance advisory to clients in the health-care, media, real estate, technology, and telecom sectors. The bank has been undergoing some changes, with some key employees leaving the firm and the addition of a number of senior-level hires. In March 2004, Deutsche announced it was laying-off 50 employees in the equity group, including nine senior research analysts, dropping coverage of 100 of the 731 companies it used to cover in the process. Observers report that layoffs could continue as the bank cuts back on research coverage, a common trend on the Street. Overall, though, Deutsche Bank has been focused on building its presence in North America.
4. The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. - Goldman Sachs was founded in 1869 when Marcus
Goldman, an immigrant from Europe, began a small enterprise to provide an alternative to expensive bank credit. In the 1950s, Goldman played a lead role in establishing the
46
municipal bond market, and in the 1970s the firm formed the first official M&A and real estate departments on Wall Street. Today it continues to sit at or near the top in most areas of investment banking advisory, sales, and trading. In the first 6 months of 2004, Goldman ranked second in global equity and equity-related business, second in global IPO underwriting, fourth in global investment-grade corporate debt, fourth in underwriting, and first in M&A advisory. Perhaps even more significant, it is probably considered by the majority of people in the industry as the gold standard in terms of the quality of its employees (a belief thats especially true among Goldman employees, naturally), what an investment bank should be, and how a bank should do business. (A fact thats a bit ironic given that Goldman has faced as much scrutiny as any other bank as the SEC and other regulators try to clean up Wall Street in the wake of the early-2000s banking scandalsand has had to pay a pretty penny to settle charges of misdeeds brought against it.)
5. J.P Morgan & Co. - This firm was formed by a mega-merger when Chase Manhattan,
one of the largest commercial banks around, paid $33 billion to join with J.P. Morgan, one of the oldest and most prestigious commercial and investment banks in the world. Subsidiaries include J.P. Morgan Fleming Asset Management, which serves institutional investors; J.P. Morgan Partners, a private-equity house; J.P. Morgan H&Q, an investment banking arm focused on areas like tech and health care; and J.P. Morgan Private Bank, which serves wealthy private clients. And now, with the 2004 acquisition of Bank One, its getting even bigger. (However, the acquisition probably wont have a major effect on the way things are done in the investment bank, J.P. Morgan.) J.P. Morgan is a major player in terms of debt and equity issuance worldwide; in the first half of 2004, it was third in the league tables in global equity underwriting, in U.S. IPO underwriting, and in overall debt underwriting. It is also a player in M&Afifth best in the business, in terms of worldwide announced deals in the first half of 2004.
6. Merill Lynch & Co., Inc. - Merrill was founded in 1914, when Charles Merrill opened
the first U.S. retail brokerage firm, winning his company the nickname the firm that brought Wall Street to Main Street. He was joined a year later by his friend Edmund Lynch. In recent years, the company has worked to increase its presence in the global market place. The firms strength lays in its vast retail brokerage network and large asset management business, as well as its position near the top of the global underwriting and advisory league tables. All has not been rosy for Merrill of late. Poor performance has forced the firm to drop thousands of employees over the past several years. In 2002, the
47
firm was forced to pay $100 million to New York State after evidence supporting allegations of fraudulent stock recommendations by Merrill research analysts came to light. Also in 2002, the firm was one of a number of major banks paying between $80 million and $125 million as part of a $1.335 billion settlement with regulators for research misdeeds. In 2003, the firm was charged by the SEC with helping Enron fraudulently pump up its profits in 1999, and Merrill agreed to pay $80 million to settle.
48
Conclusion
For the past couple of years the investment banking industry has been shrinking and the current scenario calls for combined efforts by the regulators and the industry itself to take measures for improving the situation. At present the industry is going through changes. Many non banking finance companies are focusing on becoming multi business entities so that they can remain commercially viable. The corporate sector has perennial needs for services such as investment advisory, corporate restructuring, distressed assets acquisition and equity and debt financing. And as the economy improves the need for these services will further intensify. This indicates good prospects for the investment banks proficient in these areas of business. It is time for the investment banks to focus on developing competitive advantages in the form of wider outreach and ability to mobilize national savings with greater efficiency. In this scenario, investment banks have had to increase their international presence in order to retain existing clients and to generate new business. They have been achieving these offices abroad as well as by acquiring or merging with foreign investment banks. Similarly investment banks from other countries have been strengthening their ties with American investment banks. The industry has been witnessing consolidation across geographical functional-supermarket, where all the financial need of all types of clients can be fulfilled. With the abolition of glassSteagell act, it is possible for bank to convert itself into a supermarket that offers all types of financial services to issuers and investors, at both retail and wholesale level. The range of services offered may cover underwriting services, fund, management, insurance products, credit cards, loans, depository services. Corporate advisory services, trust services etc. The rapid technology changes have started affecting the industry. As various commercial banking and investment banking activities have become digitalized, the established players are facing challenge on pricing front from all small new players. This is big forcing big banks to find
49
means of turning the digitalization to their advantage and reducing cost. Today they are focusing more on lower cost, better quality services, innovative products and new service channel so that can have deeper penetration in the market. During the downturn in the economy the demand for the industries services declines equally fast. The earning in the industry are extremely volatile as they depend upon extremely volatile factors like interest rates, exchange rates., inflation etc. they need to stay big enough at all times to be able to satisfy suddenly increasing demand, yet be flexible enough to be able to downsize quickly in a declining market.
Bibliography
Websites
1. www.google.com 2. www.wikipedia.org
3. www.pfoo.com 4. www.financeconnectsingapore.com 5. www.management paradise.com
Books
1. Investment Banking(ICFAI)
50