The Mushroom Farm

By Joseph Cleveland Brown, III

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
(Fellow of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, (Retired
Civil Works Project Engineer, (Retired)
CONTENTS

Introduction

Chapter 1: Einstein’s Legacy.

Chapter 2: The Stars of Nuclear Physics.

Chapter 3: Nuclear Energy Explained.

Chapter 4: Our Race for the Bomb.

Chapter 5: Our Bombs.

Chapter 6: The Weapon Delivery Systems.

Chapter 7: Our Nuclear Warheads.

Chapter 8: Our Missiles.

Chapter 9: Our Nuclear Powered Navy.

Chapter 10: The Anatomy of a Nuclear Explosion.

Chapter 11: U. S. Military Nuclear Safety record!

Chapter 12: The Cuban Missile Crisis!

Chapter 13: Our Testing.

Chapter 14: Our Atomic Power Generation versus the World.

Chapter 15: Our Planned Nuclear Waste Repository.

Chapter 16: Our Cost so far.

Chapter 17: How to prepare for the future.

Glossary

References and Sources

 Introduction
OOPS!
In 2007 I watched a one hour documentary on TV. I was shocked to learn that our
government, Yes, You guessed it, the same government that looses all of our money in the
Stock Market and Mortgage Market and puts space shuttles up, launches missiles that
attack and kill other missiles and builds Nuclear Submarines so sophisticated that they
are impossible to detect underwater has lost a Hydrogen Bomb close to a major American
city and can’t find it! And as a middle manager in the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers for
over 30 years I was never officially informed of this fact! I had to learn of this disturbing
event on TV! It was on The Discovery Channel one day and titled, “America’s Lost H-
Bomb” and was indeed an eye opener. The title alone got my full attention as I was
expecting a show about how we had lost a nuclear device somewhere in the deep oceans
of the world. I was surprised to learn that there was a One Megaton Thermonuclear Bomb
buried in the mud somewhere near Tybee Island Georgia right here in the good old U. S.
of A.! I was further alarmed by the revelation brought out in the show that the weapon
went missing in 1958 and has yet to be found. (I sincerely hope someone who wants to do
the U. S. harm has not already found it)! The federal agencies looking for it know what it
looks like, (12 feet long, weighing 7,600 pounds), they know at what altitude and
airspeed the B-47 dropped it from, ( 7,200 feet and 200 knots) and they even know that it
was serial number “47782” and had an explosive yield of One Megaton. I spent many
years of my adult life and career in the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers an not once have I
seen an official document mentioning this lost H-bomb! I can only conclude therefore
that it was kept secret from the general public and some government agencies until
recently.
So, if I lived on Tybee Island Georgia I would move at least 500 miles away because
there is a 1 Megaton Thermonuclear Bomb sitting in the mud offshore, in the vicinity of
Wassaw Sound that may or may not be armed, and is exposed to the corrosive elements
contained in the mud and surrounding sea water. The Government says it is safe but can
we believe them? I would not stake my family’s life on the assurance of the government
knowing their track record in promulgating misinformation.
I have in my files a copy of the Official Air Force report dated 12APRIL2001 that says,
“The Mark 15 bomb was produced in two versions; the Mod 0 and Mod 2. The Mod 2
version of this bomb type replaced the removable nuclear capsule of the Mod 0 with a
non-removable nuclear capsule, thus making the Mod 2 version a self-contained fully
functional nuclear bomb”. It goes on to say in the next paragraph, “Concern has been
raised as to which version of the bomb was used”. The U. S. A. F. & Department of
Energy both concluded that the bomb was a Mod 0, based on the following
unsubstantiated investigative conclusions:
• Maintenance records for this specific bomb indicate the only maintenance activity
during which the Mod 0 to Mod 2 conversion might have been completed took
place in July 1956.
• Atomic Energy Commission production records indicate Mod 2 conversion kits
were not ready until December 1957.
• AEC production records indicate Mod 0 to Mod 2 conversions did not begin until
March 1958.
• As the accident occurred in February 1958, the evidence is inconclusive that the
bomb involved was a Mod 0.
• Testimony before congressional investigating committees in the aftermath of the
“Tybee Incident” left more doubt about the weapon being armed or not and no
conclusive evidence was offered as to which version of the bomb was lost!

Chilling, isn’t it? Statements like, “conversion might have been completed,” or “the
evidence is inconclusive that the bomb involved was a Mod 0!” I don’t know about you
but might and inconclusive are not words I want to see in a report dealing with a lost 1
megaton thermonuclear bomb that is sitting in the mud off of a city that has over 300,000
inhabitants in its’ metro area. Savannah Georgia is a vital city in the Southeastern U. S.
and is home to Fort Stewart, Hunter Army Bases not to mention Marine Corps Recruit
Depot Paris Island just to the northeast . It occurs to me that maybe the U. S. government
is and has been hoping this incident will go away and that the bomb will just deteriorate
into the mud.
With the shadow of nuclear annihilation perched on the doorstep of Tybee Island Georgia
I sure hope the bomb that is there doesn’t just decide to go off some day (triggered by a
random lightening strike) and give us all a dose of reality we are not ready for, or worse
yet, some nefarious salvage firm recovers it and sells it to one of our enemies, foreign or
domestic.
In this age of uncertainty I fear the possibility of the Islamic Extremists and other types of
domestic terrorists getting their hands on a suitcase sized nuke. (They exist and are very
easy to use)! A suitcase sized nuke may not have enough power to level a large city but it
could render Wall Street financial markets a fond memory if our government doesn’t
destroy them first. I know in my heart that there are many groups of disaffected U. S.
citizens who belong to radical left and right wing groups who would not hesitate to use a
nuke to get their point across. I have studied these home grown groups in my years in the
military intelligence training I have had and I attended a two week seminar once that was
absolutely chilling. The topic was “Domestic Sects, Cults and Deviant Movements”. It
was an two week course and I could not sleep well for quite a few weeks after attending it
because I had learned just how many groups there are right here living among us that are
enemies of the state for whatever misguided reasons they have. Not to mention the
religious nut cases halfway around the world who live in a doomsday theology such as
radical Islam. I decided right at that moment to write the definitive work on United States
Nuclear History without sugar coating it so anyone could have a reference at their
disposal to find the historical facts on Nuclear power generation, weapons, technology
and the Government organizations that regulate Nuclear energy in this nation. Let me
point out that I am no raving anti nuke person nor would anyone who knows me call me a
liberal. I am a self described Conservative Libertarian and as patriotic as any American
can be when it comes to the defense of my country. I adhere to the Theodore Roosevelt
philosophy of, “Talk softly and carry a BIG stick”! That being said, I cannot explain why
the United States has ten times more nuclear warheads and bombs than it has means to
deliver them. The only plausible answer is like the old frontier scouts used to say “You
can’t carry enough bullets in hostile Indian territory when you need them”! Nuclear
weapons are not like your typical conventional ammunition. You don’t drop nuclear
weapons every day on a city or military facility until you destroy it!
It only takes one of sufficient size to do the trick! So, I ask myself. Why do we have so
many nuclear bombs? Whatever the reason he has President George Bush will be
remembered in history as the Commander in Chief who trimmed our Nuclear Arsenal to a
manageable level by ordering the systematic dismantling and storage of thousands of
obsolete nuclear weapons and the lethal components they are made from. (This fact is not
widely published in the media for obvious reasons). The President thinks this is best for
us and I agree that we must do this.
We only have enough ships, submarines, aircraft and missiles to deliver 500 to 600
warheads at one time (in an all out combined forces effort of ship/submarine launched,
silo launched and aircraft launched weapons). If Iran carries out their threats and does
launch a nuke into Israel it will only take 2 medium sized weapons to destroy Israel but it
will take 11 warheads to completely destroy Iran. The Israelis have an ample supply of
nuclear warheads and delivery systems to accomplish this task. Eleven U. S. Trident
ICBM missiles launched from an Ohio Class SSBN within 10,000 miles of Iran would do
the trick but would obviously alter world history from that moment forward. Or 11
Nuclear tipped Cruise missiles launched from aircraft, submarines or surface ships would
do. If all out Nuclear War breaks out there would be a different scenario. If you combine
our delivery aircraft capability with the ballistic and cruise missile fleet in the Navy and
the missiles we have in silos ready to launch we can obliterate any threatening nation (or
group of nations) ten times over with a virtual storm of bombs and missiles. I know we
have to counter the historic potential adversary nations such as Russia and China but as
progress in nuclear weapon technology is made we have been and will be the leader in
the field for the foreseeable future and not the follower. India, Pakistan, Syria, South
Africa as second World Nations and other Third World nations only want to possess
nuclear weapons because the big kids on the block already have them and they are tired
of being pushed around. They are playing catch up except in the Iran case where they just
want to start WWIV to usher in the coming of the 12th Imam to fulfill their doomsday
prophesy. As stated in international press releases the delivery system technology of these
Second and Third World nations are primitive at best. Although, the Russians have
assisted Iran and others, by supplying advanced missile technology, the present Russian
nuclear technology lags behind the West in many ways.
During the Clinton Administration our own misguided State Department headed by
Madeline Albright and one private contractor named LORAL Corp. supplied China with
advanced missile guidance technology which enabled China to target anything in range
accurately. This was done in a misguided effort to win favor with the Peoples Republic.
As proven out in the unsealed records of the Kremlin and by our SALT Treaty Inspectors,
during the height of the Cold War the Soviet Union on their best day could only field one
third of the nuclear weapons we could and their rocket technology and accuracy was
faulty. They were not a “Paper Tiger” but they were not the huge angry Grizzly bear our
government hyped them up to be. They were more like an angry clumsy Black Bear.
They could have done us great harm but they could not have obliterated us in one attack.
Of course if you happened to be in a U. S. city or military installation and one of their
shaky missiles or aging bombers actually managed to hit it with a ten megaton nuke it
would have still been the end of your world. The Soviets were our prime adversary and
are maneuvering to that position again at this writing with their support of Iran and
Syria’s ambitious pursuit of nuclear weapons and their resurgence as a dominant power
over their former satellite nations such a Georgia. I also think our recent demonstration of
our ability to shoot down incoming missiles and orbiting satellites has them excited and
feeling left behind. I wrote this book to give a detailed history of our nuclear weapons
development and to open a window into the almost insane proliferation of this
technology. We have spent virtual mountains of money on the ability to destroy our
enemies (and ourselves) in literally a few minutes. The Iranians may cause the end of the
world as we know it by striking Israel with a nuke thus causing a nuclear exchange by
their political allies but we started the ball rolling in concert with our traditional enemies.
As recently evidenced by press releases from the Bush administration, President Bush has
directed the nuclear services to stand down aging nuclear weapons and delivery systems
and to stockpile unused obsolete weapons. There is the question of what to do with such a
huge pile of nuclear weapons. Where do we put them out of harms way that will not
endanger us or the rest of the world? The Department of Defense, the Department of
Energy and the Atomic Energy Commission have decided on Yucca Mountain Nevada. At
least President Bush has taken the bold step in reducing the pile and addressing our need
for a more streamlined and manageable nuclear weapons program.
I have a recurring nightmare of some loony head of some rogue nation (Iran) getting his
hands on a nuke and blowing up his country’s historical sworn enemy (Israel). This
triggers a response from the other nations in the region and their allies.
Let’s face facts here, the Iranian theocratic leadership and other radical Islamic regimes
lived hating each other religiously for centuries and many live under a doomsday
theology! Their hatred is based on tribal, ethnic, religious and territorial disputes which
are ages old. The leadership of Iran is living for the day when they can nuke the Israelis
off the map! Their titular leader has said as much. The Iranian ruling council of Islamic
clerics actually are the government of Iran. Under the right political climate and if the
pushing of buttons starts I fear it will not stop until the earth (form low orbit) will look
like a MUSHROOM FARM in full bloom.
If everybody has a nuke, someone will use one! History shows that we earthlings just
can’t get along with each other and we are incapable of managing our emotions, making
it inevitable that someone will target their enemy with a nuke someday. This scenario is
scary enough without the added scenario of a possible accident by our own military!
Accidents do occur as evidenced by the documentary entitled “America’s Lost H-Bomb”
which spent one hour explaining the fact that we lost one there. According to the Air
Force Official Report the bomber had been involved in a mid-air collision with an Air
Force F-86 Fighter and the B-47 was possibly going to crash and explode. My question
here is, if the Bomb was not “Armed” then why was the crew so fearful of it exploding in
the crash that they jettisoned it into the shallow waters off of Tybee Island Georgia!
The Author
 Chapter 1:

Einstein’s Legacy.

Albert Einstein was a mathematician and theoretical physicist who had lofty ideas and
thought in an intellectual realm few venture into. His concepts were new paradigms in
every conceivable way. It is most evident to all mankind by now that Albert Einstein was
a true genius of galactic proportions. His E=MC2 formula and what it gave birth to
forever transformed world thought. He is the most quoted scientist ever. His impact on us
all is so immense that many of us will never understand the true depth of his discoveries.
He was a pioneer in theoretical physics but he had help. There were many great minds
that did yeoman work in the initial stages of mankind’s development of nuclear energy
for peaceful as well as harmful usage. I have many to thank for this shadow of doom we
all live under. It goes back two thousand years to Democritus, who put forth the theory
that matter is made up of atoms. Small particles, so small no one can see them. Then in
1896 Henri Becquerel discovered uranium ore, followed closely by Pierre and Marie
Curie’s work on radium. In 1919 in his laboratory Ernest Rutherford bombarded nitrogen
particles with alpha particles and produced a split atom. In the 1930’s Ernest Rutherford
and Albert Einstein thought that the normal speed of decay of atomic particles could not
be improved on. Thus, the release of the energy from atomic decay or half life was
thought not feasible to improve on. At this time the great science fiction writers H. G.
Wells and Edgar Rice Burroughs were including atomic bombs and radium engines in
their stories. When Dr. Leo Szilard started experiments on chain reactions in the lab he
said he was influenced by those science fiction stories.
In 1932 Sir John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton split the atom causing a chain reaction by
artificially accelerating particles in a lab. In 1934 Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie found in
experiments that stable elements could be induced with alpha particles. At the same time
Enrico Fermi was bombarding uranium with neutrons but did not correctly interpret the
results.
In 1938 German scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann published experimental
findings in scientific journals. Their experiment produced an isotope of barium. They had
an Austrian scientist working with them named Otto R. Frisch who interpreted the results
of their experiments to mean they have achieved nuclear fission.
It was followed by collaborative experiments performed by George Placzek in
cooperation with Frisch which proved fission was possible under properly controlled
circumstances. In 1933 Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard postulated his theory that “if any
neutron-driven process released more neutrons than those required to, start it, an
expanding chain reaction might result”. In chemistry it was widely known that chain
reactions were a familiar outcome of combining dissimilar chemicals which resulted in
explosions, fires and other extreme reactions. Dr. Szilard postulated in confidence that the
chain reaction that could result on a nuclear scale could be in theory used to make a very
powerful weapon. Dr. Szilard knew the implications for the world if this information got
into the hands of a hostile regime, such as was in power in Germany. Dr. Szilard tried to
keep his theory a secret but it was published to the world by the Joliot-Curie group. This
set Dr. Szilard on his quest to get Einstein to write to the president so the U. S. could
counter and possibly surpass any progress made by the Germans. At the time of these
burgeoning discoveries Europe was in turmoil. The Nazi’s were invading Poland and
setting off World War II. Most ex-patriot scientists who had fled to Great Britain and the
U. S. from the Nazi surge into their former countries feared that any published data on
uranium-235 fission would only empower the Nazis. Therefore a loose agreement was
made by most of the ex-patriot scientists to curtail any publication of such experimental
results. In Europe scientists such as Niels Bohr, George Placzek and John Wheeler had
established that the only isotope of uranium suitable for fission was Uranium-235. It was
known only 0.7% of the available uranium found in nature was U-235. The ore in most of
the world’s uranium deposits was useless uranium-238 which inhibits fission by
absorbing neutrons not emitting them. Of course the U-235 was so rare it was virtually
priceless. In the United States there were the physicists Leo Szilard, Edward Teller and
Eugene Wigner all Hungarian Jews who were well aware of the progress being made by
the German team headed by Werner Heisenberg.
Being politically marginalized the scientists sought the help of Albert Einstein who was
held in high regard in American academia. Thus the first letter to President Roosevelt was
conceived and dictated to Einstein who signed it and sent it to FDR. It took a full month
to receive the letter through channels and he acted quickly once the implications were
made clear to him.
He authorized the creation of “Uranium Committee” under the chairmanship of the
National Bureau of Standards chief Lyman Briggs. Since the United States would not
officially enter the war until December 7, 1941 work on nuclear fission proceeded at a
relatively leisure pace at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington. Its chief scientist
was Philip Abelson who did work on isotope separation. At this same time Enrico Fermi
was making progress in the same field at Columbia University. The U. S. government
then placed the program under Vannevar Bush who was the administrator of the National
Defense Research Committee. Because most of the Jewish scientists were viewed by the
government as extreme leftists most of them were not included in any government tests at
that time. So you see the political atmosphere was such that Einstein’s letter was written
by a group of concerned scientists who had as their motive the survival of western culture
but a culture hopefully sans Nazis. In Einstein’s first letter to President Roosevelt dated
August 2nd, 1939 he cautioned Roosevelt that “Some recent experiments by E. Fermi and
L. Szilard, which has been communicated to me in manuscript, leads me to expect that
the element uranium may be turned into a new and important source of energy in the
immediate future”. His letter goes on to say that “This new phenomenon would also lead
to the construction of bombs, and it is conceivable – though much less certain – that
extremely powerful bombs of a new type may thus be constructed. A single bomb of this
type, carried by boat and exploded in a port, might very well destroy the whole port
together with some of the surrounding territory. However, such bombs might well prove
to be too heavy for transportation by air”. Up until this letter arrived on Roosevelt’s’
desk the possibility of nuclear energy had only been speculated about in government
circles. In the same letter Einstein goes on to point out that the U. S. has poor sources of
uranium ore but that Canada, Czechoslovakia and the Belgian Congo have enough
deposits to render fissionable material.
On page two of his first letter to FDR Einstein lays out the structure of a program to
facilitate the development of nuclear energy under the authority of the president. Since
Einstein was a Jew from Wurttemberg Germany, he knew all to well the fate of the world
if the Third Reich came possess such weaponry. He wrote in closing, “I understand that
Germany has actually stopped the sale of uranium from Czechoslovakian mines which
she has taken over. That she should have taken such early action might perhaps be
understood on the ground that the son of the German Under-Secretary of State, Von
Weiszacker is attached to the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institute in Berlin where some of the
American work on uranium is now being repeated”. In Einstein’s’ second letter to
Roosevelt, dated March 7, 1940 he points out the progress that he has been told the
Germans are making and urges the addressee to relay the information contained in the
letter to the president. He further states in the letter that Dr. Szilard has shown him a
manuscript he is preparing to publish in Physics Review and Einstein wants it to be
withheld on the grounds that publishing the exact process for creating a chain reaction in
uranium atoms should not be made public knowledge.
In his third letter dated April 25, 1940, Einstein lays out the outline for organization of
the “Manhattan Project” but does not call it that. He states that, “I am convinced as to
the wisdom and the urgency the conditions under which that and related work can be
carried out with greater speed and on a larger scale than hitherto. I was interested in a
suggestion made by Dr. Sachs that the Special Advisory Committee supply names of
persons to serve as a board of trustees for a nonprofit organization which, with the
approval of the government committee, could secure from government or private sources
or both, the necessary funds for carrying out the work. Given such a framework and the
necessary funds, it (the large-scale experiments and exploration of practical
applications) could be carried out much faster than through a loose cooperation of
university laboratories and government departments”. We now know through the
archival research in books and biographies of Einstein that he did very few experiments.
He was the prototype “Idea Man”! He used his intellect, a blackboard and note pads to
formulate theories that were then proven right or wrong through the work of other
physicists in laboratories.
I have always thought that Einstein was tuned into the universe that few others even
know exists on a cosmic level. In the great work “A tale of two Continents” by the
eminent physicist Dr. Abraham Pais, who was a contemporary of Einstein at Princeton
Dr. Pais recounts his relationship with Einstein in his last few years of life. On the many
walks Pais took with Einstein he was in awe of the great mans thinking. He was
interested in Einstein’s work on the Grand Unification Theory wherein Einstein tried to
establish the relationship of electromagnetic field energy to gravity which in turn distorts
time.
Dr. Pais was influenced by Einstein and in later years made great strides in Quantum and
elementary particle theory. Pais wrote the definitive biography of Einstein and went on to
write many influential books on physics. In 1939 when the president appointed Dr.
Briggs to head the Special Advisory Committee in September he thus started the U. S.
Governments entry into the all out race for nuclear armament. The project seemed stalled
to President Roosevelt and he directed the Army Department to get things going. This
was followed by the appointment of General Leslie Groves to head the Manhattan Project
and the rest is history. I have learned through research that Dr. L. Szilard dictated most of
the letters that Einstein sent to the president. Einstein thought in such lofty realms that he
had difficulty expressing himself in written language other than theory or mathematics.
Near the end of the war in March of 1945 Einstein wrote to Roosevelt at the behest of Dr.
Szilard concerning complaints about the level of secrecy the scientists were under who
worked for the Manhattan Project. General Groves had a great deal of trouble with the
civilian scientists who worked on the project because they were unaccustomed to strict
secrecy rules. In academia it is customary to share experimental results with colleagues
even if they are employed by your country’s enemies. This is referred to as “Peer Revue”
which in a pure academic sense validates experimental results. It was not unusual for
them to share their experiment results with the entire world physicist network. It was this
lack of security adherence that resulted in the Soviets gaining the knowledge and
technology to produce nuclear weapons so soon after we did. I don’t think it was
espionage on the part of the nuclear scientists. It was simply the way they had operated
for decades. The soviets captured many laboratories in eastern Germany where nuclear
experiments were conducted.
Along with the information supplied by the physicists network and the lack of security of
information the soviets simply added what they found in the labs with the documents and
threw in a few captured German scientists and built there own bomb. They did not have
to do the early experimental lab work as it was already done and documented. In
Einstein’s letters it is apparent that he is hesitant to promulgate such a potentially
devastating theory of power to a possibly hostile world. However, he knew that the
consequences would be grave for the entire free world if the Germans got their hands on
such power. If Einstein had nightmares he may have had ones involving mushroom
clouds.
I know I did after seeing “Dr. Strangelove” in the sixties at the Atlantic Drive In Theater
in Jacksonville Florida. At the end of the movie as the credits begin to roll there is a quick
scene of a succession of nuclear detonations one after another which increase in speed to
a rapid fire effect of mushroom after mushroom cloud. I had a very vivid dream where I
was just stepping out of a movie theater with my Wife and we were bathed in white hot
light from a nuclear detonation. As we reeled from the shock we looked at the horizon
and as far as we could see were mushroom cloud after mushroom cloud and then we burst
into flames. After observing the first nuclear detonation Dr. Oppenheimer is quoted as
reciting the line from the Hindu Poem the Bhagavad Gita;
“If the radiance of a thousand Suns were to burst at once in the sky that would be like
the splendor of the mighty one. Now I am become Death, the destroyer of Worlds”!
 Chapter 2:

The Stars of Nuclear Physics

1. Abelson, Philip-(1913 to 2004), American born Physicist who contributed

significantly to the Manhattan Project by the invention of the Liquid Thermal
Diffusion isotope separation technique which sped up nuclear weapons grade fuel
production.
2. Becquerel, Henri-(1852 to 1908), French born Physicist and Chemist who along
with the Pierre and Marie Curie discovered radioactivity in uranium salts via
exposure of photographic film. He was awarded the Noble Prize in Physics in 1903.
3. Bohr, Niels-(1885 to 1962), Danish born Physicist who corresponded with
Abraham Pais while Pais was in hiding in Holland in WWII. Developed significant
contributions to the understanding of atomic structure and quantum mechanics. In
1943 after refusing to assist the Nazi nuclear program he escaped to Sweden,
England and America where he played a key role in the success of the Manhattan
Project. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922.
4. Bush, Vannevar-(1890 to 1974), American born Electrical Engineer and Scientific
Administrator. Picked by President Roosevelt to head the NRDC in 1940 and the
OSRD in 1941 he was the driving force in the organization of all of our WWII
weapons programs.
5. Cockcroft, John Douglas-(1897 to 1967), British Physicist, awarded the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1951 for splitting the atomic nucleus and was instrumental in the
development of nuclear power. Collaborated with Ernest Walton.
6. Curie, Marie-(1867 to 1934), Polish born French Physicist and Chemist who along
with her Husband Pierre and Professor Becquerel discovered radioactivity, and the
element Polonium. Awarded two Nobel Prizes, for Physics in 1903 and for
Chemistry in 1911.
7. Curie, Pierre-(1859 to 1906), French born Physicist who co-discovered
radioactivity. He pioneered research in crystallography, magnetism and
piezoelectricity. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903.
8. Democritus-(460 BC to 370 BC), Greek philosopher who postulated the existence
of “atoma” which is the root word of our word “atom” which he believed were the
imperishable and indivisible units found in all things.
9. Dempster, Arthur Jeffrey-(1886 to 1950), Canadian born American physicist who
discovered Uranium-235 while inventing mass spectrometry. He worked on the
Manhattan Project with Fermi at the University of Chicago from 1943 to 1946.
10. Einstein, Albert-(1879 to 1955), German Born ethnic Jew theoretical physicist. He
is best known as the creator of the equation “E=MC2”. His contributions to physics
created many new paradigms still being debated today. Awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1921.
11. Fermi, Enrico-(1901 to 1954), Italian Born American Physicist who developed the
first nuclear reactor at the University of Chicago. His other contributions included
quantum theory and statistical mathematics. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1938.
12. Frisch, Otto Robert- (1904 to 1979), Austrian Born British Physicist who in 1940
and in collaboration with Rudolph Peierls designed the first theoretical mechanism
for the detonation of an atomic bomb.
13. Geiger, Hans- (1882 to 1945), German Physicist best known as the co-inventor of
the Geiger counter. He partnered with Marsden to perform an experiment which
discovered the atomic nucleus.
14. Groves, Leslie-(1896 to 1979), American Army Corps of Engineers Colonel who
after overseeing the construction of the Pentagon was promoted to Brigadier and
then Major General as the driving force in charge of the Manhattan Project. He
graduated fourth in his class at West Point in 1918. He was the right man for the job
at the right time. He epitomized the motto of the Corps of Engineers which is
“Essayons” from the French for “We will try”!
15. Hahn, Otto- (1879 to 1968), German born Chemist who was awarded the Nobel
Prize in Chemistry in 1944 for discovering nuclear fission during the Nazi regime.
His biographers claimed that he did not participate in the Nazi nuclear weapons
program. Often referred to as “The father of nuclear chemistry”.
16. Heisenberg, Werner-(1901 to 1976), German born Physicist who was the head of
the Nazi nuclear program in WWII. Prior to WWII he taught Edward Teller and
other notable Physicists. He invented Matrix Mechanics which is the forerunner of
Quantum Mechanics. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932.
17. Landau, Lev-(1908 to 1968), Russian born physicist who won the Nobel prize in
1962 for his superfluidity in nuclear gases. He was prominent in Russian nuclear
physics and was instrumental in early Russian nuclear developments.
18. Oppenheimer, Robert-(1904 to 1967), American born Theoretical Physicist who
was the scientific manager of the Manhattan Project. Although suspected of
Communist connections and stripped of his security clearances by the anti
communist lunacy of the post WWII era he was later reinstated. He is often referred
to as “The Father of the Atomic Bomb”. He was a proponent of sharing nuclear
technology with the world.
19. Pais, Abraham-(1918 to 2000), Dutch born Physicist and historian whose writings
to Niels Bohr while in hiding in Holland during WWII inspired Bohr. Pais was
especially adept at the meson theory of nuclear forces.
20. Peierls, Rudolf-(1907 to 1995), German born British Physicist who had a major
role in Great Britain’s nuclear program. He joined the Manhattan Project in 1943 at
Los Alamos. In a heroic act he voluntarily assembled the first atomic bomb by hand
knowing the danger it posed to his health from radiation exposure.
21. Placzek, George-(1905 to 1955), Czech born physicist who excelled in neutron
applications and mathematical equations used to calculate dynamic gasses and
liquids.
22. Rickover, Hyman G.-(1900 to 1986), Polish born American Naval Officer who
rose to the rank of four Star Admiral. Widely known as “The Father of the Nuclear
Navy”. He was the driving force behind the development of naval reactors and saw
the building of 200 nuclear powered submarines and 23 nuclear powered surface
ships. He served 63 years in the Navy. He is responsible for the stellar safety record
of zero reactor accidents in the fleet.
23. Roentgen, Wilhelm Conrad, (1845 to 1923), German born Physicist who in
experiments discovered X-rays. He was awarded the First Nobel Prize in Physics in
1901. His work also was the basis for the radiation dosage measurement of REM or
“Roentgen Equivalent Man”.
24. Rutherford, Ernest-(1871 to 1937), New Zealand born British Chemist and
Geologist who taught Hans Geiger, Niels Bohr, John Cockroft, and others. Widely
known as “The Father of Nuclear Physics”. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1908.
25. Seaborg, Glenn T.-(1912 to 1999), American born Nuclear Chemist who co-
discovered and named ten new radioactive elements and made advances in trans-
uranium elements. Postulated the actinide series of elements. Developed 100
isotopes and most notably discovered Plutonium. He worked on the Manhattan
Project at the University of Chicago with Enrico Fermi in the Metallurgical
laboratory where he contributed greatly to the success of American nuclear
development. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1951.
26. Segre, Emilio G.-(1905 to 1989), Italian born Physicist who discovered anti-
protons which are sub-atomic particles. While on a visit to California in 1938 the
Fascist government in Italy banned all Jews from holding teaching posts there. As a
Jew Segre could not return to Italy so he was offered a job at UC Berkley as a
Research Assistant. He helped discover Plutonium-239 which enhanced the “Fat
Man” bomb used on Nagasaki and all future nuclear weapons. He postulated that a
“Gun Type” bomb using Plutonium would not work as efficiently and insisted on an
implosion design which was later perfected.
27. Somervell, Brehon B.-(1892 to 1955), American born Army Officer. Graduating
sixth in his class at West Point in 1914 he later became the Commanding General of
Army Quartermaster Corps and in charge of Army Logistics in WWII. He was the
master builder and money scrounger under Army Chief of Staff George Marshall.
Responsible for funding and supply of the Pentagon and Manhattan Projects among
many before, during and after WWII.
28. Szilard, Leo-(1898 to 1964), Hungarian born Physicist who with Einstein’s
collaboration convinced President Roosevelt to establish a research and
development group to explore nuclear weapons at the beginning of WWII. He
conceptualized the atomic chain reaction in 1933 after reading an article by Ernest
Rutherford in London. In 1938 Szilard moved to Manhattan for a professorship at
Columbia University. While there Szilard and Fermi came up with a patented
design for a nuclear reactor using uranium. Szilard was directly responsible for the
Manhattan Project because of the letters he dictated to Einstein for delivery to
President Roosevelt. Along with Fermi he moved to Chicago and achieved the first
chain reaction in 1942 in the lab at the University of Chicago under the sports
stadium.
29. Taylor, Geoffrey Ingram-(1886 to 1975), English born Physicist/Mathematician
and expert on fluid dynamics and wave theory. As part of the British delegation to
the Manhattan Project he contributed to blast wave projections of the nuclear
explosive force of the first two bombs “Little Boy” and “Fat Man”.
30. Teller, Edward-(1908 to 2003), Hungarian born American Theoretical Physicist
known widely as “The Father of the Hydrogen Bomb”! Teller played a key role in
development of nuclear weapons at the institute he co-founded which is Lawrence
Livermore Labs at Berkley during the Manhattan Project.
 31. Truman, Harry S.-(1884 to 1972), American born 33rd President of the United
States. Who, while playing poker on the Presidential Yacht in the Potomac River
near Washington DC was handed a note from General Groves in early August 1945
stating that the Atomic Bomb was ready, he scribbled on the back of the note his
permission to execute the mission in less than one minute. Having been an Artillery
Officer in WWI he knew that the Japans’ ability to wage war had to be destroyed as
soon as possible to save lives.
32. Von Weizsacker, Carl Friedrich-(1912 to 2007), German born Physicist who
performed nuclear weapons research under the Nazi regime in Germany during
WWII. With Werner Heisenberg he pursued the development of nuclear power.
33. Walton, Ernest-(1903 to 1995), Irish born British Physicist best known for his
work with John Cockcroft on atom smashing experiments in the 1930’s at
Cambridge University. Co-invented the first particle accelerator with Cockcroft. He
was instrumental in discovering carbon dating techniques. He was awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1951 along with Cockcroft.
34. Wheeler, John-(1911 to 2008), Florida born physicist best known for development
of the S-matrix which was an essential part of particle physics. He is also credited
with coining the phrase “black hole” and “wormhole”. He worked with Einstein at
Princeton.
35. Weisskopf, Victor-(1908 to 2002), Austrian born physicist who worked on the
Manhattan Project. He was instrumental in formulating the concepts of particle
physics.
36. Wigner, Eugene-(1902 to 1995), Hungarian born American born Physicist and
Mathematician who postulated and proved the theories used in quantum
mechanics and in testing atomic nuclei at Princeton. He collaborated with the
Princeton Physicists to push for the Manhattan Project at the beginning of WWII.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963.

This is by no means a complete list of all of the contributors to our nuclear world. I
included foreign scientists because in academia many ideas and theories are shared and
debated amongst peers.
It was common in the pre WWII era for nuclear physicists to share data across borders.
The impetus for much of the parallel research done worldwide was often a letter from a
colleague across the pond. I know from my research that many of these men and women
had second thoughts about the possible implications of their discoveries. Some saw the
inhumanity displayed throughout history to be an indication that in some way this newly
discovered power would be used for destruction.
 Chapter 3:

Nuclear Energy Explained.

Nuclear Physics/Chemistry terminology is a deeply technical subject with many obscure

terms only used in the world of Nuclear Engineering. Many terms need clarification. I
will attempt to do that in this chapter. I hope I don’t put you to sleep with this technical
stuff like I fell asleep in Physics class in Duncan U. Fletcher High School in the early
sixties.

The Atomic Structure

All substances that make up our carbon based world are composed of elements made up
of Atoms. Atoms are the smallest substances and can not be broken down further. Those
tiny Atoms are composed of Electrons, Protons and Neutrons. These particles are
different from each other. Electrons are very light particles that have a negative (-)
electrical charge. Protons are much heavier than Electrons and have positive (+)
electrical charge. Neutrons are heavy like Protons but have no electrical charge
(neutral). All Atoms are made up of a combination of these elemental particles in
different configurations. An example would be an Atom of Hydrogen. A Hydrogen
Atom is made up of 1 electron and 1 proton. Since a Proton is charge positive (+) and an
Electron is charged negative (-). This opposite charge causes the electron to circle the
proton much like the Earth circles the Sun. This phenomenon is caused by the magnetic
properties as in two magnets attracting each other but spinning keeps them apart due to
centrifugal force. The particles in an Atom remain in movement at all times. An
Electron is constantly spinning around the center of the Atom (Nucleus). Hydrogen
Atoms are so small that 20, million would fit into a two dimensional line one millimeter
long. Protons and Neutrons act like billiard balls. The Electron has the properties of a
pulsating light wave.
In the electrically neutral Atom the positively charged Protons are always balanced by
an equal number of negatively charged Electrons. Hydrogen is the simplest Atom as it
only has one Proton and one Electron. A more complicated atom is Helium. Helium
atoms have two Protons and two Electrons spinning around the Nucleus. To balance the
Nucleus which has two Protons of the same charge two Neutrons are included in the
Nucleus to keep the Protons from pushing apart because they are the same charge.
Since Neutrons have no charge they act as Nuclear Glue to hold the Nucleus together.
As you add Electrons, Protons and Neutrons the Atom grows larger. An Atom of any
substance is measured in two ways; by using the Atomic Number (Z) or using the
Atomic Mass Number. The Atomic Number describes the number of Protons in a
Nucleus. Since the Atomic Number denotes the number of Protons in a Nucleus there is
always a same number of Electrons as Protons. The Atomic Mass Number tells you the
number of Protons and Neutrons in a Nucleus. So, the Atomic Mass Number of
Hydrogen is 1 and the Atomic Mass Number of Helium is 4.

IONS and ISOTOPES

Some Atoms can have a positive (+) or negative (-) electrical charge. If an Atom gains
Electrons it becomes negatively (-) charged. If an Atom loses Electrons it becomes
positively (+) charged. An Atom that carries an electrical charge is an ION. The number
of Protons and Neutrons does not change so the Atomic Number does not change. The
number of Neutrons can change. Thus, two Atoms with different numbers of Neutrons
are called ISOTOPES. An example is an Isotope of Hydrogen in which the Atom
contains 1 Neutron this element is called Deuterium. Since the Atomic Mass Number
is the number of Protons plus the number of Neutrons it serves that two Isotopes of an
element will have different Atomic Mass Numbers but the Atomic Number will remain
the same. Example: Deuterium is Atomic Mass 2 and Atomic Number 1.
Nuclides
Nuclides come in many different configurations. The term Nuclide was not widely
accepted in the Physics community until 1950. Nuclides were also referred to as
Isotopes. Nuclides with equal mass numbers but different Atomic numbers are called
Isobars (equal in weight). Isotones are Nuclides of equal Neutron number but of
different Proton numbers. A Nuclide is a nuclear species which is characterized by the
number of Protons and Neutrons that every Atomic Nucleus of this species has. A
Nuclide can be used to distinguish Isotopes among Nuclei as well as other uses.

• Isotopes have an equal Proton number.

• Isotones have an equal Neutron number.
• Isobars have an equal mass number.
• Mirror Nuclei the Neutron and Proton number are exchanged.
• Nuclear Isomers occupy different energy states.

There are approximately 270 stable and about 70 unstable (radioactive) Nuclei in
nature. The three main types of Radioactive Nuclides or Radio-nuclides consist of these
groups.
1. The first group is characterized by their half –lives of at least 10% of the age of the
Earth. They are the remnants of the Neucleosynthesis that occurred in Stars before the
formation of our Solar System. An example is Uranium 238 which is common in nature
as opposed to Uranium 235 which is an Isotope of Uranium 238 and is rare.
2. The second group is made up of Isotopes of Radium which is formed in the decay
chain reactions of Uranium and Thorium.
3. The third group is made up of Nuclides such as Carbon (radiocarbon) that are made
by cosmic-ray bombardment of other elements. Over 1000 Nuclides have been
artificially produced in a lab.
Actinides or Actinoids
There are 15 radioactive chemical elements in this series. Beginning with Actinium (Ac),
Atomic Number 89 and ending with Lawrencium (Lr), Atomic Number 103. Included
in this group are Uranium (U) and Plutonium (Pu). During the Manhattan Project
Glenn T. Seaborg experienced difficulty isolating Americium and Curium. Seaborg
wondered if these elements belonged to a different chemical classification. In 1945 he
went out on a limb to insist that Mendeleev’s Periodic Table of Elements be changed.
Only Thorium and Uranium exist naturally in the Earth’s crust in more than trace
amounts. Neptunium and Plutonium show up in Uranium deposits occasionally in
trace amounts which are caused by radioactive decay or cosmic ray bombardment.

Neutron Capture
This is the Nuclear Reaction process where an Atomic Nucleus collides with one or
more Neutrons to form a heavier Nucleus. In Neutron Capture the Nuclei of mass
greater than 56 can be achieved that could not be formed in a Thermonuclear or Fusion
Reaction.

Fissile Nuclides include;

• Uranium-235, which occurs in natural and enriched uranium.
• Plutonium-239, which is made from Uranium 238 by the Neutron Capture.
• Plutonium-241, which is made from Plutonium-240 by the Neutron Capture.
• Uranium-233, which is made from Thorium-232 by the Neutron Capture.
Fissile
1. Fissile, a fissile material is capable of sustaining a chemical chain reaction during
which thermal (heat) or slow neutrons or fast neutrons predominate. In other words, it can
be used as fuel in:
• A thermal reactor, with a neutron moderator.
• A fast reactor, with no moderator.
• A nuclear explosive.

Fissionable
“Fissionable” elements are any material with Atoms that can undergo Nuclear Fission.
“Fissile” is defined to be materials that are “Fissionable” by Neutrons with zero Kinetic
energy. All “Fissile” materials are “Fissionable”, not all “Fissionable” materials are
“Fissile”. In general, Isotopes with an odd number of Neutrons are “Fissile”. Most
Nuclear Fuels have an odd number of Protons and Neutrons. But also have an even
number of Protons. Isotopes with an odd number of Neutrons and an odd number of
Protons are short lived because they can Beta decay to an Isotope with an even number
of Neutrons and Protons.

The Mining and processing Uranium Ore.

Uranium ore is found in the highest concentrations in the Great Bear Lake region of the
Northwest Territory of Canada. Other deposits have been found in Australia, Germany,
England, South Africa and the United States. The highest grade of Uranium Ore has been
found in the Athabasca Basin in Saskatchewan Canada. The ore when found in its’ raw
state is referred to as “Pitchblende” which is a derivative of a German Mining word.
Uranium Ore or Uranite (Uranium Dioxide) is commonly found in close proximity to
silver deposits and other rare earth minerals. In the United States it is found in marketable
amounts in the states of New Hampshire, New Mexico, Wyoming, Colorado, Connecticut
and North Carolina. When found in its’ raw state it appears as a black or brown
crystalline rock.

Uranium Ore Processing.

Typically the ore in the form of crystalline rocks or Uranite are crushed to the consistency
of course sand and this product is called “Pulped Ore”. To process out the usable Uranite
the process then reduces the ore to the consistency of a fine powder. The fine powder is
the color of dark brown and is referred to as “Yellow Cake” due to the German mining
terminology of calling it that. The fine powder is then put through a “Leaching” process
where Acids, Alkali and Peroxide solutions wash out the impurities and leave solids
which are 70 to 90% pure Tri-uranium Oxtocide (U3O8) by weight. Out of this processed
powder are made un-enriched nuclear fuel rods for use in reactors for producing electrical
power through steam generation. This “Yellow Cake” can be enriched to nuclear weapons
grade by further processing by converting it to uranium hexafluoride gas by the process
of isotope separation. This is done in a gaseous diffusion plant using gas centrifuges.
Recently a 550 pound cache of “Yellow Cake” was removed from Iraq by the U. S. Army
and flown to the U. S. for safe keeping. It was discovered in Iraq during the 2003
invasion. I guess this evidence lends some level of credence to the often used “Saddam
had Weapons of Mass Destruction” excuse put forth by the Bush administration.

Nuclear Fuel
Any “Fissionable” Nuclear Fuel must;
• Be in the region of the binding energy curve where a fission chain reaction is
possible. (above Radium)
• Have a high probability of fission on Neutron Capture.
• Release two or more Neutrons on average per Neutron Capture.
• Have a reasonably long half life.
• Be available in suitable quantities.
Thermal Chain Reactions involving Uranium-235 releases binding energy by the
absorption of a Neutron which is greater than the critical energy for fission, therefore
Uranium-235 is a “Fissile” material. The binding energy released by Uranium-238
absorbing a thermal Neutron is less than the critical energy, so additional energy must be
possessed by the Neutron for “Fission” to be possible. Consequently, Uranium-238 is a
“Fissionable” material.

Uraniun-235
Uranium-235 is an Isotope of Uranium that differs from the element’s other common
Isotope Uranium-238, by its ability to cause a rapidly expanding fission chain reaction.
It has a half-life of 703,800,000 years. It is the only fissile Isotope found in any useful
quantity in nature. At least one Neutron from U-235 fission strikes another Nucleus and
causes fission and then the chain reaction will continue. If the chain reaction will sustain
itself it is said to have reached “Critical Mass”. A critical chain reaction can be achieved
by low concentrations of U-235 if the Neutrons from fission are moderated to lower their
speed since the possibility of fission is greater with slow Neutrons. A fission chain
reaction causes intermediate mass fragments to further decay causing the release of more
thermal energy (heat). Some of them produce Neutrons called delayed Neutrons which
contribute to and help sustain the chain reaction. In Nuclear Reactors this reaction is
kept under control by the insertion of control rods into the reactor chamber. The control
rods are made of materials such as Boron, Cadmium, or Hafnium which absorb great
quantities of Neutrons.
In a Nuclear Weapon the chain reaction is uncontrolled and the large amount of thermal
energy released causes the explosion. Only 7/10ths of one percent of natural Uranium
is U-235 most natural Uranium is U-238. The composition of U-238 is not suitable for
sustaining a nuclear chain reaction in a Light Water Reactor. Therefore Enrichment of
the Uranium-238 must take place by the removal of the U-238 which results in a usable
quantity of U-235.

Light Water Reactor or (LWR)

A LWR or Light Water Reactor uses regular water (H2O) as its Neutron Moderator.
This type of reactor uses U-235 enriched to 3% for fuel. The most common type of
LWR are Pressurized Water Reactors, (PWR).

Heavy Water Reactor, (HWR)

An HWR or Heavy Water Reactor uses Deuterium Oxide (D2O) or heavy water as
the Neutron Moderator. Deuterium is an Isotope of Hydrogen that has a Proton and a
Neutron which makes the atom heavier, thus heavy water. The advantage to a HWR is
that the Uranium fuel does not need to be enriched.
In Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors un-enriched Uranium can be used as fuel.
Uranium that has been processed to boost its’ U-235 content is called Enriched Uranium
which is used for different applications such as weapons in which the yield of the
explosion is reached by different levels of enrichment.
The fissile Uranium in a Nuclear Weapon usually contains 85% or more U-235 which is
known as “Weapons Grade”. But for a crude inefficient terror weapon only 20%
enrichment is necessary. 20% enriched U-235 is called Weapons Usable. The “Little
Boy” Atomic Bomb used on Hiroshima was fueled by enriched Uranium-235. Most
modern nuclear weapons arsenals use Plutonium as the fissile component. However many
U-235 fueled primitive weapons still concern us due to the simplicity of the design and
the relative ease of construction. Therefore, with a little help from mischief makers such
as North Korea and Russia the Iranians, Syrians, and other rogue nations will have a
nuclear device soon if someone does not take out their nuclear facilities or pressure them
into giving up their designs. I believe that is why we are developing the so called
“Robust Earth Penetrating Nuclear Weapons” now in development just for such a
scenario.
Uranium-238
U-238 is the most common Isotope of Uranium found in Nature. When bombarded with a
Neutron it becomes U-239 which is an unstable Isotope that decays into Neptunium-239
an then in turn decays into Plutonium-239. Almost 99.3 % of all natural Uranium is U-
238 which has a half-life of 4.46 billion years which is equivalent to the age of the Earth.
U-238 can be used to breed Plutonium-239 which is a weapons-grade nuclear fuel. In
point of fact in a typical reactor up to one third of the thermal energy created in fission
comes from the fission of Plutonium-239 which does not exist until transmuted from
Uranium-238.

Lithium-6
Is an isotope of Lithium used in nuclear weapons to enhance the rapid fission that occurs
when the chain reaction is started by the trigger mechanism.

Tamper
This is the device in an implosion type bomb that compresses the core of fissionable
material inward in an implosion to cause criticality and a resulting chain reaction
explosion.

Pit
The Fissile material, (usually Plutonium) with the Tamper attached is the “Pit”. This
unit initiates the implosion that causes the nuclear chain reaction.

Trigger
The trigger mechanism can be a series of electrical relays that detonate the spherical
charge surrounding core. There are many types such as the delayed arming mechanism in
Independent Reentry Vehicle type warheads that only arms after the weapon reaches a
critical point in its flight such as decent form a certain altitude or atmospheric pressure
change. Gravity bombs must be armed or enabled prior to release.
Triggers usually run on an internal power source or time delay. The Permissive Action
Link or “PAL” is designed to render the warhead or bomb safe until a series of switch
maneuvers are conducted and all of the safety devices are removed. In military parlance
this is called making the weapon “Hot” or arming the weapon. In the original “gun type”
weapons a plug of Uranium was fired down a barrel into a core of Uranium causing
critical mass and only a simple set of arming switches were involved. In the newer model
weapons the weapons officer or aircraft commander has to go through a series of arming
protocols to arm a weapon and usually the National Command Authority (read
Commander in Chief) is involved. Terrorists, of course just set them off by whatever
means expedient to them even if they are sitting on a nuke so they can fulfill their
religious or political goals.

Breeder Reactors
U-238 can be used as a source material for the creation of Plutonium-239 in a Breeder
Reactor. Breeder reactors carry out the process of transmutation of U-238 into P-239.
Given the known quantity of U-238 in the world there is enough fertile U-238 to supply
fissile Plutonium for at least 10,000 years or longer. That means that there is enough U-
238 to fuel power plants literally forever.
Breeder Reactor Technology has been used in several reactors. As of recently the only
breeder reactor in operation in the world is the 600 Megawatt plant at Beloyarsk Russia.
Since the Russians are chummy with the Iranians I get a chill knowing this.
The Japanese have notified the UN that they plan to restart their shut down Monju
Breeder Reactor which was secured in 1995. Another chilling fact is that the Chinese and
the Indians have recently announced intentions to build Breeder Reactors.
U-238 is often used as a shielding agent in controlling nuclear reactions by absorption of
Gamma and X-rays. U-238 emits Alpha rays which are weak and do not penetrate steel
but the heavy atomic mass of U-238 absorbs the lethal Gamma and X-rays. Depleted
Uranium is being used as an alloy in the construction of shielding around nuclear emitters
such as reactors as it is five times more effective in absorbing deadly radiation as lead. A
depleted uranium enhanced shield is thinner and less heavy than a lead shield and thus
easier to engineer.
Detection and protection from Ionizing Radiation.

Detection
Radiation can not be detected by human or animal senses. It can only be detected by
special instrumentation. These instruments are variants of the original Geiger-Mueller
radiation detectors. They are equipped with a dial and an audible alarm which warns if
radiation is present. These instruments are battery powered and portable. The come
equipped with a hand held probe used to sweep (move back and forth) over a person or
object to detect radiation. If radiation is present in sufficient quantities the needle on the
dial will register it and a slow clicking sound, a more rapid clicking will occur if the
probe is swept over an object with radiation present. These types of detection units are
readily available on the World Wide Web.
Protection
The deeper underground you go the more dense material you have between you and the
source of the radiation the better. Remember though, you must have clean air, water to
drink, long lasting food, sanitary facilities, a valuable commodity such as gold or silver
for trading and guns and ammunition to protect what you have. If there is an all out
nuclear war there will be anarchy of the worst possible kind after the fallout settles. No
one will be safe until civil authority is restored if ever. If you have seen the movies such
as the “Postman” or “The Day After” or “The Sum of All Fears” you will understand. If
you need help deciding to panic or not go to www.radshelters4u.com and learn all you
care to know.
Survival depends greatly on where you live.
Your location in the United States is critical. If you are in a large city you need to get to
the countryside where you can build an underground type shelter. As seen on the above
listed web site. If you live near a large military installation it will be a target for all types
of enemy weapons including, Biological and Chemical. Remember, terrorists could place
a WMD in a truck, on a ship or aircraft and deliver it to a spot close to a military base or
port and detonate it. We have virtually no defense against such a scenario. Our borders
are porous and only 10% of all freight containers coming into our ports are inspected. We
are the proverbial “Sitting Duck”!
 Chapter 4:

Our Race for the Bomb.

The all out effort by the scientists in the U. S. did not get off to a good start. There were
diverse teams in various universities working separately and communication with each
other only on special occasions. Even the British group which was called “MAUD” had
difficulty getting data to the teams in the U. S. because of bureaucratic malaise. In March
of 1941 the British team sent a report to the American Uranium Committee headed by
Lyman Briggs. No word was given back to the British about the report so the British sent
“MAUD” Committee member Mark Oliphant across the pond in an RAF Bomber to find
out what had become of the report they had sent. Oliphant was astounded to find out that
the report had been locked in a safe by Lyman Briggs and never shown to the scientists.
Since the Uranium Committee made up of mostly scientists was under the prevue of
Briggs and the Office of Scientific Research and Development. It was obvious that
pressure would have to be used to get the program on the fast track. After all the British
had been at war for a year and needed our help. Oliphant went to see the chairman of the
National Defense Research Committee which was a war department branch and with the
help of Enrico Fermi, Arthur Compton and a copy of the MAUD report a deal was made
to snatch the program from the OSRD. Then with much pressure being brought to bear
on congress and high ranking department heads the National Academy of Sciences
proposed an all out effort to build a feasible nuclear weapon. Roosevelt authorized an all
out effort by November 1941. A new committee was formed and named “The Top Policy
Group”. Its purpose was to keep Roosevelt informed of the progress made in bomb
development. On December 6th, 1941 the committee met to reorganize efforts and
consolidate results. By early 1942 things were happening fast. Arthur Compton had
established the University of Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory to study plutonium and
fission pies and Compton asked J. Robert Oppenheimer of the University of California at
Berkley to take over research on fast neutron calculations.
Experiments at both institutions were coordinated and fruitful. Plutonium was a new
element and very little was known about it. Plutonium was created and discovered by
Glenn Seaborg and his team. Plutonium is created by uranium-238 absorbing a neutron
which has been emitted from the fission of a U-235 Atoms.
The scattered scientists in America who were working on the “Bomb” decided to have a
conference and put their heads together. UC Berkley was chosen as the site and they all
met there. There, they came up with many different ways to cause a mass of fissionable
material to go critical and start a chain reaction. The simplest design was to shoot a plug
much like a bullet into the sphere of active material. They explored many shapes and
designs even autocatalytic methods and spheres involving implosions. At the Berkley
conference physicist Edward Teller urged for a discussion a “Super Bomb” which would
use a fission bomb to set off a fusion bomb thus causing a much larger explosion. This
theory was discovered by physicist Hans Bethe before the war and was put forth to Teller
by Fermi. In this process the blast wave from the fission explosion would fuse the
deuterium and tritium nuclei and produce more energy than fission alone. Thus, was born
the “Hydrogen Bomb” but at the time only in theory. At this conference Teller brought
forth the idea that the detonation of an “Atomic Bomb” might ignite the very atoms that
compose the atmosphere. Physicist Hans Bethe refuted the idea by proving in theory that
the atmosphere was made up of dissimilar atoms and therefore could not ignite. Teller
went on to regret his folly as this theory of igniting the atmosphere took off and was hard
to prove otherwise to the general non-physicist populace. The general public latched onto
the idea that an atomic bomb would ignite the atmosphere and destroy all of mankind and
it was the panic topic of the early days of WW II. Once the project came under the
control of the OSRD headed by Vannevar Bush the need for military control of the
project became clear to Bush because of the war use of the proposed weapons. Vannevar
Bush brought his concerns to Roosevelt and he in turn asked Secretary of war Stimson
and Army Chief of Staff George Marshall to make it a priority. General Marshall gave the
assignment to the Corps of Engineers. The Commanding General of the Corps of
Engineers chose Brigadier General Brehon B. Somervell. Somervell was a career
engineer officer who had been a rising star since he graduated sixth in his class at West
Point in 1914.
Somervell had been the head of the Army Construction Branch of the Quartermaster
Corps. At the outbreak of WWII Somervell’s job was transferred to the Corps of
Engineers and was placed in charge of the building of the Pentagon.
Somervell was passed over to become the Chief of Engineers in favor of Brigadier
General Eugene Reybold.
At that time he was Army Chief of Staff George Marshall’s G-4, (Logistics Officer).
On February 28th, 1942 there were sweeping changes made in the structure of the Army
and the War Department. Somervell was swept up in the melee and came out as the
Commanding General of Services and Supply with the rank of Lieutenant General. Many
of his former superiors were now his subordinates. Thus the Army Corps of Engineers
was answerable to Somervell and he only answered to the Chief of Staff of the Army and
the Undersecretary of the Army. Since all Army special projects fell under Somervell he
chose the name, “Development of Substitute Materials” as the official name of the
project. Colonel James Marshall was chosen by Somervell to ramrod the Oak Ridge
Tennessee site construction but proved to be too cautious and slow. He was replaced by
Colonel Leslie Groves in the summer of 1942. Groves wasted little time in getting the
project organized and appointed Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer as the civilian head of the
scientists.
It was widely known that Oppenheimer was a devotee of the Soviet form of Marxism
but was considered a genius by most so his political aspirations were overlooked. Groves
named the project “The Manhattan Project” because the practice in the Corps of
Engineers had always been to name districts after the city the district headquarters was
located in. Since Groves was connected to the Manhattan District he chose the name.
Within one week of his assignment Groves had solved many of the complex problems
facing the start up of the nuclear weapons program.
Groves was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General so he would have the clout to deal
with the bureaucracy. In December of 1942 Enrico Fermi and his group had pulled off the
first sustained chain reaction in a controlled reactor under the bleachers in the laboratory
at Stagg Field on the campus of the University of Chicago. The Fermi group sent a
telegram in code to Oppenheimer informing him of their success and the race was truly
on and would never stop.
Subsequent experiments and massive amounts of money would cause the building of
many sites dedicated to the production of nuclear weapon technology. 130,000 people
were employed in this venture at its peak. The sites of the various component laboratories
were chosen for unique characteristics.
The Oak Ridge site was chosen due to the ready availability of cheap electrical power
from the Tennessee Valley Authority hydroelectric system. The Hanford Washington site
was chosen due to the availability of flowing water in vast quantities which would be
used to cool the reactors.
The Los Alamos site was previously an abandoned boy’s ranch that was very remote and
only accessible via few unimproved roads. In Oak Ridge the site encompassed more than
60,000 acres. In order to produce enough U-235 the machinery at Oak Ridge consumes
one sixth of the total electricity produced in the continental United States. It was so secret
that the Governor of Tennessee was unaware of its existence for many months. As the
sites grew in size and complexity the Hanford site developed to more than 1,000 square
miles in area. Hanford was our primary plutonium production center utilizing breeder
reactor technology. There were many different sites under the umbrella of the Manhattan
Project. There were three primary sites and seven sites of lesser importance to the project.
This was a vast and complex network of sites and plant as the following list shows.

Manhattan Project Nuclear Production Sites:

1. THE OAK RIDGE, TENNESSEE SITE included:
a. Enriched Uranium production plant, (K-25).
b. Plutonium production research plant, (X-10).
c. Graphite reactor research plant.
d. Electromagnetic separation uranium enrichment plant, (S-50).
e. Gaseous diffusion uranium enrichment plant, (Y-12) .
f. Thermal diffusion uranium enrichment plant, (S-50).
2. THE LOS ALAMOS, NEW MEXICO SITE included:
a. The bomb research laboratory.
3. THE HANFORD WASHINGTON SITE included:
a. The plutonium production plant.
b. Numerous breeder reactors along the banks of the Columbia River, (B-Pile, C-
pile, D-pile, F-Reactor.
c.
4. THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO SITE included:
a. The primary experimental reactor dubbed CP-1 for Chicago Pile.

5. THE PROJECT TRINITY SITE IN ALAMOGORDO NEW MEXICO

INCLUDED:
a. First test range with observation bunkers and buried sensors and remote cameras.

6. THE RADIATION LABORATORY AT BERKELY CALIFORNIA included:

a. Electromagnetic separation enrichment research laboratory.

7. THE PROJECT ALBERTA SITE AT WENDOVER UTAH AND TINIAN

ISLAND included:
a. Preparations for the delivery of the bomb to the target.

8. THE PROJECT AMES SITE IN AMES IOWA included:

a. The production of raw uranium metal.

9. THE DAYTON PROJECT IN DAYTON OHIO SITE included:

a. The research and development of polonium refinement and industrial production
of Polonium for nuclear weapon triggers.

10. PROJECT CARMEL AT INYOKERN CALIFORNIA included:

a. The research into high explosives and non-nuclear engineering for the Fat Man.

11. THE ROCHESTER NEW YORK SITE included:

a. The laboratory for studying the health effects of radiation exposure.
USACE General Leslie Groves presided over a vast empire. He was solely responsible
for locating the sites, directing the direction that the research should go in and
procurement of materials.
His authority was absolute and all encompassing. He was possessed of a great facial
scowl and a look that would melt you in your shoes if you crossed him. His choice of
Oppenheimer as civilian head of the scientists was controversial and was criticized far
and wide. Oppenheimer proved to be the right man in the long run as he was able to keep
all the brilliant minds and personalities of the scientists under control and focused on the
outcome. It was the sheer drive of General Groves that made the project work. He drove
everyone to the point of exhaustion because he knew the fate of the free world depended
on his projects success.
At the end of the war his authority was transferred to the newly created Atomic Energy
Commission and Groves was stripped of his command. Before he retired he was
promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General and awarded the Distinguished Service
Medal for his efforts. We, in the United States were not the only nation in the race.
In the Soviet Union in 1941 Igor Kurchatov was making strides due to information
passed to him via sources in the Manhattan Project Scientific Cadre that were working
on the Manhattan Project such as Klaus Fuchs and Theodore Hall who were known
communists. Many others including Oppenheimer had past Communist ties and were
viewed with skepticism and even lost their security clearances for a while. The proof that
the Manhattan Project secrecy was compromised lies in the fact that the Soviet Union
reached nuclear capability very quickly! After the war we discovered how well the
espionage ring at Los Alamos was organized and operated. The British and their MAUD
project were stumbling due to lack of laboratories and materials. There was also a lack of
cooperation between our teams due to the methods of communication being
compromised. The Axis powers of Germany and Japan developed cursory programs and
were making some minor progress but did not put forth the effort to make it a national
priority. Many German scientists expressed surprise when we bombed Hiroshima and
Nagasaki. They said at the end of the war that so much of their industrial infrastructure
was destroyed they had nothing to work with.
The German effort nominally led by Heisenberg did succeed in partially completing a
research reactor which was discovered by the allies at the end of the war.
Examination proved that the German fixation on heavy water to regulate fission was the
wrong road to take. The Germans were in fact unable to finish the reactor due to bombing
and advancing allied armies.
Heisenberg never realized that graphite control was feasible for controlling the fission
reaction. Until his death Heisenberg expressly stated that the German effort never was
directed toward a weapon but to energy production only.
The culmination of the United States effort was the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs. The
Hiroshima bomb was called “Little Boy”. It was a simple gun type weapon and scientists
were so certain that it would work that no testing was performed prior to its first use on
Hiroshima.
The gun type trigger was abandoned in favor of the much more powerful implosion
trigger. This type of weapon employed uranium-235 only and was referred to as the
uranium bomb. The second weapon used on Japan was a plutonium type called “Fat
Man”. It was composed of plutonium-239 which is a synthetic element made from
uranium-238. The scientists were not sure of the trigger method and tested the first type
of this weapon on July16 1945 at the Trinity Site.
The implosion method uses a shaped charge (Lens or Facets, similar to the shape of a
geodesic dome but completely encircling the core) of high explosive to fire inward into a
ball of plutonium causing it to reach critical mass. The Nagasaki bomb had a much higher
yield in its explosion due to using plutonium. The temperature is hotter and the fireball is
larger in a plutonium explosion. Of course, it doesn’t occur to the people at ground zero
whether they are being vaporized by a bomb that reaches the temperature of the Sun or
higher. They still cease to exist in horrifying pain. Once we destroyed Hiroshima and
Nagasaki we became the big bad kid on the block and everyone else scrambled to catch
up. We did not have a conquering mind set at the time. We just wanted to convince Japan
to surrender or else. We established our willingness to only use nuclear weapons in
defense early on in our history. We were urged to use them on the Chinese when they
invaded North Korea in the early stages of the Korean War. The possibility of using the
bomb on the Chinese was discussed in the White House and in the Pentagon.
General McArthur was for using the bomb to stop the Chinese hordes from overrunning
our positions in Korea.
Calmer heads prevailed at the time and McArthur was eventually sacked by President
Truman for his public insubordination. The United States has developed many types of
warheads over the past 63 years.
Some weapons were large and some small. Many were adapted for specific purposes
were configured to ride on the tip of a missile, a torpedo, or to be air dropped from a
bomber or fighter aircraft.
There were even aircraft built specifically to carry a certain type of weapon for a specific
global scenario. The list is long and complex and illustrates the research and development
of engineering disciplines applied not to mention the vast public funds spent. The height
of the cold war brought forth the height of the furious effort to one up the soviets in
nuclear explosive yield and deliverability.
We took a step forward and so did the Soviets. Our efforts were broadcast all over the
world at the same time the soviets controlled media only broadcast what the Government
in Moscow wanted.
There was a lot of disinformation promulgated on both sides. When the soviets launched
“Sputnik” in 1957 we here in the U. S. were shocked that the Soviets could do such a
thing. We all knew that if they can put a satellite in near Earth orbit then they can use
missiles to deliver nuclear weapons. I remember the shock wave that passed through the
U. S. citizenry as having a stunning effect. The successful launch of “Sputnik” sent the
Pentagon into a frenzy of activity and put the U. S. Defense industry into high gear!
Money flowed like water into the military industrial complex and the Arms Race!
General Groves only had to ask his bosses for something vital to the Manhattan Project
and his every need was fulfilled. Large tracts of land were gathered up by the U. S.
Government via “Eminent Domain” procedures where the legal land owner was given
only what the Government considered “Fair Market Value” and not what was customary
and reasonable. A good example of the power of the government through “Executive
Order” fiats decreed in the name of “National Security” was the taking of private
property for the construction of the Mayport Florida Naval Station in 1941.
The property in question was owned by Elizabeth Worthington Stark an émigré from
Great Britain whose late husband was a famous British citizen. Her former home is the
present day “Bay View Officers Club” at Mayport Naval Station in Duval County
Florida.

The Manhattan Project Timeline:

1942
June 18th, Army corps of Engineers takes charge of the Manhattan Project.
September 17th, USACE Colonel Leslie Richard Groves takes over command.
September 18th, Groves orders 1250 tons of Uranium ore from Belgian Congo.
September 19th, Groves purchases 52,000 acres of Eastern Tennessee land.
September 23rd, Groves promoted to Brigadier General.
September 26th, Groves is given highest “AAA” purchasing authority.
October 15th, Groves selects Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer to head Project “Y”.
November 16th, Los Alamos Site selected.
December 1st, Reactor “CP-1” completed.
December 2nd, Reactor “CP-1” goes critical.
1943
January 18th, Groves purchases 780 square miles of Washington State.
March 3rd, Los Alamos personnel start arriving.
August 22nd, uranium enrichment begins and plutonium is produced.
November 4th, Reactor “X-10” goes Critical at Oak Ridge TN.
1944
January 23rd, “K-25” Gaseous diffusion plant developed problems in TN.
April 5th, First Oak Ridge plutonium arrives at Los Alamos.
April 15th, Decision is made not to use plutonium for first bomb.
May 15th, British design team arrives at Los Alamos.
May 24th, Weapon implosion instability problem solved by modifications of trigger.
June 3rd, Decision made to add another uranium enrichment plant.
June 18th, Groves orders “S-50” built at Oak Ridge to feed other enrichment plants.
July 4th, Decision to use “Gun” assembly on first bomb made.
July 20th, Reorganization implemented to change to plutonium implosion bomb design.
August 9th, Groves asks Army Air Corps to modify B-29’s to deliver nuclear weapons.
September 26th, First plutonium reactor “B-Pile” goes on line at Hanford.
October 27th, Oppenheimer approved plans for test run at Alamagordo Bombing Range.
December 12th, Implosion design found suitable for bomb using plutonium.
December 17th, The “D-Pile” reactor on line and producing plutonium at Hanford.
1945
January 18th, Experiment creates world’s first critical assembly of critical neutrons.
February 19th, Plutonium begins arriving at Los Alamos.
February 28th, Design of plutonium bomb finalized.
March 5th, Explosive lens design completed.
April 3rd, Recently captured Tinian Island prepared to assemble Bombs for B-29 use.
April 11th, Optimal performance achieved with scale model implosion device.
April 12th, President Roosevelt Dies.
April 13th, President Truman told of existence of Atomic Bomb.
April 25th, Truman briefed in depth about Manhattan Project.
April 27th, Target committee meets for first time choosing seventeen Japanese targets.
May 7th, Test using 108 tons of radioactive laced TNT used to test instruments at Trinity.
May 8th, V-E DAY, Germany surrenders.
May 9th, Operational orders are written for delivery of the first Bomb.
May 10th, Target committee selects Kyoto, Hiroshima, Yokohama and Kokura.
May 15th, “Little Boy” Made ready for combat use without core inserted.
May 25th, Operation Olympic (invasion of Kyushu Island) set for November 1st.
May 28th, Target committee meets and decides on Kyoto, Hiroshima and Niigata.
May 30th, Secretary of War Stimson rules out Kyoto as target because of cultural history.
June 10th, B-29’s begin arriving on Tinian.
June 24th, Critical tests prove implosion core design is satisfactory in scale models.
June 28th, Army Air Corps says “all major Japanese cities would be destroyed by Oct.
July 3rd, The U-235 gun assembly casing is complete for “Little Boy” unit.
July 7th, Implosion lens castings were made for Trinity.
July 10th, Best of lens castings selected for assembly of Trinity.
July 11th, Assembly of “Gadget” the first Atomic Bomb began.
July 12th, “Gadget” plutonium core and parts shipped to Alamagordo from Los Alamos
July 14th, “Gadget” device hoisted to top of detonation tower and assembled.
“Little Boy” parts shipped from San Francisco on U. S. S. Indianapolis.
First full scale implosion trigger core tested and failed.
July 16th, “Gadget” detonated as first atomic explosion in history with yield of 20-22 Kt.
July 24th, “Little Boy” parts and casing arrives on Tinian Island and is assembled.
July 28th, “little Boy” Target mass arrives on three separate cargo planes from the U. S.
“Fat Man” parts arrive on Tinian Island via Cargo Planes and modified B-29’s.
July 31st, “Little Boy” is fully assembled and ready for combat use.
August 1st, First Nuclear bombing mission postponed due to approaching Typhoon.
August 2nd, “Fat Man” Core Triggers and lens casings arrive on Tinian Island.
August 4th, First Nuclear bombing mission set for execution in two days.
August 5th, Pilot Paul Tibbets renames B-29 Number 82 the “Enola Gay”.

Use off “Little Boy”

August 6th,
Time:
0001 hours, final briefing held.
0245 hours, “Enola Gay” begins takeoff roll.
0730 hours, “Little Boy” is armed.
0850 hours, “Enola Gay” is “Feet Dry” at 31,000 feet above Japanese coast.
0916 hours, “Little Boy” detonates at an altitude of 1916 feet above Hiroshima.
Use of “Fat Man”
August 8th, “Fat Man” loaded into bomb bay of “Bocks Car”.
August 9th,
Time:
0347 hours, “Bocks Car” takes off from Tinian Island bound for Kokura Japan.
1044 hours, “Bocks Car” arrives at “Feet Dry” point on Japanese coast near Kokura in
overcast and diverts to secondary target of Nagasaki.
1102 hours, “Fat Man” detonates at altitude of 1650 feet above Nagasaki. The drop was
off target but right on top of the Mitsubishi Heavy Arms Plant.
Several days later, Japan Surrenders. It was noted that in both of these uses the height
above ground of the blasts kept the fallout to a minimum.

“Sorrow”

Nagasaki Japan was a very beautiful city and was thought of by the Japanese people as
almost sacred in that it played a great part in the ocean borne commerce development of
Japan in the 18th and 19th and early 20th centuries. Many noble borne Japanese called
Nagasaki home and the mountains around the port were dotted by large mansions and
estates of noble families. It was chosen as the second nuclear bombing site because of it’s
cultural and historic significance to the Japanese.
An Ironic twist of fate in the aftermath of the Nagasaki bombing was the fact that the
half American and half Japanese son of the real life “Madame Butterfly” was so
emotionally devastated by the destruction of his beloved birth city that he hanged himself
16 days after the explosion in his New York apartment. His name in Japanese meant
“Sorrow”. Although very sad, I get great enjoyment from opera as it not only tells a story
but does so with such beautiful music. “Madame Butterfly” is a sad and mournful tale
based on real life. If you ever have the chance to attend that Opera you will understand.
 CHAPTER 5:

Our Bombs.

On August 6th, 1944 the B-29 (Enola Gay) piloted by Army Air Corps officer Paul Tibbets
dropped the first nuclear weapon ever used in anger by the human race on Hiroshima
Japan. In that flash the world of geo-politics, diplomacy and warfare changed forever.
The bomb used was a Uranium 235 weapon with a gun type trigger device which means a
plug of Uranium 235 is fired down a gun barrel at very high velocity and smashes into
another wad of Uranium 235. The yield from the Hiroshima bomb was puny compared to
bombs and missile warheads developed later in the various programs around the world.
By today’s standards the weapon used on Hiroshima was primitive and of relatively low
yield. The “Little Boy” bomb was the equivalent of our present day military tactical
nuclear weapons used on Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles, (approx. 15 to 20 KT)
and on some artillery rounds and cruise missile warheads. In contrast the “Fat Man”
bomb dropped on Nagasaki by the B-29 “Bock’s Car” two days after the Hiroshima event
was a far more sophisticated weapon. The “Fat Man” weapon used Plutonium in an
implosion which is a man made element. Plutonium is used to enhance the yield of a
nuclear blast. The “Fat Man” bomb was the first time an implosion type device was
employed. Meaning a ball of compressed Uranium enhanced by Plutonium was further
compressed by a conventional explosive sphere blasting inward a mass of U-235 and
Plutonium to induce critical mass.
The yield from the Nagasaki device was different in that it produced a more intense blast
of higher heat concentration at ground zero. Both weapons were detonated above ground
or “Airburst” where the blast effect is much more widespread and inflicts maximum
destruction but relatively mild fallout. Since the initial use of these weapons in 1945 the
world has seen a vast quantity and variety of weapons made by the nuclear powers
detonated in tests in a global contest to see who could build the biggest, most accurate
and scariest nuclear weapon.
The U. S. Army Air Corps was the agency who delivered the first two weapons so when
the U. S. Air Force that was created in 1946 from the Army Air Corps they had the
expertise and means to deliver the few weapons the United States possessed at that time.
The following accounting is gleaned from declassified U. S. Department of Defense
Documents under the Freedom of Information act. Keep in mind that I only have detailed
data on U. S. nuclear weapons. We do not have the same access to French, British,
Russian, Chinese, Indian, Pakistan, South African or Israeli weapons. With that said I
remind you that there are still many things I as a researcher are not allowed access to.
There is a rumor afoot presently in global security rumors that indicate the U. S.
government has developed a Ground Penetrating Low Yield Nuclear Weapon specifically
designed to take out underground nuclear weapon manufacturing plants that are
subterranean in such places as Iran. It is not enough to conventionally destroy a nuclear
facility because it can be rebuilt. If you destroy it with a nuclear device then the radiation
renders the destroyed site too “Hot” to rebuild. The following data shows what the U. S.
military industrial complex has accomplished since 1945.

U. S. Air Force and Navy Gravity Bomb Nuclear Weapons:

In my research I counted a total of 20,590 U. S. nuclear weapon devices built from 1945
to the present! Why did we need all those bombs you ask? Let’s explore the history.

1. The MK-1/MK-II bomb was the “Little Boy” Hiroshima bomb. It was a crude but
effective unit weighing 8,900 lbs. with a Highly Enriched Uranium core, of the six built
in 1945 five of these were retired in 1950. These weapons had an explosive yield of 15-
16 Kilotons and were fused for airburst only. Due to their weight the only aircraft in the
U. S. military that could carry this weapon was the B-29 and the B-50 variant of the B-29
heavy bomber.
2. The MK-II bomb was a theoretical design and was cancelled during the design stage
and incorporated into the “Little Boy” design in 1945
3. The MK-III bomb was the “Fat Man” Nagasaki bomb. It had a Plutonium Implosion
type core and weighed 10,300 lbs. with an IFI (In Flight Insertion) trigger mechanism
that would be incorporated in all subsequent designs for safety. It worked exceptionally
well so this design was adopted as the production run model.
They were built from 04/1947to 04/1949. All 120 of them were retired in late 1950.
These weapons had an explosive yield of 18 to 49 Kilotons and were fused for airburst
only. The one dropped on Nagasaki was the prototype which all future nuclear weapon
designs in the U. S. arsenal would be based. Due to their weight these bombs were only
carried by the B-29, B-50 and the newly introduced B-36 bombers.
4. The Mk-4 bombs were improved MK-III designs with the IFI (In Flight Insertion)
fusing designed in. These units were 10,800 to 10, 900 lbs. depending on the core yield
design. The yield was controlled by altering the PU/HEU (Plutonium/Highly Enriched
Uranium) core. They were produced from 03/1949-05/1951. Of the 550 units made all
were retired between mid 1952 and mid 1953. These weapons had an explosive yield of 1
to 31 Kt and were fused for airburst only. Many of these cores were recycled and used
again in future models. Due to their weight the only aircraft capable of carrying them
were the B-29, B-50 and B-36 heavy bombers.
5. The MK-5 bombs were much improved versions of the MK-4. They were much
lighter in weight, (3,025-3,175 lbs.) and had a 92 lens implosion ball. Upon detonation it
produced a thermonuclear blast with a much wider thermal blast zone. These units were
designed with automatic IFI (In Flight Insertion). These units had an explosive yield of 6
to 120 Kt and were fused for airburst or contact. They were produce in 1952. Of the
140 units made all were retired between 1952 and 1963. Due to their weight these
weapons were only carried by the B-29, B-50 and B-36 heavy bombers.
6. The MK-6 bombs were much improved higher yield modifications of MK-5 units.
These units weighed 7,600 -8500 lbs. They incorporated a 60 lens implosion ball.
Of the 1100 units made from 07/1951 to 04/1955 and all were retired by 1962. These
units had an explosive yield of 8 to 160 Kt and were fused for airburst or contact. Due
to their weight these weapons were only carried by the Navy AJ-1, Air Force B-29, B-50
and B-36 heavy bombers.
7. The MK-7 bombs were smaller (1,645-1,700 lbs.) and used a 92 lens implosion ball.
Since they were lighter many more types of smaller aircraft such as fighter/bombers
could carry them mounted on wing pylons. These were the first units to incorporate the
PAL (Permissive Action Link) electronic system. This system contained the safeties
where in the aircraft personnel had to go through a sequence of switch manipulations
before the weapon could be armed. These units had an explosive yield of 8 to 61 Kt and
were fused for airburst or contact. The fact that these weapons were deliverable by
much more aircraft gave the U. S. military a much expanded threat capability to our
enemies. Of the 1800 units built from 07/1952 to 02/1963 many were in service from
1952 until 1967. Due to their lighter weight these weapons could be carried on any
aircraft in the U. S. military fitted with advanced electronics for PAL. In the late sixties
many were recycled into newer model weapons.
8. The MK-8 bombs were designed as earth penetrating units. They incorporated a
hardened bomb casing which increased weight. These units weighed 3,230-3,280 lbs.
Since these weapons only had a 12 to 15 kiloton yield the detonation core was an
improved gun type and not an implosion model. These units had an explosive yield of 15
to 30 Kt and were fused for pyrotechnic delay. Only 40 units were produced from
11/1951 to 05/1953 and they were retired by 1957. These weapons were carried by all of
our bombers fitted with PAL.
9. The MK-9 bombs were produced not as a bomb, but as an ADM (Atomic Demolition
Weapon). It was man-portable and the yield was sub Kiloton but effective on fortified
positions. It was a gun type nuclear trigger and used HEU. These units were fused for
time delay detonation. Only a few were built and stockpiled in 1957. They were retired
in 1963. They were of a “backpack” design similar to large satchel charges of TNT.
10. The MK-10 was cancelled in the design stage.
11. The MK-11 bombs replaced the MK-8 units on a one for one basis. They weighed the
same as the MK-8 units (3,210 to 3,500 lbs.) and had the same yield. They had improved
PAL systems and were later listed in the U. S. nuclear stockpile as MK-91 Penetration
Bombs. Only 40 units were produced from 01/1956 to 01/1957 and they were in service
until 1960. These units had an explosive yield of 12 to 15 Kt and were fused for
pyrotechnic delay detonation. They were capable of being carried by all bombers in the
U. S. military equipped with PAL.
12. The MK-12 bombs were designed to be dropped by high speed fighter/bomber
aircraft from wing pylons and were very streamlined in shape. They weighed 1,100 to
1,200 lbs. which made them aircraft wing pylon mountable. They could be carried by any
U. S. military aircraft with PAL technology. They were nicknamed “BROK”. These
weapons were the first to use a Beryllium Tamper. These units had an explosive yield of
12 to 14 Kt and fusing for contact or time delay. They were produced from 12/1954 to
02/1957. The 250 units produced were gradually retired from 07/1958 to 07/1962. They
could be carried by any U. S. military aircraft.
13. The MK-13 Bomb was cancelled prior to production in 1954.
14. The TX/MK-14 bombs were the first deployed solid fuel thermonuclear weapons.
They weighed 28,954 to 31,000 lbs. their weight relegated them to use by the heaviest
bombers in the U. S. military inventory. The yield was huge, (5 to 7 megaton) and these
bombs were only carried by the huge B-36 bomber. The B-36 had a payload capacity of
86,000 lbs so it was capable of carrying two. These units were fused for airburst only.
Only five were produced between 02/1954-10/1954 and were all recycled into the MK-
17 weapon in 1956. These weapons were dropped from the huge B-36 and were retarded
by a parachute for airburst only.
15. The MK-15 bombs were improved mass produced MK-14 types. They had a
secondary HEU casing and were deployed via parachute. They were smaller and lighter
in weight at 7,600 lbs. They had an explosive yield of 3.8 Megatons and were fused with
the new FUFO (Full Fusing Option) which enabled the aircrew to dial in the option of
how to detonate the weapon. They were produced in 1954 to 1957 and 1200 units were
made. They were capable of being carried by all of the Bombers in the U. S. inventory.
16. The TX-16 bombs were extremely large and heavy rendering them to being carried
by the B-36 or the new B-52 bombers only. These units weighed 39,000 to 42,000 lbs.
They had a yield of 6 to 8 Mt and were fused for airburst only. These monsters were the
firsts of their kinds in several categories. They were the first truly purpose built
thermonuclear devices. They were the first and only cryogenic thermonuclear weapons
ever deployed. There were on five of them produced in 1954 and they were kept in the
stockpile until the mid sixties. They were so heavy that they could only be carried by the
B-36 or B-52 heavy bombers.
17. The EC-17 bombs were high yield at 11 Mt and were large at a weight of 39,600 lbs.
These units used natural lithium and were free fall bombs. They were fused for airburst
only. They were only carried by B-36 or B-52 bombers because of their weight. Only five
units were built in 1954 and were kept in the stockpile until the late sixties. They were
fused for airburst only.
18. The MK-17 bombs were truly heavy. They weighed 41,400 to 42,000 lbs. They had a
yield of 11 to 15 Mt and were fused for airburst or contact. They were the heaviest
nuclear weapon ever produced in the U. S. When dropped they were retarded in
decent by a parachute. There were 200 units produced from 07/1954 to 11/1955 and they
were retired from 11/1956 to 08/1957. These weapons had the second highest yield of
any U. S. nuclear bomb. They were only carried by the B-36 or the B-52 bombers.
19. The MK-18 units were the largest pure fission bombs ever deployed. They
weighed 8,600 lbs. and produced an explosive yield of 500 Kt. They were classed as
SOB (Super Alloy Bombs) with a 92 point implosion ball. They had an HEU core and
were produced from 03/1953 to 02/1955. They were fused for airburst or contact. Since
they were of a more manageable weight they were carried by all bombers equipped with
internal bomb bays. 90 units were produced and all were retired in the first three months
of 1956.
20. The MK-20 units were cancelled in the design phase.
21. The MK-21 bombs were cancelled in the planning stage.
22. The MK-22 bombs were cancelled in the planning stage.
23. The EC-24 Bombs were large and weighed 39,600 lbs. They had an explosive yield
of 13.5 Mt and were fused for airburst only. Only ten were produced in 1954. They were
kept in the stockpile until the mid sixties. The core used enriched Lithium-6 and they
were dropped in free fall and fused for airburst only. They were only carried by the B-
36 or B-52 heavy bombers.
24. The MK-24 bombs were very heavy at 42,400 to 42,000 lbs. They had an explosive
yield of 10 to 15 Mt and the first models were fused for airburst only. They were
dropped via a 64 foot diameter parachute to retard decent. They were similar to the
MK-17 but were improved in the electronics and fusing variants. A later variant could
be fused for contact. They were produced from 07/1954 to 11/1955 and all 105 units
were retired in late 1956. They were only carried by the B-36 and the B-52 heavy
bombers.
25. The MK-26 bomb was cancelled in 1956.
26. The MK-27 bombs were made for the Navy. They weighed 3,150 to 3,300 lbs and
had an explosive yield of 1 Mt. They were fused for airburst or contact. They were of a
UCRL design and were classed as lightweight thermonuclear weapons. 700 units were
produced from 11/1958 to 6/1959 and all were retired from 11/1962 to 07/1965. All navy
aircraft could carry these weapons. Most were carried by the A-3d Sky Warrior or the
A-5 Vigilante Carrier Based Bomber.
27. The MK-28/B-28 bombs were considered multipurpose thermonuclear weapons in
that they were developed in several different variants. Depending on the variant they had
an explosive yield of 70 Kt to 1.45 Mt. They were FUFO fused and weighed 1,700 to
2,320 lbs. depending on the model selected. This bomb design was the longest running
in U. S. military history at 33 years. Versions were in service from 1958 to 1991. There
were 4,500 units produced and the last one was retired in 09/1991. They were capable of
being delivered by a wide range of military aircraft.
28. The MK-36 bombs were designed as two stage thermonuclear type with two
variants. One was “dirty” and the other was “clean”. They weighed in at 17,500 to
17,700 lbs. and were deliverable by medium to heavy bombers only. They were equipped
with FUFO and were dropped parachute retarded. The 940 units built were produced
from 4/1956 to 6/1958 and were retired from 08/1962 to 01/1962. Carried by B-47, B-52,
B-57, B-58 and B-56 bombers.
29. The MK-39 bombs were improved Mk-15 models. They used a gas boosted
primary trigger system to reduce overall weight. They had thermal batteries, improved
safeties and variable parachute deployment packages. They weighed 6.650 to 6,750
lbs. and were capable of an explosive yield of 3 to 4 Mt. They were capable of low level
deployment in the “lay down” configuration. There were 700 units made between
02/1957 and 03/1959 and all were retired in the 1962 to 1966 period. They were capable
of being carried by all U. S. medium and heavy bombers.
30. The MK-41 bombs were the highest yield U. S. nuclear weapons ever deployed.
They were of an advanced design with a three stage thermonuclear core. They were
built in two versions, one was “dirty” and one was “clean”. They weighed 10,500 to
10,670 lbs. and had an explosive yield of 25 Mt. They were FUFO equipped and were
dropped with a parachute for retardation or free fall. There were 500 units
manufactured from 09/1960 to 06/1962. They were retired from service from 11/1963 to
07/1976 in favor of the MK-53 weapon. They were too heavy for wing pylon mounting
so they were only carried by bombers with internal bomb bays.
31. The MK-43 bombs were built for high speed low altitude delivery. They were small
enough at 2,060 to 2,125 lbs. and streamlined enough to be pylon mounted on a wide
variety of aircraft. They had an explosive yield of 70 Kt to 1 Mt and were FUFO
equipped. There were 1000 units built between 04/1961 and 10/1965. They were
equipped with the newer PAL B upgrade. They were fission only bombs and were
retired during the 12/1972 to 04/1991 period.
32. The MK-46/B46 bombs were cancelled prior to production.
33. The MK-53/B-53 bombs were designed as HEU fission only weapons with no
Plutonium. They were and remain our main weapon deliverable by the B-47, B-52, B-58
follow on Bombers such as the B-1B and B-2. They weigh in at 8,850 to 8,900 lbs. and
have a 9 Mt explosive yield. They were FUFO equipped and are parachute retarded or
free fall. They were manufactured from 08/1962 to 06/1965 and were modified in
7/1967. Of the 350 units produced 300 units were retired in 1997 but 50 units were
retained in our in service stockpile.
34. The MK-54 was produced as an ADM (Atomic Demolition Munition). They weigh
150 lbs. and are man portable. They have an explosive yield of 10 Tons to 1 Kt. They
were manufactured from 08/1964 to 06/1966 and were retired from service in the period
of 1967 o 1989. They were equipped with a mechanical combination lock and PAL and
were fused with a time delay. They were “Backpack” type weapons similar to a TNT
satchel charge. There were 300 units produced.
35. The MK-57/B-57 bombs were light weight at 490 to 510 lbs. and had an explosive
yield of 5 to 20 Kt. They were used as multipurpose tactical weapons and were used in
depth charges, torpedoes and tactical strike weapons deliverable by any aircraft.
They were equipped with FUFO and PAL B. 3,100 units were produced from 01/1963 to
05/1967. The early models were retired from 06/1975 to 06/1993. They were dropped via
a parachute retardation method or free fall. They could be carried by any aircraft.
36. The MK/B-61 bombs were light weight at 695 to 716 lbs. and adaptable to many
weapons systems. There were many modifications made and these weapons are the main
weapons remaining in our stockpile today. They have a variable yield (depending on
the model) from 0.3 Kt to 340 Kt. They are equipped with the latest PAL version and
use an IHE in the primary core. They were manufactured from 10/1966 to the early 90’s
and many of the older models were retired. Of the 3150 units manufactured 1350 late
model units remain in our stockpile. They were the longest production run of any U.
S. nuclear bomb. The remaining units are part of our “enduring stockpile”. They can
be carried by any aircraft and adapted to many delivery vehicles.
37. The B-77 bombs were cancelled during the design phase in 1977.
38. The B-83 bombs are our current high yield thermonuclear weapon. They weigh 2,400
lbs. and have an explosive yield to 1.2 Mt. They are FUFO equipped with the latest PAL
system with a fire resistant explosive pit. They are deliverable by all current aircraft
in the U. S. military. They use an IHE primary. They are parachute retarded and are
low altitude, high speed deliverable. They were manufactured from 06/1983 to 1991
and there were 650 produced. They are our “Go To” nuclear weapons currently.
39. The B-90 bombs were cancelled in the design stage in 1991.
No new bombs have been produced recently but there is a rumor that the U. S. is working
on a low yield earth penetration weapon called the “Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator”,
specifically to take out underground WMD production plants.
Bombs produced up until 1968 were referred to a “MK” (Mark). Bombs produced from
1968 on were designated “B” (Bomb). The “TX” designation stood for “Test
Experimental”.
 Chapter 6:

The Weapon Delivery Systems.

U. S. Army Air Corps and U. S. Air Force Bombers.

1. The B-29 or “Super Fortress” entered service in early 1944 and was the first U. S.
“Nuclear Bomber”. Versions were in service well into the sixties in reserve commands.
The “Enola Gay” dropped the “Little Boy” HEU bomb on Hiroshima Japan on
August 6, 1945 was a B-29. The B-29 “Bock’s Car” dropped the Plutonium bomb
“Fat Man” on Nagasaki Japan on August 8, 1945. Shortly thereafter Japan’s Imperial
Government sued for peace. These two instances were the first and only known use
of nuclear weapons in War. The B-29 was propeller driven and slow by today’s
standards. The B-29 “Super Fortress” Specifications are four each Wright Radial 3350,
turbocharged 23 cylinder engines. Each rated at 2,200 horsepower. They had a max speed
of 357 MPH. They carried a crew of 5 officers and 6 enlisted men. They had a range of
5,600 miles and could carry 20,000 lbs. of bombs in an internal bomb bay. Aircraft
maximum takeoff weight was 133,500 lbs.
2. The B-50 or “Super Fortress” entered service in 1945 and was a slightly improved
model of the B-29. It was in service well into the sixties in reserve components and
National Guard units. It had a crew of 8. The aircraft was propeller drive and still slow by
today’s standards at a max speed of 395 MPH. It had Pratt & Whitney Radial 4360
engines. Each rated at 3,500 horsepower. It had a range of 5,000 nautical miles and a
bomb load capacity of 20,000 pounds in the bomb bay and 8,000 pounds on external
pylons. Aircraft maximum takeoff weight was 173,000 lbs.
3. The B-36 or “Peacemaker” entered service in 1949 and was the first U. S. bomber
designed as a strategic bomber with a huge bomb weight capacity. The B-36
established several firsts. It was the first U. S. Air Force Bomber to be equipped with
Jet Engines to supplement the Propeller Engines. It had a crew of 9. The B-36 had 6
each Pratt & Whitney Radial 4360 piston engines rated at 3,800 horsepower each. It also
had 4 each GE J47 turbojets rated at 5,200 pounds of thrust.
Typically after reaching cruising altitude the jet engines were shut off to conserve their
limited on board supply of jet fuel. Most of the fuel capacity was taken up with aviation
gas for the piston engines. They had a 72,000 lb. internal bomb capacity, a top speed of
420 MPH and a range of 5,905 nautical miles. The maximum takeoff weight was 410,000
lbs.
4. The B-45 or “Tornado” was the first all jet operational bomber for the Air Force. It
was built by North American and introduced in 1948 as a medium bomber and 143 units
were produced. It had a crew of four. It was powered by four GE J-47 turbojet engines
developing a combined thrust of 20,800 pounds. It had a maximum takeoff weight of
110,000 pounds. It had a range of 870 nautical miles and a maximum speed of 570
MPH. It could carry a bomb load of 22,000 pounds and was capable of carrying any
nuclear weapon in the USAF inventory at the time.
5. The B-47 or “Stratojet” entered service in 1955/56 and was the first swept wing all
jet powered bomber in the Air Force inventory. It took a crew of 5 to operate it and it was
powered by six GE J47 turbojet engines developing 7,200 lbs. of thrust each. The early
jet engines were not powerful enough to get the plane off the ground in a reasonable
length of runway so a JATO (jet assisted take off) rocket system was installed on either
side of the fuselage aft near the tail to give the extra thrust to weight ratio to attain takeoff
speed quickly. The B-47 was capable of a top speed of 607 MPH. It had a maximum
range of 4,037 nautical miles. It could carry a 25,000 lb. bomb load in the internal bomb
bay. Its maximum takeoff weight was 230,000 lbs.
6. The B-49 or “Flying Wing” was introduced in 1948 as an experimental bomber. It had
control problems from the start and the first prototype crashed on June 5, 1948 killing
the five man crew. The pilot of this aircraft was Capt. Glenn W. Edwards USAF. The
Air Force named the base in California after him. The B-49 was powered by very
weak Allison Jet engines which only produce 3,750 lbs. of thrust each. Even with the
eight engines fitted this did not give the B-49 enough power for good control. The
concept of the flying wing was ahead of its time and the technology of the day could not
overcome the instability of the tailless design. The program was scrapped in late 1949.
7. The B-52 or “Stratofortress” was built from 1956 to 1962. There were 744 built and
many of the later H models were upgraded over the years and are still active in the
Air Force as strategic bombers. There are approximately 100 B-52H models still in the
Air Force inventory. They carry a crew of five and the present B-52 aircraft are at three
locations. The 2nd Bomb Wing is at Barksdale AFB in Louisiana. The 5th Bomb Wing
is at Minot AFB North Dakota, and the 20th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron is at
Anderson AFB Guam. The B-52H in service today has eight Pratt & Whitney TF-P-
3/103 Turbofan Jet engines each developing thrust of 17,000 lbs. This power gives the B-
52H a top speed of 560 Knots. It can carry a bomb load 60,000 lbs. mixed between
internal bomb bays and wing pylons. It can also launch ALCM cruise missiles. This
model has a range of 11,000 miles and a maximum takeoff weight of 488,000 lbs. The
crews call them “BUFF” (big ugly fat fellows). The B-52H can carry and deploy any
nuclear weapon in the U. S. stockpile.
8. The B-57 or “Canberra” is the U. S. model of a British design. The U. S. model was
introduced in 1963 and is powered by two Wright J65-W-5 turbojets developing 7,220
lbs. of thrust each. This gives the B-57 a top speed of 598 MPH. It requires a crew of two
to operate this aircraft. The Air Force retired all of its B-57 fleet in the early 1970’s
and the only ones known still flying belong to NASA. They are used for atmospheric
testing and Space Shuttle Launch observation. As bombers the B-57’s were considered
light/medium bombers in that their bomb capacity was only 7,300 lbs. of that total
4,500 lbs. could be carried in the internal bomb bay and 2,800 lbs. could be divided
between four external wing pylons. The B-57 has a range of 2,720 nautical miles and a
maximum takeoff weight of 53,345 lbs. They could carry the smaller nuclear weapons.
9. The B-58 or “Hustler” was introduced to the Air Force in 1960 as the first true
high speed and high altitude penetration bomber. The were designed to fly high and
fast to penetrate the Soviet Unions air defenses and drop Nuclear weapons before being
shot down. They were designed much like the Air Force Delta wing shaped fighter of that
time with a severely swept delta wing and four huge GE J79 turbojets slung under the
wings each producing 15,600 lbs. of thrust. This power coupled with the shape gave the
B-58 a top speed of 1,400 MPH or Mach 2.1. The crew of three was busy keeping this
bullet under control as the delta wing shape was a notoriously difficult design to fly.
The There were 103 aircraft built and all were retired by 1970. Only 8 aircraft remain
on static display at various AFB locations. They were short legged by B-52 standards
and the maximum range was only 4,720 miles. They we too small and sleek to have an
internal bomb bay so all bombs were contained in a Pod slung under the fuselage.
The Pod had the capacity for 4 each B-43 or 4 each B-61 nuclear bombs.
The Pod was basically an externally mounted bomb bay that could be operated by
the weapons officer like an internal bomb bay. Its maximum bomb load was 19,450
lbs. and it had a maximum takeoff weight of 176,890 lbs. In my opinion the B-58 was the
coolest bomber ever built.
10. The B-66 or “Destroyer” was introduced to the Air Force in 1954 as a medium
Bomber. The plane was essentially a Navy A-3D “Skywarrior” in Air Force colors.
They B-66 was employed by the Air Force as a medium payload and medium range
bomber. It was powered by two Allison J71-A-11 or -13 turbojets developing 10,200
pounds of thrust each. The aircraft had a top speed of 631 MPH and a maximum range of
2,470 Miles. It was operated by a crew of 3 and could carry 15,000 lbs. of conventional
and nuclear weapons. The B-66 had a maximum takeoff weight of 83,000 lbs. The later
versions were converted to electronic warfare platforms and carried a much larger crew.
This is the aircraft the Lt. Col. Campbell of “Bat-51” fame ejected from over Viet
Nam.
11. The B-70 or “Valkyrie” was the Air Forces’ short lived experiment with Mach 3
bombers from 1964 to 1967. It was a huge aircraft with six GE YJ93 turbojet engines
each capable of creating 28,000 lbs. of thrust. This aircraft was capable of reaching 2,000
MPH. It had a crew of 2 and was capable of carrying a massive internal bomb load of
conventional and nuclear weapons. It had a maximum takeoff weight of 534,700 lbs. It
was cancelled because it was too complex to maintain and consumed too much fuel.
Also the newer high altitude SAM missiles rendered it vulnerable.
12. The F/B-111 or “Aardvark” or “Switchblade” as the crews called them was a
very fast variable wing geometry light bomber. It had a crew of 2 and was equipped
with advanced ECM systems. It was equipped with two Pratt & Whitney TF30-P-100
turbofan engines each putting out 17,900 lbs. of thrust dry or 25,100 lbs. of thrust in
afterburner.
They were capable of 1,650 MPH top speed and could carry 31,500 lbs. of weapons
internally and externally. They were able to carry the B-43, B-57, B-61 or B-83
nuclear weapons. They had a maximum takeoff weight of 98,979 lbs. They were in
service from 1967 until 1998 with the Air Force. F-111 aircraft flew from Britain to
Libya to bomb Mohmar Kadafi during the Libyan crisis.
13. The B-1B or “Lancer” was introduced in 1985 and is the current long range
heavy bomber in the Air Force inventory along with the B-52. There are 67 active
aircraft and 25 are in ready reserve status. It is the only “Swing Wing” or variable
geometry wing heavy bomber we have. The B-1B is operated by a crew of 4 and is
powered by four GE F-101-02 turbofan engines producing 30,000 lbs. of thrust each.
This gives the B-1B a top speed in the 1000 MPH range. It has three internal bomb bays
and is capable of carrying a massive bomb load of conventional and nuclear weapons. It
has Nap of the Earth flying ability by which it can fly lower and faster than any
bomber. It has a small radar cross section so it’s harder to spot on radar and it has
advanced ECM systems. It has an intercontinental range un-refueled. It has a
maximum takeoff weight of 477,000 lbs.
14. The B-2 or “Spirit” (introduced in 1997) is the only “Stealth Bomber” in our
inventory. It provides the ability to penetrate defense systems unseen. The B-2 has a
crew of 2 pilots. It is powered by four GE-F118 engines providing 17,000 lbs. of thrust
each. It has a top speed of just under 700 MPH. (You don’t have to go fast if they can’t
see you”!) It can carry a massive 40,000 lb. bomb load. (That’s 16 B-61 or B-83
nuclear bombs) or ALCM’s in the internal bomb bays rotary launchers. There are 21
of these aircraft in our current inventory. They have an intercontinental un-refueled
range and a maximum takeoff weight of 336,500 lbs. At night you would never know it
was there!

Air Force Tactical Fighter Aircraft:

1. The A-1 or “Skyraider” was introduced in 1945 to both the Navy and the Air Force as
a highly effective ground attack bomber. Many later models including the A4D, A6D and
other variants were nuclear weapon capable. It was built by Douglas Aircraft and there
were 3,180 units built. It had a crew of one but later modified units could carry up to
three crewmembers. The aircraft was powered by one Wright 3350 radial engine capable
of developing 2,700 HP. The aircraft had a maximum takeoff weight of 25,000 pounds. It
had a maximum speed of 320 MPH. It could carry a massive 8,000 pounds of external
weapons including nuclear gravity bombs.
2. F-84 or “Thunderjet” was the first fighter/bomber capable of carrying a nuclear
gravity bomb. It was built by Republic Aviation Corporation. This model was introduced
in 1947 and continued in production for 7,524 units. It had a crew of one pilot. It was
powered by one Allison J-35 turbojet that developed 5,560 lb. ft. of thrust. It had a
maximum takeoff weight of 23,340 pounds. It had a payload capacity of 4,450 pounds.
It was capable of carrying one MK-7 nuclear bomb. It had a maximum speed of 622
MPH.
3. F-86 or “Saberjet” was introduced in 1949 as a fighter/interceptor. It was developed
by North American Aviation Corporation. It was the first swept wing fighter design in the
Air Force and 9,860 units were built. The aircraft had a crew of one pilot. It was powered
by one General Electric J-47 Turbojet engine. It had a max takeoff weight of 18, 152
pounds. It had a maximum speed of 687 MPH. It could carry 2,400 pounds of external
weapons and was capable of carrying one nuclear gravity bomb.
4. The F-89 or “Scorpion” was the First Nuclear armed fighter aircraft in Air Force
History. They were in service from 1950 to 1969. They carried a crew of two and were
powered by two Allison J35-A-35A each turbojets producing 5,600 lbs. of thrust dry
and 7,400 lbs. of thrust in afterburner which gave them a top speed of 636 MPH. They
had a range of 1,376 miles. They were equipped with the wing mounts for the Aim-2
“Genie” nuclear tipped air-to-air missile and assorted other conventional ordinance.
They had a maximum takeoff weight of 46,800 lbs.
5. The F-100 or “Super Sabre” was an advanced design based on the North American
F-86 “Sabre” in service from 1954 to 1970. It was primarily a fighter aircraft but was
fitted with wing pylons for external weapons. It had a crew of one pilot. It was powered
by one P & W J57-P-21 turbojet producing 10,200 lbs. of thrust dry and 16,000 lbs. of
thrust in afterburner giving it a top speed of 750 knots. It had a combat range of 1,733
miles and could carry 7,040 lbs. of bombs. It was configured to carry one each MK-7,
MK-28, MK-43, MK-57 or MK-61 nuclear bombs. It had a maximum takeoff weight
of 34,832 lbs.
6. The F-101 or “Voodoo” was designed as a fighter/interceptor and was in service from
1957 to 1966. It had a crew of two. It was powered by two P & W J57-P-55 turbojets
producing 11,990 lbs. of thrust dry or 16,900 lbs. of thrust in afterburner which gave it a
top speed of 1,134 MPH. It had a combat range of 1,520 miles. It was equipped to carry
two nuclear tipped “Genie” Air-2 air-to-air missiles which were used to shoot down
whole flights of enemy bombers. The F-101 had a maximum takeoff weight of 52,400
lbs.
5. The F-102 or “Delta Dagger” was in service from 1956 to 1976 and was primarily an
interceptor. It had a crew of one and was powered by one P & W J57-P-25 turbojet engine
producing 11,700 lbs. of thrust dry and 17,200 lbs. of thrust in afterburner giving it a top
speed of 825 MPH. It was capable of carrying an assortment of air-to-air missiles
including the Aim-2 “Genie” nuclear tipped missile and the newer Aim-26A “Falcon”
nuclear tipped missile. The aircraft had a range of 1,350 miles and a maximum takeoff
weight of 31,500 lbs.
6. The F-104 or “Starfighter” was the first 1000 MPH plus fighter/interceptor for the
Air Force. It was in service from 1958 to 1967. The F-104 had very sharp stubby
wings to cut down on drag at high speed. It was operated by one pilot and was equipped
with one GE J79-11A turbojet capable of producing 10,000 lbs. of thrust dry and 15,600
lbs. of thrust in afterburner giving it a top speed of 1,328 MPH. The F-104 had seven
hard points for external weapons mounts and could carry any air-to-air missile in
the Air Force inventory including the nuclear tipped ones. It had a range of 1,630
miles and a maximum takeoff weight of 29,027 lbs.
7. The F-105 or “Thunderchief” was the Air Force work horse tactical
fighter/bomber for 25 years, from 1958 to 1984. It had a crew of one and was powered
by one P & W J75-P-19W turbojet producing 26,500 lbs. of thrust in afterburner and with
water injection. It had a top speed of 1,372 MPH. It had an internal bomb bay as well
as external hard points giving it a combat weapons load of 14,000 lbs. It was capable
of carrying any nuclear weapons in the Air Force arsenal. It had a range of 2,210 miles
and a maximum takeoff weight of 52,546 lbs.
8. The F-106 or “Delta Dart” was a very fast fighter/interceptor in service for 29
years from 1959 to 1988. It had a crew of one and was powered by one P & W J75-17
turbojet which produced 24,500 lbs. of thrust in afterburner giving it a top speed of 1,525
MPH. It could carry two of any missiles in the Air Force inventory including the
nuclear tipped Air-2 “Genie” and later model nuclear interceptor missiles. It had a range
of 1,800 miles and a maximum takeoff weight of 34,510 lbs.
9. The F-4 or “Phantom” and all of its variants was introduced in 1960 and has been
in service of varying roles until 1995. It was used by the Air Force, Navy and Marines.
It had a crew of two and was powered by two GE J79-17A turbojets producing 17,845
lbs. of thrust each for a top speed of 1,472 MPH. The F-4 could carry up to 18,650 lbs. of
bombs and other munitions on wing and fuselage mounted hard points. It was capable
of carrying any nuclear bomb or missile in the Air Force or Navy inventory during
its career. The Phantom had a range of 1,403 miles and a maximum takeoff weight of
61,795 lbs.
10. The F-15 or “Eagle” and its follow on variants were introduced to the Air Force
in 1976 and remains in service today. They are being gradually replaced by the F-22
“Raptor”. The F-15 has a crew of one and is powered by two P & W F100-100-220 0r
-229 turbofan engines producing 29,000 lbs. of thrust in afterburner giving them a top
speed of 1,875 MPH at high altitude. The F-15 as an external weapons load capacity
of 16,000 lbs. It is capable of carrying any nuclear bomb or missiles that are wing
mountable in our current inventory. The aircraft has a range of 3,000 miles and a
maximum takeoff weight of 68,000 lbs.
11. The A-10 or “Thunderbolt II” or “Warthog” as the crews call them are the current
Air Force, AF Reserve and AF National Guard premier ground attack aircraft. They were
introduced in 1977 and there are 128 aircraft on active duty with 51 in reserve
squadrons and 102 in National Guard squadrons. The A-10 is piloted by a crew of one
and is powered by two GE TF34-100A turbofan engines producing 9,065 lbs. of thrust
each for a top speed of 517 MPH. The A-10 is strictly for ground attack but it can defend
itself from enemy fighters by means of two air-to-air missiles. This aircraft is heavily
armored and has a tremendous amount of firepower in the 30 MM rotary cannon in the
nose. The cannon fires depleted uranium rounds that destroy armored vehicles. The main
drawback for the A-10 is its relatively short range of 252 miles. It carries 9,000 lbs. of
bombs on hard points but its main armament is the cannon. It has modern avionics and
weapons systems so it can carry tactical nuclear weapons in a pinch. It has a maximum
takeoff weight of 50,000 lbs.
12. The F-16 or “Fighting Falcon” was introduced in 1978 and is the most produced
modern jet fighter in history with more than 4,200 being built and currently the U.
S. Air Force has 724 units in active service 69 in reserve squadrons and 522 in
National Guard squadrons. The F-16 is operated by a crew of 1 and is powered by one
P & W F100-PW-220 turbofan engine with 23,770 lbs. of thrust in afterburner giving it a
top speed of 1,500 MPH at high altitude. The F-16 can carry an impressive assortment
of missiles and bombs on hard points. It can carry all models of air-to-air missiles
including nuclear tipped ones and can carry the B-61 nuclear bomb and later
variants. It has a maximum range of 3,200 miles and a maximum takeoff weight of
42,300 lbs.
13. The F-117 or “Nighthawk” is a stealth fighter that was introduced in 1982. Of the
69 aircraft built most are in the process of being replaced by the F-22 Raptor. The F-
117 has a crew of 1 and is powered by two GE F404-F1D2 turbofan engines each rated at
10,600 lbs. of thrust giving it a top speed of 617 MPH. (You don’t have to go fast if
they can’t see you)! The aircraft carries all weapons internally and is usually operated
at night. It has the capacity for two bombs totaling 5,000 lbs. It has no self defense
capability other than stealth. It can carry two tactical nuclear bombs. It has a short range
of 930 miles and a maximum takeoff weight of 52,500 lbs.
14. The F-22 or “Raptor” is the latest version of the stealth fighter introduced in
2006. It is replacing our front line fighters as more are built. The F-22 has a crew of
one and is powered by two P & W F119-PW-100 Pitch Vectoring Turbofans each
producing 35,000 lbs. of thrust for a top speed of 1,325 MPH. The Raptor can carry any
current air-to-air missile and has the capacity for 2000 lbs. of bombs or missiles
internally and has hard points for another 20,000 lbs. of ordinance externally. It is
fully capable of carrying any nuclear weapon currently in our inventory. The F-22
has a range of 2,000 miles and a maximum takeoff weight of 80,000 lbs.
15. The F-35 or “Lightening II” first production models have rolled of the assembly
line in December of 2006. This aircraft will be built in three variants for the U. S.
Services. The F-35A will be conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) for the Air
Force. This aircraft is a smaller and more maneuverable model of the F-22 “Raptor”
and will incorporate stealth technology in its many attributes. The F-35A is comparable
to the F-16 in maneuverability but surpasses the F-16 in stealth, payload, range,
avionics, sensors and supportability. The F-35 will have a crew of 1 and will be powered
by a P & W F135 turbofan engine producing 40,000 lbs. of thrust in afterburner. It will
have a weapons payload of 2,000 lbs. internally and it will have four under wing and
two wingtip hard points for missiles and bombs for a total of 10,000 lbs. The F-35
will have a range of 1,200 miles on internal fuel and a maximum conventional takeoff
weight of 60,000 lbs.
U. S. Navy Nuclear Weapon Delivery Capable Aircraft.

1. The AJ-1 or “Savage” was built as a triple engine (one jet and two radial piston
engines) carrier based medium bomber. It went into service in 1949. It had a crew of
three and was powered by one Allison J33-A-1 turbojet in the tail developing 4,600
lbs. of thrust and two Pratt & Whitney R-2800-44W engines rated at 2,400 HP each.
It had a top speed of 471 MPH and a range of 600 miles. It was capable of carrying
12,000 lbs. of bombs in an internal bomb bay and was fitted to carry one MK-6 Nuclear
Bomb. It had a maximum takeoff weight of 50,954 lbs.
2. The P2V-1 or “Neptune” was built as a twin radial engine land based medium
bomber for the Navy. The first ones went into service in 1946. In the mid sixties the
aircraft were retro-fitted with two J34-WE-34 jet engines with one under each wing
outboard of the radial engines. The addition of the jet engines gave the P2V increased
maximum takeoff weight. The main radial engines were two Wright R-3350-32W turbo
boosted compound Cyclone engines rated at 4,000 HP. The P2V had a large bomb bay
and could carry up to 8,000 lbs of bombs, depth charges or aerial torpedoes. They
were operated by a crew of 7 and were used for long range maritime patrol.
They were capable of carrying any nuclear weapon in the Navy arsenal. They had a top
speed of 300 MPH with a range of 4,130 miles and had a maximum takeoff weight of
80,000 lbs. The last ones were retired in the mid 1970’s.
3. The F2H-2B or “Banshee” was introduced to the Navy in 1948 as a carrier based
fighter. 845 units were built by McDonnell Aircraft. They had a crew of one pilot. They
were powered by two Westinghouse J-34 turbojet engines with a combined thrust of up to
6,500 pounds. They had a maximum takeoff weight of 28,500 pounds and a maximum
speed of 527 MPH. They could carry 3,000 pounds of external weapons including one
nuclear gravity bomb or nuclear tipped missiles.
4. The F9F or “Cougar” was a carrier based fighter bomber designed and built by
Grumman Aircraft Co. and was introduced to the Navy in 1952. The total number built
was 1,792 aircraft of all variants. They had a crew of one pilot. The aircraft were fitted
with one P & W J-48P turbojet engine equipped with water injection which developed
8,500 pounds of thrust. The Cougar had a maximum takeoff weight of 24,763 pounds
and a maximum speed of 647 MPH. The Cougar could carry up to 2,000 pounds of
weapons externally including one nuclear gravity bomb or nuclear tipped missile.
5. The F3H or “Demon” was introduced to the Navy by McDonnell Aircraft in 1956 as a
carrier based fighter bomber. They made 519 units in the 3 year production run. The
Demon carried a crew of one Pilot. It had one J-40 Westinghouse Turbojet engine
producing 14,400 pounds of thrust. It had a maximum takeoff weight of 39,000 pounds. It
had a maximum speed of 716 MPH and could carry 6,000 pounds of weapons externally
including nuclear gravity bombs and nuclear tipped missiles.
6. The FJ-4 or “Fury” was introduced to the Navy in 1951 as a carrier based
fighter/bomber for the Navy and Marines by North American Aviation. The design was
an improved F-86 Saber platform and 1,115 units were built during the production run. It
had a crew of one pilot and was powered by one Wright J-65 turbojet engine
developing 7,700 pounds of thrust. The aircraft had a maximum takeoff weight of
23,700 pounds. It had a maximum speed of 680 MPH. It could carry up to 3,000 pounds
of external weapons including one nuclear gravity bomb or nuclear tipped missiles.
7. The A3D or “Skywarrior” was introduced to the Navy in 1956. (The Air Force B-66
is identical) It was the first carrier based jet powered strategic nuclear bomber in
Navy history. It was operated by a crew of three and was powered by two J57-P-10
turbojet engines rated at 10,000 lbs. of thrust each giving it a top speed of 610 MPH. It
could carry one MK-15 free fall Nuclear Weapon and subsequent N weapons of the same
dimensions. It had a range of 1,325 miles. The aircraft was boosted on takeoff by the
addition of 12 JATO rockets on each side forward of the tail. The A3D had a maximum
takeoff weight of 70,000 lbs. All aircraft were stricken from the Navy inventory by
1991.
8. The A-4 or “Skyhawk” was introduced to the Navy in 1956 as a Carrier Based
Attack Aircraft. It was operated by a crew of one and was powered by one J52-P8A
turbojet (Non-Afterburner) engine producing 9,300 lbs. of thrust giving it a top speed
of 673 MPH. It could carry 9,900 lbs. of bombs or rockets on 5 hard points under the
wings. It was capable of carrying any externally mounted nuclear weapon in the
Navy arsenal. The A-4 had a range of 1,700 miles and a maximum takeoff weight of
24,500 lbs. All Navy A-4 aircraft were stricken from the Navy inventory by 1991. This
aircraft was what Senator John McCain was flying when he was shot down and
captured during the Vietnam War.
9. The P-3 or “Orion” was introduced to the Navy in 1962 as a land based maritime
patrol bomber to replace the P2V “Neptune”. It was operated by a crew of 11 and was
powered by four Allison T56-A-14 turboprop engines developing 4,600 HP each and
giving it a top speed of 370 MPH. It can carry 20,000 lbs. of conventional and nuclear
weapons including AGM-84 “Harpoon”, AGM-84E SLAM, AGM-65 “Maverick”
missiles and MK-46 and MK-50 torpedoes, mines and depth charges. The P-3 has a
range of 5,600 miles and a maximum takeoff weight of 142,000 lbs. 650 aircraft were
built and many are still in service with the U. S. Navy and other countries around
the world.
10. The A-5 or “Vigilante” was introduced to the Navy in 1964 as a carrier based
strategic nuclear bomber. It had a crew of two and was powered by two GE J79-GE-8
afterburning turbojet engines. Each with 17,000 lbs. of thrust giving it a top speed of
1,320 MPH. It could carry up to three nuclear weapons, (9,000 lbs.) one in the internal
bomb bay (which dropped the bombs out of the tail through a tube between the engines
exhausts) and two on wing hard points. The A-5 had a range of 1,290 miles and a
maximum takeoff weight of 62,950 lbs. All A-5 aircraft were stricken from the Navy
inventory by 1979.
11. The A-6 or “Intruder” was introduced to the Navy in 1963 as a carrier based
heavy tactical/strategic bomber. It had a crew of 2 and was powered by two J52-P8-B
(Non-Afterburner) turbojets each producing 9,300 lbs. of thrust for a top speed of 648
MPH. The A-6 could carry an impressive load of under wing mounted ordinance
(18,000 lbs.) including the B-61 nuclear bomb. The A-6 had a range of 2,819 miles and
a maximum takeoff weight of 60,626 lbs. All aircraft were stricken from the Navy
inventory by 1997. They were replaced by the F/A-18 “Hornet”.
12. The A-7 or “Corsair II” was introduced to the Navy as a carrier based light attack
aircraft in 1967. It was also used by the Air Force. It had a crew of one and was
powered by one Allison TF41-A-1 turbofan (non afterburner) engine producing
14,500 lbs. of thrust. The A-7 had a top speed of 698 MPH. The A-7 could carry 15,000
lbs. of weapons on wing and fuselage hard points. This ordinance included the MK-
28, B-57 or B-61 nuclear bomb. The A-7 had a range of 2,485 miles and a maximum
takeoff weight of 42,000 lbs. All aircraft were retired in 1991 but some were retained
in the Air Force National Guard units until 2000.
13. The F-14 or “Tomcat” was introduced to the Navy in 1974 as a maritime air
superiority fighter, fleet defense interceptor and tactical strike aircraft. It had a crew
of 2 and was powered by two F110-GE-400 afterburner turbofan engines producing
27.800 lbs. of thrust each. The F-14 had a top speed of 1,544 MPH. It could carry
13,000 pounds of ordinance externally and was capable of carrying any nuclear
weapon in the Navy arsenal. The F-14 had a range of 1,600 miles and a maximum
takeoff weight of 74,350 lbs. The last F-14 was retired from the Navy in 2006. They
were replaced by the F/A 18E or F “Super Hornet”.
14. The F/A-18 or “Hornet” was introduced to the Navy in 1983 as the replacement
for the A-6, A-7 and F-14 as a carrier based strike fighter. It has a crew of one and is
powered by two F404-GE-402 turbofan afterburner engines each producing 17,750
lbs. of thrust. The F/A-18 has a top speed of 1,127 MPH. It can carry 13,700 lbs. of
assorted ordinance on under wing hard points including any nuclear weapon in the Navy
arsenal. The F/A-18 has a maximum range of 2,070 miles and a maximum takeoff weight
of 51,550 lbs. There were over 1,400 aircraft built for several nations. All are still in
service.
15. The AV-8B or “Harrier” was introduced to the Navy (Marine Corps) as a
STOL/VTOL attack aircraft in 1985. The Harrier has a crew of one and is powered by
one Rolls Royce Pegasus vectored thrust turbofan engine providing 21,750 lbs. of
thrust. The Harrier has a top speed of 675 MPH. The Harrier can takeoff loaded from a
short runway of jump ramp. It can takeoff and land vertically (like a helicopter) when
empty. It can carry 13,200 lbs. of mixed ordinance on external hard points. It can carry
any externally mounted nuclear weapon in the Navy/Marine Corps arsenal. It has a
range of 1,200 miles and a maximum takeoff weight of 31,000 lbs. in STOL mode. They
are currently in service.
16. The F/A-18E/F or “Super Hornet” was introduced to the Navy in 1999 as an
enhanced capability carrier based fighter/attack aircraft. It has a crew of 2 and is
powered by two F414-GE-400 turbofan afterburner engines that produce 22,000 lbs.
of thrust each. The aircraft has a top speed of 1,400 MPH. It has an external weapons
capacity of 17,750 lbs. & can carry any nuclear weapon in the Navy arsenal. It has a
range of 1,800 miles and a maximum takeoff weight of 66,000 lbs. 300 aircraft have
been built and are currently in service.
17. The F-35B/C or “Lightening II” will become operational in the Navy/Marine
Corps as a stealth strike fighter to replace current older aircraft. The aircraft is called the
Joint Strike Fighter and in its three variants will be capable of handling any nuclear
weapons in the U. S. arsenal. At the time of this writing none of the F-35 variants
are in operational squadrons.
 Chapter 7:

Our Nuclear Warheads.

Used as Missile, Artillery Projectile, Depth Charge or Torpedo Warheads.

1. The W-4 Warhead was the first nuclear warhead planned to fit a missile but was
cancelled. It was planned for the “Snark” SSM and was cancelled in 1951.
2. The W-5 Warhead was produced from 04/1954 to 07/1954 from recycled MK-5
Bombs. It weighed 2,405 to 2,600 lbs. and had an explosive yield of 6 to 120 Kt and
was fused for airburst or contact. 35 units were produced for the “Regulus-1” SSM-
N-8 missile program and 65 units were produced for the “Matador” MGM-1 missile
program. They were fused for airburst or contact. All units were retired from 07/1961
to 01/1963.
3. The W-7 Warhead was produced from 12/1953 to 06/1955. There were 225 units
built for the “Boar” air-to-surface missile, 300 units built for the “Corporal” M-2
missile, 300 units built for the “Honest John” M-3 missile and 300 units built for the
“Betty” MK-90 ASW Depth Bomb. All units were stockpiled between 1956 and 1963.
They weighed 900 to 1,100 lbs. and had an explosive yield of between 90 T and 40 Kt
with fusing for airburst, contact or hydrostatic. An additional 300 were planned for the
“Nike Hercules” SAM but they were cancelled in 1956.
4. The W-8 Warhead was scheduled for the “Regulus-1” missile but was cancelled in
1955.
5. The W-9 Warhead was produced from 04/1952 to 11/1953. 80 units were produced
for the T-124 artillery shell which was the first nuclear artillery round. It was fired
from a stationary 280 MM cannon. It weighed 803 to 850 lbs. and had an explosive
yield of 15 Kt. They were fused for mechanical time delay or airburst. It was a gun
type HEU weapon modified from the recycled previous bombs. All units were retired in
05/1957.
6. The W-12 Warhead was scheduled to be produced for the Navy “Talos” missile but
was cancelled in 1955.
7. The W-13 Warhead was scheduled for the “Snark” cruise missile and the
“Redstone” ICBM but was cancelled in 1954.
8. The W-15 Warhead was supposed to be a TN unit but was cancelled in 1957.
9. The W-19 Warhead was an artillery shell. 80 units were produced in 07/1955. They
weighed 600 lbs. and had an explosive yield of 15 to 20 Kt. They were used in the T-315
projectile. They had an HEU gun assembly and were fused for mechanical time delay
or airburst. All units were retired in 1963.
10. The W-21 Warhead was scheduled for the “Navaho” SM-64A missile but was
cancelled in 1954.
11. The W-23 Warhead was built as a 16 inch Navy “Katie” artillery round. There
were 50 units produced in 1956. They weighed 1,500 to 1,900 lbs. and had an explosive
yield of 15-20 Kt. They were fused for mechanical time delay or airburst. All were
retired in 10/1962.
12. W-25 Warhead was built for AIR-2 “Genie” missile from 1957 to 1965. 3150 units
were produced. They weighed 218 to 221 lbs. and had an explosive yield of 1.7 Kt and
were fused for time delay. All units were retired by 1984.
13. The W-27 Warhead was built for the ‘Regulus 1” SSM-N-8 missile. 700 units were
built between 09/1958 and 06/1959. They weighed 2,800 lbs. and had an explosive yield
of 70 Kt to 1.45 Mt. They were fused for airburst of contact. All units were retired from
1962 to 1965.
14. The W-28 Warhead was built for the ‘Hound Dog” AGM-28 missile and the
“Mace” MGM-13 cruise missile. There were 1000 units built between 1959 and 1960
that weighed 1,500 to 1,725 lbs. and had an explosive yield of 70 Kt to 1.45 Mt. The
units were fused for airburst or contact. All were retired by 1970.
15. The W-30 Warhead was built for the Navy “Talos” SAM/SSM, XW-30 missile in
three models totaling 600 units were produced from 1959 to 1965. The warhead
weighed from 438 to 450 lbs. It had an explosive yield of between 300 T and 19 Kt.
They were fused for airburst, contact or time delay. All were retired from 1962 to
1979.
16. The W-31 Warhead was built for the “Honest John” SSM, the “Nike Hercules”
SAM from 1959 to 1961. A total of 4,500 units were built. They weighed between 900
and 945 lbs. with an explosive yield of 1 to 40 Kt. They were fused for airburst, time
delay or contact. All were retired to the stockpile from 1960 to 1987.
17. The W-32 Warhead was designed as a 240 MM artillery shell but was cancelled in
1955.
18. The W-33 Warhead was built as a 203 MM artillery shell. 2000 units were
produced from 1957 to 1965. They weighed 240 to 243 lbs. and had an explosive yield of
5 to 40 Kt. They were fused for mechanical time delay or airburst. All units were
retired to the stockpile by 1992.
19. The W-34 Warhead was built for the Navy as an ASW (antisubmarine warfare)
weapon and for tactical use. It was for the MK-34 “LULU” depth charge and the MK-44
“Astor” torpedo. It could also be used as a MK-5 “Hotpoint” lay down parachute
bomb. It had a boosted fission implosion device similar to the MK-28 primary. A total
of 3200 units were built between 1958 and 1962. There were 2000 “LULU”, 600
“Astor” and 600 “Hotpoint” units built. They were fused for hydrostatic, lay down or
impact. They had an explosive yield of 11 Kt. All were retired by 1976.
20. The W-35 Warhead was designed for ICBM use but was cancelled in 1958.
21. The W-37 Warhead was designed for IRBM use but was cancelled in 1956.
22. The W-38 Warhead was built for the “Atlas” and “Titan I” ICBM from 1961 to
1963. There were 180 units built. They each weighed 3,080 lbs. and had an explosive
yield of 3.75 Mt. They were fused for airburst or contact. All units were retired to the
stockpile in 1965.
23. The W-39 Warhead was built for the “Snark” cruise missile and the “Redstone”
MRBM from 1958 to 1963. A total of 90 units were produced (60 for the “Redstone”
and 30 for the “Snark”). Each unit weighed 6,230 to 6,400 lbs. and had an explosive
yield of 3.8 Mt. They were fused for airburst, contact or parachute lay down. All were
retired to the stockpile by 1965.
24. The W-40 Warhead was built for the “Bomarc” SAM and the “Lacrosse” SSM
from 1959 to 1962. A total of 750 units were produced, (350 for the “Bomarc” and
400 for the “Lacrosse”). They each weighed 350 to 385 lbs. and had an explosive yield
of 10 Kt. They were fused for airburst or contact. All units were retired to the stockpile
by 1964.
25. The W-41 Warhead was designed for ICBM use but was cancelled in 1957.
26. The W-42 Warhead was designed for air-to-air missiles but was cancelled in 1961.
27. The W-44 Warhead was built for the Navy as an ASW (Antisubmarine warfare)
ASROC (Antisubmarine Rocket) from 1961 to 1968. There were 575 units produced.
Each weighed 170 lbs. and had an explosive yield of 10 Kt. They were fused for
hydrostatic. All units were retired by 1989.
28. The W-45 Warhead was built for the “Little John” SSM, The “Terrier” SAM ,
The MADM (Medium Range Air Defense Missile) and the “Bullpup” ASM. A total of
1700 units were produced from 1962 to 1966, (750 “Terrier”, 350 MADM, 100
“Bullpup” and 500 “Little John”). They each weighed 150 to 350 lbs. with an
explosive yield of 500 T to 15 Kt. They were fused for airburst, contact, time delay or
command. All were retired to the stockpile by 1988.
29. The W-46 Warhead was designed for the “Redstone” MRBM but was cancelled in
1958 and replaced by the W-53 for the “Titan II”.
30. The W-47 Warhead was built for the “Polaris” SLBM (Submarine Launched
Ballistic Missile) from 1960 to 1964. A total of 1,660 units were produced. Each had an
explosive yield of 600 Kt to 1.2 Mt and fused for airburst or contact. All were retired
to the stockpile by 1974.
31. The W-48 Warhead was built as an artillery shell for the 155 MM field artillery
weapon. 1,985 units were produced from 1963 to 1969. Each one weighed 118 to 128
lbs. They had an explosive yield of 72 T and were fused for mechanical time delay,
proximity, airburst or contact. All were retired by 1974.
32. The W-49 Warhead was built as an ICBM/IRBM warhead for use on the “Thor”,
“Atlas”, “Titan”, “Jupiter” missiles from 1958 to 1964. 80 units were produced. Each
weighed 1,640 to 1,680 lbs. and had an explosive yield of 1.44 Mt. They were equipped
with the PAL A trigger. All were retired to the stockpile by 1975.
33. The W-50 Warhead was built for the “Pershing” SSM and the “Nike Zeus” SAM
from 1963 to 1965. 280 units were produced. Each weighed 409 to 410 lbs. and had an
explosive yield of 60 to 400 Kt. They were fused for airburst or contact. All were
retired to the stockpile by 1991.
34. The W-51 Warhead was built as a very small spherical implosion warhead. It was
converted to the W-54 warhead in 1959.
35. The W-52 Warhead was built for the “Sergeant” SSM and had the PAL-A trigger
system. 300 units were produced from 1962 to 1966. They weighed 950 lbs. and had an
explosive yield of 200 Kt. They were fused for airburst or contact. All were retired by
1978.
36. The W-53 Warhead was built for the “Titan II” ICBM missile. 60 units were
produced from 1962 to 1963. Each weighed 6,200 lbs. and had an explosive yield of 9
Mt. They were fused for airburst or contact. All were retired by 1987.
37. The W-54 Warhead was built for the AIM-26A “Falcon” AAM. 2,000 units were
produced from 1961 to 1975. Each weighed 50 to 51 lbs. and had an explosive yield of
250 T. They were fused for contact or proximity. All were retired by 1972.
38. The MK-54 Warhead is the same as the W-54 and was built for the “Davy
Crockett” M-388 recoilless rifle projectile. There were 400 units made from the W-51
Warhead from 1961 to 1965. They weighed 50-55 lbs. and had an explosive yield of 10
to 20 T. All were retired by 1971.
39. The W-55 Warhead was built for the Navy “SUBROC” (Submarine Launched
Rocket), UUM-44A ASW weapon from 1963 to 1974. They each weighed 470 lbs. and
had an explosive yield of 202 Kt. There were 285 units produced. They were fused for
hydrostatic. All were retired by 1990.
40. The W-56 Warhead was built for the “Minuteman I and II” ICBM from 1963 to
1966. There were 1,455 units produced. Based on the W-47 design they weighed 600 to
680 lbs. with an explosive yield of 1.2 Mt. They were fused for airburst or surface
contact. All were retired to the stockpile by 1993.
41. The W-58 Warhead was built for the “Polaris” A-3 SLBM from 1964 to 1967.
1,400 units were produced. They were the first MRV (Multiple Re-Entry Vehicle)
warheads in service. Each “Polaris” A-3 missile had three warheads. They were fused
for airburst or contact. They weighed 257 lbs. and had an explosive yield of 200 Kt. All
were retired to the stockpile by 1982.
42. The W-59 Warhead was built for the “Minuteman I” ICBM and the cancelled
“Skybolt” missile. 150 units were produced from 1962 to 1963. They weighed 550 to
553 lbs. and had an explosive yield of 1 Mt. They were fused for airburst or contact.
All were retired by 1969.
43. The W-60 Warhead was designed for the “Typhoon” SAM and they were cancelled
in 1963.
44. The W-62 Warhead was built for the “Minuteman III” MK-12-RV ICBM. There
were 1,725 units built from 1970 to 1976. The Re-Entry Vehicle weighs 700 to 800 lbs.
and each individual warhead weighs 253 lbs. They have an explosive yield of 170 Kt.
They are fused for airburst or contact. 1,115 units were retired by 1980 and there are
610 units in service today.
45. The W-63 Warhead was designed as a “Neutron Bomb” for the “Lance” SRBM
and was cancelled in 1966.
46. The W-64 Warhead was designed as a “Neutron Bomb” for the “Lance” SRBM
and was cancelled in 1964.
47. The W-65 Warhead was designed for the “Sprint” ABM but was cancelled in 1968.
48. The W-66 Warhead was built for the “Sprint” ABM and is a ‘Neutron Bomb”
design. 70 units were produced from 1974 to 1975. They weighed 150 lbs. and had an
explosive yield of 1 Kt. They were fused for proximity. All were retired by 1985.
49. The W-67 Warhead was designed for the “Poseidon” SLBM and “Minuteman
III” ICBM. They were cancelled in 1967.

50. The W-68 Warhead was built for the “Poseidon III” SLBM. Each missile carried
10 Re-Entry Vehicles. 5,250 units were produced from 1970 to 1975. Each warhead
weighs 367 lbs. and has and explosive yield of 40-50 Kt. 3200 were refurbished from
1978 to 1983 and the other 2,050 were retired to the stockpile. They are fused for
airburst or contact.
51. The W-69 Warhead was built for the AGM-69A SRAM (Short Range Attack
Missile). They were built from the retired MK-61 units. 1500 units were produced from
1971 to 1976. Each unit weighs 275 lbs. and has an explosive yield of 170 to 200 Kt.
They are fused for airburst or contact. All were retired to the stockpile by 1991.
52. The W-70 Warhead was built for the “Lance” SSM and has a PAL D trigger
system. 1,280 units were produced from 1973 to 1983. They were built in several
versions and some models were “Neutron Bomb” types. They weigh 270 lbs. and have
an explosive yield of 1 to 100 Kt. They have airburst or contact fusing. 900 early
models were retired in 1992 and there are 380 model 3’s still in service.
53. The W-71 Warhead was built for the “Spartan” ABM missile and was designed to
use thermal x-rays for killing enemy re-entry vehicles. 30 units were produced from
1974 to 1975. The units weighed 2,850 lbs. and have an explosive yield of 600 T. They
were fused for airburst, contact or delay timer. All were retired by 1992.
54. The W-72 Warhead was built from the modified W-54 Warhead for the “Walleye”
AGM-62 Glide Weapon. 300 units were produced from 1970 to 1972. Each unit
weighed 825 lbs. and has an explosive yield of 600 T. The units were fused for contact
only. All were retired in 1979.
55. The W-73 Warhead was designed for the “Condor” ASM and was derived from the
MK-61. It was cancelled in 1970.
56. The W-74 Warhead was designed as a 155 MM artillery shell with a linear
implosion pure fusion core intended to replace the W-48. It was cancelled in 1973.
57. The W-75 Warhead was designed as a 203 MM artillery shell. It was cancelled in
1973.

58. The W-76 Warhead was built for the “Trident I” and “Trident II” MK-4 Re-
Entry Vehicle. Trident warheads carry 8 to 14 Re-Entry Vehicles. They were
produced from 1978 to 1987. 3,000 units were made. Each warhead weighs 363 lbs. and
has an explosive yield of 100 Kt. They are fused for airburst or contact. All of them are
still in service.
59. The W-78 Warhead was built for the “Minuteman III” MK-12A Re-Entry
Vehicle. 1,083 units were produced from 1979 to 1982. They weigh 400 to 600 lbs. and
have an explosive yield of 335 to 350 Kt. They are fused for airburst or contact. 163
units were retired and 920 are still active as part of our “Enduring Stockpile”.
60. The W-79 Warhead was built as an 8 inch artillery shell. It has a linear plutonium
implosion core and is capable of “Neutron Bomb” enhanced radiation effect. 550
units were produced from 1981 to 1986 of that number 325 were enhanced radiation
type. Each unit weighs 200 lbs. and has an explosive yield of 100 T to 1.1 Kt. They are
proximity, airburst or contact fused. All were retired in 1992.
61. The W-80-0 Warhead was built for the Navy SLCM program. 367 units were
produced from 1983 to 1990. They are equipped with the PAL-D trigger and were
derived from the B-61. They weigh 290 lbs. each and have an explosive yield of 5 to 500
Kt. They are fused for airburst or contact. All are in active service today.
62. The W-80-1 Warhead was built for the ALCM and ACM programs and all are
equipped with the PAL-D triggers. They were derived from the B-61. 1,750 units were
produced from 1981 to 1990. They each weigh 290 lbs. and have an explosive yield of 5
to 170 Kt. They are fused for airburst or contact. 350 units have been retired and
1,400 units remain in service.
63. The W-81 Warhead was designed for the Navy as the SM-SAM warhead. They were
cancelled in 1986.
64. The W-82 Warhead was designed as a 155 MM artillery shell. They were cancelled
in 1990.
65. The W-83 Warhead was designed for the GLCM program but was cancelled in
1988 because of the INF treaty.

66. The W-84 Warhead was built for the BGM-109G “Gryphon” GLCM program.
They are equipped with PAL-F triggers. 350 units were produced from 1983 to 1984.
Each unit weighs 388 lbs. and has an explosive yield of 0.2 to 150 Kt. They are fused for
airburst or contact. They are currently in our “Inactive Stockpile”.
67. The W-85 Warhead “Alternate Image” was built for the “Pershing II” SSM.
They were equipped with PAL-F triggers. 120 units were produced from 1983 to 1986.
They weigh 880 lbs. and have an explosive yield of 5 to 80 Kt. They had fusing for
airburst or contact. All of them were retired by 1991 and were recycled into the B-61
Model 10 Bombs.
68. The W-86 Warhead was designed as an “Earth Penetrating Warhead” for the
“Pershing II” SSM. The program was cancelled in 1980.
69. The W-87 Warhead was built for the “Peacekeeper” (MX) ICBM/MK-21 Re-
Entry Vehicle. It is a thermonuclear weapon and the missile carries 10 RV’s in the nose.
525 were produced from 1986 to 1989. Each weighs 500 to 600 lbs. and has an explosive
yield of 300 to 475 Kt. They are fused for timer, proximity, airburst or contact. When the
MX missile program was shut down these warheads were placed on “Minuteman
III” ICBM’s. They remain in active service at this writing.
70. The W-88 Warhead was built for the “Trident II” MK-5 Re-entry Vehicle. 400
units were produced from 1988 to 1989. Each unit weighs 800 lbs. and has an explosive
yield of 475 Kt. They are fused for timer, proximity, airburst or contact. All 400 units
are in active service at this writing.
71. The W-89 Warhead was designed for the SRAM II (Short Range Attack Missile)
program. They were cancelled in 1991.
72. The W-91 Warhead was designed for the Tactical version of the SRAM but they
were cancelled in 1991.

Chapter 8:
 Our Missiles.

ICBM’S (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles)

Current U. S. ICBM inventory missiles are equipped with (MIRV) multiple

independently targetable re-entry vehicles which separate from the nose cone in flight
and scatter to impact on individual targets. This class of missile is large, has several
rocket stages and can carry a large warhead. Due to their large size all are land based and
have range greater than 3,500 miles. (The MIRV warheads are in the process of being
phased out in compliance with the SALT and START variant treaty requirements)!
The exception is the Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBM) carried by our
Submarines which have great range similar to ICBM’s but are fired from at sea locations.
Ballistic means; The missile flies upward at an angle in a parabolic arc and is boosted to
the top of the arc by several stages of rockets and its momentum causes it to tip over and
descend after it reaches apogee (top of the arc) above the upper atmosphere at the edge of
space where they start their descent into re-entry phase (re-enter the atmosphere) and
reach terminal velocity on their downward track.
During the downward track is when the MIRV technology takes over on modern missiles
and the nosecone splits open and up to 12 separate warheads in their own re-entry
vehicles steer to their targets guided by inertial guidance systems. Hence, the greater the
range of the missile then the higher the top of the arc is in space.

1. “Atlas-D”, 32 units in service from 1959 to 1964,

one W-38 Warhead, 10,360 mile range.
2. “Atlas-E”, 33 units in service from 1961 to 1964,
one W-38 Warhead, 10,360 mile range.
3. “Atlas-F”, 80 units in service from 1961 to 1964,
one W-38 Warhead, 10,360 mile range.
4. “Titan-I”, 63 units in service from 1961 to 1964, one W-38 Warhead, 5,500 mile
range.
5. “Titan-II”, 63, units in service from 1963 to 1987, one W-53 Warhead, 9,325 mile
range.
6. “Minuteman I”, 800 units in service from 1962 to 1966, one W-56 Warhead, 6,000
mile range. They were replaced by Minuteman II in 1966.
7. “Minuteman II”, 800 units in service from 1965 to 1968, one W-62 Warhead, 8,000
mile range. They were replaced by Minuteman III in 1968.
8. “Minuteman III”, 500 units in service from 1970 to 2007, three W-78 or W-87
Warheads in MIRV nosecone re-entry vehicle, 8,000 mile range. 500 missiles are
currently in silos and on alert in western U. S. These missiles have been altered or
downloaded from multiple warheads to a single warhead each to meet the requirements
of the Salt-II Treaty.
9. “Peacekeeper”, 50 units in service from, 1986 to 2005, twelve W-87 MIRV
Warheads in the nosecone re-entry vehicle, 9,500 mile range. All 50 missiles were
decommissioned in 2005 in compliance with the Start-II Treaty. Leaving the 500
Minuteman III missiles in hardened silos our only land based silo launched ICBM’s.

IRBM (Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile) class of missile includes

SLBM (Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles) they are usually of a single or two
staged solid fueled and were limited in size and warhead explosive yield.

1. “Pershing I”, (Army) had 377 units in service on mobile launchers from 1962 to
1964. Each missile carried one W-50 Warhead. They were solid fueled and they had a
range of 460 miles. They were replaced by the Pershing 1A. All batteries of Pershing
models were stationed in West Germany and South Korea.
2. “Pershing 1A”, (Army) had 377 units in service on mobile launchers from 1969 to
1975. Each missile carried one W-50 Warhead, They were solid fueled and had a range
of 500 miles. They were replaced by the Pershing II.
3. “Pershing II”, (Army) had 380 units in service on mobile launchers from 1984 to
1988. Each missile carried one W-85 Warhead. They were solid fueled and had a range
of 900 miles. They were all outlawed by the Salt II treaty and destroyed in 1991.
4. PGM-17 or “Thor” IRBM, were deployed in the UK by the United States from 1959
to 1963. They had a 1,750 mile range and carried a MK-2 and later with the W-46
Warhead and fueled by Liquid Oxygen and Kerosene. 224 units were produced and 145
were used as satellite launch vehicles.
5. PGM-19 or “Jupiter” IRBM, 45 units were deployed in Italy and Turkey from 1961
to 1963. They had a 1,500 mile range and carried the W-49 warhead. They were fueled
with liquid oxygen. The placement of Jupiter missiles in Turkey was one of the sparks of
the Cuban missile crisis from the Soviet point of view.

SUBMARINE LAUNCHED BALLISTIC MISSILES (SLBM)

1. “Polaris A1”, (Navy) had 80 units deployed on the 5 George Washington Class
SSBN (16 missile tubes) Submarines from 1959 to 1972. Each missile had one W-47
Warhead, and a 1000 mile range. The boats were retrofitted with Polaris A3 missiles
from 1966 to 1982.
2. “Polaris A2”, (Navy) had 208 units were deployed on the 5 Ethan Allen Class SSBN
(16 missile tubes) Submarines from 1961 to 1986 and on 8 of the 9 Lafayette Class
boats from 1964 to 1972. Each missile had one W-47 Warhead, and a 1,500 mile range.
The boats were retrofitted with the Polaris A-3 missiles from 1970 to 1981.
3. “Polaris A3”, (Navy) had 336 units were deployed on the 9 Lafayette class SSBN
(16 missile tubes) Submarines from 1963 to 1990, on the 10 James Madison Class
boats from 1964 t0 1970 and on the 12 Benjamin Franklin Class boats from 1966 to
1972. Each missile had 3 MIRV W-58 warheads, and a 2,500 mile range. The boats
were retrofitted with Poseidon C3 missiles from 1975 to 1990.
LATE MODEL SLBM’s

4. “Poseidon C3”, (Navy) had 480 units were deployed on the 10 James Madison
Class (16 missile tubes) Submarines from 1970 to 1992, the 9 Lafayette Class boats
from 1976 to 1992 and the 12 Benjamin Franklin Class from 1974to 1991. The C3
had a hardened re-entry vehicle with 3 MIRV W-58 warheads and a 2,700 mile range.
11. “Trident 1-C4”, (Navy) had 96 units were deployed on 6 of the Benjamin
Franklin Class (16 missile tubes) boats from 1979 to 1990 when the Benjamin
Franklin boats were decommissioned. There are currently 192 units deployed on 8 of
the Ohio SSBN Class (24 missile tubes) from 1979 to present. Each Trident 1 C4
missile has two solid fuel stages and has eight independently targetable reentry
vehicles which are W-76 Warheads. The missile has a range of 4,600 miles.
12. “Trident II-D5”, (Navy) has 336 units are deployed on 14 of the new Ohio Class
SSBN (24 missile tubes) submarines from 1990 to present. Each Trident II D5 missile
is has two solid fuel stages and has eight independently targetable reentry vehicles
which are W-88 Warheads. The missile has a range of 7,000 miles.

Nuclear Capable Cruise Missiles

1. MGM-1 or “Matador” (Air Force) had 1200 produced from 1951 to 1962. They
were primitive by modern standards. They could carry one W-5 Warhead for a distance of
620 miles at a speed of 650 MPH.
2. “Regulus I”, (Navy) had 10 units were deployed on five submarines from 1953 to
1964. The submarines were the U. S. S. Tunny, Barbero, Grayback, Growler and
Halibut. The missiles were housed in on deck watertight hangers aft of the sail and
were launched via JATO bottles for takeoff from a ramp facing the stern. Each Regulus
1 could carry one W-5 Warhead and had a range of 500 miles.
3. “Regulus II”, (Navy) had 4 units were deployed on two submarines from 1960 to
1964. The submarines were the U. S. S. Grayback and the Halibut. The Regulus II
used the same launch system as the Regulus I and was capable of carrying one W-27
Warhead and had a range of 550 miles.
4. BGM-109 or “Tomahawk” (Navy) has an undisclosed number of these submarine
launched cruise missiles deployed on 31 Los Angeles Class (SSN) and follow on classes
of 23 Attack Submarines. Each Submarine has 12 Tomahawks in a Vertical Launch
Tube System built into the hull or they can be fired from torpedo tubes. They carry one
W-80 (Variable Yield) Warhead and are highly accurate to a range of 2,000 miles.
5. AGM-129 or (Advanced Cruise Missile), (Air Force) 550 units deployed. A single
B-52H can carry 6 of these on wing pylons as well as nuclear weapons in its internal
bomb bay. These cruise missiles have a low radar signature due to stealth technology.
They are highly accurate. They carry one W-80 (Variable Yield) Warhead and have a
range of 2,000 miles.

SRBM, (Short Range Ballistic Missile).

1. MGM-5 or “Corporal” (Army), 1100 built from 1952-63. They were liquid fueled
and had a range of 130 miles at 2,200 MPH. They could carry one W-7 Warhead. They
were phased out in favor of the MGM-29 “Sargeant”.
2. MGM-29 or “Sargeant.” (Army) had 500 units produced from 1963 to 1975. They
were solid fueled and could deliver a W-52 Warhead 140 miles at a speed of 2,000
MPH.
3. MGM-18 or “Lacrosse”, (Army) had over 100 missiles in eight battalions of
batteries from 1956 to 1964 deployed in Europe and South Korea. The missile carried
one W-40 Warhead and had a range of 10 miles. They were phased out due to technical
difficulties.
4. MGM-52 or “Lance” (Army) had 2,100 produced from 1965 to 1978. They could
carry a W-70 Warhead over a distance of 75 miles at a speed of 2,000 MPH.
Nuclear Warhead Capable SAM (Surface to Air Missiles).

1. MIM-14 “Nike Hercules”, (Army) had 134 batteries of four missiles each with a
spare guarding 30 U. S. cities from 1958 to 1974. (I saw the battery on an island in
Boston harbor near Quincy Mass. in 1972) They were capable of intercepting incoming
ballistic missiles 20 miles above the earth and for a range of 100 miles. They reached
a top speed of 3,000 MPH very quickly. (To intercept incoming ICBM traveling at 8,000
MPH) They carried one W-31 Warhead and later a W-71 Warhead.
2. SAM-N-6 or “Talos”, (Navy) had an unpublished number in service from 1959 to
1963. They were solid fueled and could carry a W-30 Warhead for a distance of 100
miles at a speed of 1,600 MPH. They were re-designated as RIM-8 Talos in 1963 and
served until 1979 as a ship borne SAM.
3. IM-99A or “Bomarc” (USAF), 700 built from 1960 to 1965. The Bomarc was the
only interceptor missile operated by the Air Force. It was solid fueled and had a range of
440 miles at a speed of 1,800 MPH. It carried one W-40 Warhead.

Nuclear Capable AGM (Air to Ground) Missiles.

1. AGM-12 or “Bullpup” (Navy and Air Force), had a large supply of these solid
fueled weapons capable of carrying one W-45 Warhead for a distance of 10 miles at a
speed of 1,000 MPH.
2. The AGM-48 or “Skybolt” (Air Force) built 100 units from 1959 to 1963. They
were solid fueled and meant to be deployed on the B-52 bomber. They carried one W-59
Warhead for a distance of 300 miles at a speed of 9,500 MPH.
AIR LAUNCHED NUCLEAR CAPABLE CRUISE MISSILES
or ALCM.

1. AGM-86A/86B OR “ALCM” is the current stand off nuclear cruise missile which is
delivered to its’ launch point via one of our B-52 Air Force bombers. If you ever
wondered why B-52’s are still in operation these missiles are the reason. These missiles
are capable of delivering a nuclear warhead 1,500 miles and putting it on target with a
high degree of accuracy.
Further development of Air to Ground Missiles continues at a rapid pace. Many new
systems require the ability to precisely strike a target with a penetrating type weapon in
the case of hardened structures. Newer missiles are faster and more accurate do to the
refinement of guidance systems and the updating of computer components allowing the
missile guidance system to hold and process more target information and to make course
corrections in nanoseconds. During the Cold War we out spent the Soviets and in the end
spent them into the ground. The arms race bankrupted the Soviet economy in the late
eighties because we outspent them at a rate of two to one with a much higher reliability
factor! Do you actually believe we needed over twenty thousand gravity type nuclear
weapons to defeat the soviet bloc? I don’t think so. Remember what Eisenhower said near
the end of his term as President. “Beware of the military industrial complex”. He knew
that once the military and the defense industry became joined at the hip we would be off
on a juggernaut of new and improved weapons systems every time a marketing scheme
was developed in a sales strategy meeting. I do know that many of these later developed
bombs were the recycled components of older weapons with new and improved
electronics and trigger mechanisms. So in reality many of the older weapons components
were stockpiled and then declared obsolete and re installed in newer weapons. The
stockpiling of nuclear weapons was a cornerstone of the philosophy of MAD (Mutually
Assured Destruction). The only thing that escaped logic was that the stockpiling
accounted for close to 10,000 weapons at any given time in history but there were only
enough aircraft in the U. S. Military inventory to deliver 200 to 300 weapons at any given
time.
How would the massive amount of stockpiled weapons get delivered? Many of the first
strike aircraft in the air or on the ground would have been shot down by anti aircraft
missiles, some would run out of fuel, many bases in the U. S. would have been destroyed
by retaliation and many aircraft would get lost and go down in unfriendly territory due to
the effects of EMP (electromagnetic pulse). The stockpiling of that many weapons just
defies logic.
 Chapter 9:

Our Nuclear Powered Navy

Naval Nuclear Engineering

Nuclear marine propulsion is achieved via a naval reactor. Naval reactors are pressurized
water reactors. They utilize pressurized water in a liquid-metal cooling system. They
differ from land based nuclear power reactors in significant ways:

1. Naval reactors have high power output (megawatts) in a small volume.

2. Some can run on low-enriched uranium or highly enriched uranium.
3. Uranium Oxide fuel is not used.
4. A Uranium based zirconium-metal alloy with a small amount of Uranium
used and enriched to 96%.
5. This design enables a compact pressure vessel design for enhanced safety.

Highly enriched fuel rod bundles have a long useful life enabling ships to go un-refueled
for long periods of time. Some Naval Reactors range in size up to 550 Megawatts on our
larger submarines.
The first nuclear powered naval vessel in the world was the U. S. Submarine Nautilus
(SSN-571) which got underway on nuclear power in 1955 opening the way for large
numbers of naval ships to follow.

NAVAL REACTORS
Naval Reactors come in many shapes and power capacities (megawatts). At the outset of
the nuclear propulsion program in the 1950’s it was apparent that naval reactors had to be
small, powerful and safe to operate. The reactors that were developed were designated by
a three character alpha numeric code.
Submarine Reactor Models:
Ship Type Generation Manufacturer
S1C Reactor, or S=Submarine, 1=First Generation, C=Combustion Engineering Corp.
Prototype reactor used as test bed.
S1G Reactor, or S=Submarine, 1=First Generation, G=Genera Electric Corp.
Not installed in a submarine but shelved due to hazards of liquid sodium coolant system.
S1W Reactor, or S=Submarine, 1=First Generation, W=Westinghouse Corp.
Prototype not installed. The National Nuclear Test Station in Arco Idaho built it.
S2C Reactor, one was installed in “Tullibee” (SSN-597) as part of a very quiet
turboelectric power plant.
S2G Reactor, one was installed in the “Seawolf” (SSN-575) and was a liquid-sodium
cooled reactor.
S2W Reactor, one was installed in the “Nautilus” (SSN-571) and was a pressurized
water cooled reactor.
S2Wa Reactor, or S=Submarine, 2=Second Generation, W=Westinghouse Corp.
a=modified. It replaced the S2G in the “Seawolf” (SSN-575) a unique boat.
S3G Reactor, two were installed in the “Triton” (SSN-586) which as a large radar picket
Submarine.
S3W Reactor, three were installed as a vertical “U” tube steam plant designs in the
“Halibut” (SSN-587), “Skate” (SSN-578) and the “Sargo” (SSN 583) boats.
S4G Reactor, one replaced the S3G on the “Triton” (SSN-586) a unique boat.
S4W Reactor, two were installed in the “Swordfish” (SSN-579) and “Seadragon” (SSN-
584) boats.
S5G Reactor, one was installed in the “Narwhal” (SSN-671) a unique boat. It was a large
reactor that developed 90 megawatts.
S5W Reactor, were installed in many submarines:
6 for the “Skipjack” (SSN-585) Class boats.
5 for the “George Washington” (SSBN-598) Class boats.
14 for the “Thresher” “Permit” (SSN-593/594) Class boats.
5 for the “Ethan Allen” (SSBN-608) Class boats.
9 for the “Lafayette” (SSBN-616), Class boats.
8 for the “James Madison” (SSBN-627), Class boats.
12 for the “Benjamin Franklin” (SSBN-640), Class boats.
37 for the “Sturgeon” (SSN-637), Class boats.
1 for the “Parche” (SSN-683), a unique boat.
1 for the “Glenard P. Lipscomb” (SSN-685), a unique boat.
S6G Reactor, 62 were installed in the “Los Angeles” (SSN-688), Class boats.
S6W Reactor, 3 were installed in the “Seawolf” (SSN-21), Class boats.
S7G Reactor, was a land based prototype not installed in boats.
S8G Reactor, 18 were installed in the “Ohio” (SSBN-726), Class boats.
S9G Reactor, 9 have been installed in the “Virginia” (SSN-744), Class boats now
building with a total of 17 planned.

Cruiser Reactor Models

C1W Reactor, 9 were installed in the “Long Beach” (CGN-9) Class ships.

Aircraft Carrier Reactor Models

A1B Reactor, slated to be installed in the “Gerald R. Ford” (CVN-78) class.
A1W Reactor, was the land based prototype for the “Enterprise” (CVN-65) Class ship.
A2W Reactor, 1 was installed in the “Enterprise” (CVN-65) Class ship.
A4W Reactor, 20 installed in the ten “Nimitz” (CVN-68) Class ships at 2 per ship.

Destroyer Reactor Models

D1G Reactor, was a land based prototype for testing.
D2G Reactor, 2 were installed in the “Bainbridge” (DLGN/CGN-25), a single ship
Class.
2 were installed in the “Truxton” (CGN-35), a single ship Class.
4 were installed in the “California” (CGN-36) and “South Carolina”
(CGN-37) Class ships.
8 were installed in the “Virginia” (CGN-38) Class ships “Texas” (CGN-
39), “Mississippi” (CGN-40) and “Arkansas” (CGN-41).
In the fifty years of naval nuclear propulsion there has never been an accident where the
environment or the crew of one of our over two hundred U. S. Navy nuclear powered
ships were harmed from radiation or radiated material release. The U. S. Navy is very
proud of their nuclear safety record.

U. S. Civilian Nuclear Powered Ships

Only one prototype vessel was built in 1959 by the New York Shipbuilding Corp. It was
called the U. S. Nuclear Ship Savannah. It was equipped with one 78 Megawatt Babcock
and Wilcox Pressurized Water Reactor. The ship cost $46, 900, 000 to build which was
subsidized by the government. The ship never made money because it was to costly to
operate and could not carry enough passengers or cargo to pay for itself. It was taken out
of service in 1972 and placed in the reserve fleet. In 1981 the ship was obtained by the
Patriots Point Association and is moored near Charleston South Carolina as a museum
ship. The Russians have several nuclear powered ice Breakers that spend a great deal of
time each year along the Arctic Sea in Northern Russia keeping the shipping lanes and
harbors open. The Russian Navy has many nuclear powered ships but mostly their
nuclear navy consists of submarines which are notoriously ill fated and accident prone.
West Germany experimented with a nuclear powered ship but gave up. Also Japan had
one nuclear powered ship and they too let it go. Basically nuclear powered merchant
ships are just not cost effective.
 CHAPTER 10:

The Anatomy of a Nuclear Explosion.

Blast Effect
The blast of a thermonuclear device is broken down into several percentages of energy
released:
40-50% of total energy is spent in the blast.
30-50% is thermal radiation (radiated heat).
5% is ionizing radiation (Alpha, Beta, Gamma and X-rays are lethal to all living tissue).
5-10% is residual radiation (dust and debris scattered upward and ionized then absorbed
by matter).
A factor of a nuclear detonation is the location in which it explodes. Underwater
detonations are less harmful to the atmosphere than an above ground or a contact
explosion. Nuclear weapons are effective in three ways;
Blast Effect=destroys structures and equipment.
Thermal Radiation=even water heated to the temperature of the Sun will burn.

Ionizing Radiation=Lethal to all cellular life. Even life hundreds or thousands of

miles downwind will suffer radiation poisoning from radiation bearing fallout particles
coming into contact with living tissue. It is called ionizing radiation because it disturbs
and charges particles in matter. There are four types of Ionizing Radiation and all are
lethal in high concentrations. Lead or other non-porous material shielding helps but the
proximity to the nuclear blast source usually determines level of exposure and relative
lethality:
1. Gamma Rays
Gamma Rays are the shortest wavelength of any ionizing radiation emitted from a
nuclear reaction. They will pass through almost anything and due to their short
wavelength do great damage to living cellular organisms. The absorption of Gamma rays
into the human body causes cellular breakdown, DNA alteration, immuno-suppression
and dense tissue thermal damage. Low dose exposure to Gamma Rays causes many
forms of Cancer. Gamma Rays emitted from a Nuclear explosion is accompanied by X-
rays, Beta and Alpha radiation. Gamma rays are the most powerful nuclear force in the
universe. Gamma rays of sufficient power could destroy all life on any planet. Black
holes are thought to emit Gamma rays of sufficient force to destroy worlds.

X-Rays
X-Rays are similar in character to Gamma Rays as they are both deep penetrating and
harmful to all living tissue. High doses of X-rays are just as harmful as Gamma Ray
exposure. The common type of X-rays used to peer into our bodies by the medical
establishment is a very miniscule amount and the shutter is opened only for a
microsecond to allow the rays to pass through your body or teeth. X-Rays emitted from
nuclear explosions are accompanied by Beta, Gamma, and Alpha Radiation and the
duration of exposure is much more long lived so the damage is more pronounced.

Beta Rays
Beta radiation is most commonly found in fallout particles. It is moderately penetrating
and if all exposed skin and clothing is laundered it will remove 95% of Beta radiation
thus reducing lethality. If exposure is lengthy and sufficient it will result in radiations
sickness. Beta Radiation is produced along with Gamma, Alpha and X-ray radiation in a
nuclear explosion.
Alpha Radiation
Alpha Radiation is not absorbed through the skin. It is only harmful is swallowed,
breathed in or comes in contact with an open wound. It is the least lethal of all radiation
as it cannot penetrate most common materials. If you are contacted by fallout particles a
simple shower will remove 95% of all Alpha radiation. It is produced along with Beta,
Gamma and X-rays in a nuclear explosion.

Residual Radiation=Remember in science class when you induced magnetism into a

piece of ferrous metal with an electrical current? Something similar occurs in a nuclear
blast as ionizing radiation particles penetrate inanimate objects such as steel, concrete,
rocks, soil, water, etc. and makes them too HOT in radiation terms to come near for long
time periods.
An example of residual radiation is the dead zone around Chernobyl Russia where to the
untrained eye all looks normal with the exception that there are no people or animals for
hundreds of miles due to radiation spewed from the reactor dome when it ruptured. (The
Russians did not build a containment building of very thick blast proof steel reinforced
concrete over the reactor such as is required in the U. S.) Vegetation is stunted and sparse.
The closer you get to ground zero at Chernobyl the worse it looks. Keep in mind that
Chernobyl was an accident that only involved a steam explosion and not from a
thermonuclear blast. A deliberate nuclear detonation would do far more widespread
damage and would have a much wider area of residual radiation.
Nine out of ten living things that die in a nuclear blast do not die from the blast. Most
living things within a six mile radius area (for a 1 Megaton Blast) will be close enough to
ground zero to die of the intense Gamma Ray Radiation emanating from the blast itself.
This manifests itself by instant vaporization to severe burns to lingering slow death from
softened internal tissue.
If you remember the photos taken in Hiroshima and Nagasaki after the blasts, it was easy
to tell that the people were vaporized by the intense Radiation as this Gamma ray effect
left light gray permanent shadows on the walls and pavement. These victims will be the
lucky ones in that they will be dead before they feel anything.
Outside of the six mile radius area out to 20 miles the flash will instantly blind everything
with eyes. (Eyelids opened or closed will make no difference)! Anything with eyes out to
50 miles from the blast if looking in the direction of the flash will suffer the same fate.
Being underground in the dark is the best protection.
Of the living things out to 70 miles from the blast of a 1 megaton weapon the
overpressure or shockwave will pick up normally stationary objects (parts of buildings,
roof tiles, downspouts, vehicles, boats, lawn furniture, utility poles, mail boxes and living
things) and hurl them away from the blast at close to supersonic speeds shredding
anything in their path.
The overpressure will cause bleeding from every bodily orifice and lungs will fill up with
blood from ruptured vessels. Those living things that somehow survive the blast will
begin to suffer the classic symptoms of radiation sickness which are vomiting, skin
rashes, intense thirst, hair loss, peeling skin and softening of muscle tissue. It will become
difficult to breathe and move. If you are only mildly burned by the heat and radiation
from the blast your skin will tighten up and your lungs will labor for breath as the
superheated air destroys tender lung tissue and burns your airways.
Then there will be the firestorm driven back toward the blast from the overpressure and
shockwave recoil as it feeds inward toward the rapidly rising column of superheated air
and debris (the mushroom cloud) as it rises to a height of ten miles.
In about one hour the cloud will dissipate and the fallout radiation it drops as it travels
downwind will be invisible to all but the few with detection instruments.
Commonly, survivors described fallout as gray dust like particles falling from the sky.
All surfaces including lakes, municipal water supplies, rivers, fields, houses and living
things will get a fine coating dropped on them.
The fallout zone will encompass nearly 400 square miles downwind and will spread with
the movement of living creatures and moving water and wind. Many exposed to the
fallout will die slowly and painfully from the lingering effects of radiation poisoning.
As in Chernobyl some deaths will be thousands of miles away in pockets of radiation
caused by the variability of air current and cloud movement.
The health effects are well noted here and are chilling enough but there is also an effect
less well known. That effect is EMP or Electro Magnetic Pulse which is the disruption of
the earth’s electromagnetic field long enough to fry every electrical circuit and electronic
device within hundreds of miles of Ground Zero. Nothing that runs on electricity will
work. No cars, trucks, radios, television, lights, elevators, boats, airplanes or trains will
work. They will simply cease to function and crash to the ground or grind to a halt.
 Chapter 11:

U. S. Military Nuclear Safety Record!

According U. S. Air Force and Navy press releases, we have a few “Incidents” or
“Broken Arrows” in our past.
According to the U. S. Department of Defense Directive number 5230.16 certified
current in 2003 and the U. S. Air Force Operation Reporting System policy 10-206 the
following terminology will be used in promulgating public information releases to the
media.

Official U. S. Government Terminology

“Pinnacle”
An incident that denotes interest to the National Command Authority, and Department of
Defense in that it;
• Generates a higher level of military action.
• Causes a national reaction.
• Affects international relationships.
• Causes immediate widespread coverage in the news media.
• Is clearly against the national interest.
• Affects current national policy.

All of the following official U. S. Government Public Information reporting terms are
classified as “Pinnacle” with the exception of “Bent Spear”, “Faded Giant” and “Dull
Sword”.
“Bent Spear”
Refers to nuclear weapons incidents that are of significant interest but are not recognized
as “Pinnacle-Nucflash” or “pinnacle-Broken Arrow”.

“PINNACLE-Broken Arrow”
An accidental event that involves nuclear weapons or nuclear weapon components which
does not create the risk of nuclear war in that it;
• Involves a nuclear detonation.
• Involves a Non-Nuclear detonation or burning of nuclear weapon material.
• Radioactive contamination.
• Jettisoning of a nuclear weapon or nuclear weapon component.
• A public hazard either actual or implied.

“Pinnacle-Nucflash”
This refers to detonation or possible detonation of a nuclear weapon which creates a risk
of an outbreak of nuclear war. Events which may be classified Nucflash may include:
• Accidental, unauthorized, or unexplained nuclear detonation or possible
detonation.
• Accidental or unauthorized launch of a nuclear-armed or nuclear-capable missile
in the direction or, or having the capability to reach another nuclear-capable
country.
• Unauthorized flight of, or deviation from, an approved flight plan by a nuclear
armed or nuclear-capable aircraft with the capability to penetrate the airspace of
another nuclear-capable country.
• Detection of unidentified objects by a missile warning system or interference
(experienced by such a system or related communications) that appears
threatening and could create risk of nuclear war.
“Pinnacle-Emergency Disablement”
• Refers to operations involving the emergency destruction of nuclear weapons.
“Pinnacle-Emergency Evacuation”
• Refers to operations involving the emergency evacuation of nuclear weapons.
“Pinnacle-Empty Quiver”
• Refers to the seizure, theft, or loss of a nuclear weapon or nuclear component.
“Faded Giant”
• Refers to an event involving a nuclear reactor or other radiological accident,
which does not involve nuclear weapons.
“Dull Sword”
• Is an Air Force reporting term that marks reports of minor incident involving
nuclear weapons, components or systems, or which could impair their
deployment. This could include actions involving vehicles capable of carrying
nuclear weapons but with no nuclear weapons on board at the time of the
accident.

In retrospect there have been reported nuclear weapons accidents in our nuclear history
involving mechanical malfunctions, aircraft crashes and missiles gone awry.
We all know that technology has it’s weak points as the following random thoughts
postulate. As with any complex mechanism there are malfunctions, errors, glitches and
failures. If you own a computer, a car, an air conditioner or any other such device then
you understand that things happen. Example; The SS titanic was touted as unsinkable.
The Hubble telescope was touted as a perfect device for viewing the universe. So you see
my point here. If anything can go wrong it will at the worst possible moment. I would
characterize carrying nuclear weapons in aircraft as an accident waiting to happen. The
military code name for a lost nuclear weapon is “Broken Arrow”! The world has had its
share of them.
Here is the Published list:

1. On February 13, 1950 a U. S Air Force B-36 Bomber enroute from Eielson AFB
near Fairbanks Alaska to Carswell AFB near Fort Worth Texas while on a simulated
combat mission over the Pacific west of British Columbia Canada developed a
catastrophic mechanical problem eventually causing the aircraft to crash. Prior to
crashing on Vancouver Island the nuclear weapon the Bomber was carrying was
jettisoned (dropped) over the Pacific Ocean from a height of 8,000 feet. The high
explosive implosion trigger charge was seen to detonate on contact with the water but
since the weapon was not armed with a nuclear capsule there was no nuclear detonation.
This was the first “Dirty Bomb”. The bomb nor any parts were never recovered.
2. On April 11, 1950 at 9:38 PM a B-29 Bomber carrying a nuke crashed into a
mountain near Manzano New Mexico after takeoff from Kirtland AFB in New Mexico.
The bomb was destroyed in the crash but did not detonate because the detonator was not
installed. Whew!
3. On July 13, 1950 a B-50 Bomber from Biggs AFB near El Paso Texas on a flight to
Ohio flew into the ground at Lebanon Ohio destroying the nuclear weapon on board but it
did not have a nuclear detonator installed.
4. On August 4, 1950 at what is now Travis AFB an Air Force B-29 crashed with an
unarmed nuclear weapon aboard. The resulting detonation of the conventional explosive
killed nineteen and injured over 60 people in a trailer park nearby as well as destroying
the trailer park. This was the second “Dirty Bomb”.
5. On November 10, 1950 a B-50 flying over the Pacific jettisoned a nuclear weapon
which was destroyed by the conventional explosive but no nuclear detonator was
installed. This was the third “Dirty Bomb”.
6. On March 10, 1956 over the Mediterranean Sea, a flight of four B-47’s from
McDill AFB in Florida on simulated combat mission lost one aircraft in cloud cover with
no trace of the two nuclear trigger capsules on board ever being found. No bombs were
on the aircraft.
7. On July 27, 1956 a U. S. Air Force Bomber crashed into a storage bunker containing
3 each Mark 6 Nuclear Weapons at Lakenheath RAF base in the United Kingdom.
The fire damaged the bombs but they did not detonate. The nuclear explosion would
have rendered most of the British Isles uninhabitable had all three weapons
detonated!
8. On March 10, 1957 an Air Force B-47 in route to Europe with two nuclear weapon
trigger capsules aboard vanishes over the Atlantic Ocean. No traces were ever found.
9. On May 22, 1957 a B-36 ferrying a nuclear weapon from Biggs AFB Texas to
Kirtland AFB in New Mexico mistakenly dropped the bomb over the desert in New
Mexico. The high explosive trigger charge detonated and completely destroyed the
bomb casing making a crater 25 feet in diameter and 12 feet deep. The radiation was
measured as significant inside the crater but negligible outside the crater. The nuclear
trigger capsules had not been inserted so there was no nuclear detonation. This was the
fourth “Dirty Bomb”!
10. On July 26, 1957 an Air Force C-124 transport looses power in two of its four
engines and jettisons two nuclear weapons in an undisclosed area of the Atlantic
Ocean off the East Coast of the United States. They have never been found!
11. On January 31, 1958 A B-47 with one nuclear weapon on board crashed on a
runway at an Air Force Base in Europe burning for seven hours and contamination was
minimal. No explosion occurred.
12. “The Tybee Bomb” On February 5, 1958 an Air Force F-86 fighter collides with
an Air Force B-47 strategic bomber at 3:38 AM over the Atlantic Ocean near Savannah
Georgia. The F-86 crashes in the ocean after the pilot ejects safely. The B-47 is
damaged and attempts to land at Hunter Air Force Base in Georgia but the crew is fearful
of a crash that may set off the MK 15, 1 megaton bomb contained in the bomb bay. A
decision is made to jettison the device. The bomb is dropped into the area of Tybee
Island Georgia near Savannah. (See the Prologue of this book) The official report on
the crash issued b the Air Force could not determine if the weapon had the trigger
mechanism installed or not. It has never been found!
13. On March 11, 1958, A B-47 accidentally dropped a nuclear weapon over Mars
Bluff South Carolina The conventional high explosive trigger detonated and left a
crater 75 feet wide and 35 feet deep. Nuclear material was scattered over a wide
area. The Fifth “Dirty Bomb”!
14. On November 4, 1958, A B-47 catches fire on take off and crashes. One
crewmember is killed and the high explosive trigger device explodes in the fire scattering
nuclear material and causing a crater 35 feet in diameter. The Sixth “Dirty Bomb”!
15. On November 4, 1958, at Dyess AFB in Abilene Texas a B-47 catches fire on
takeoff, the crew ejects but one is killed. The aircraft crashes with one nuclear weapon
aboard and the conventional explosive detonates leaving a crater and contamination over
a large area. The Seventh “Dirty Bomb”.
16. On November 26, 1958 at Chenault AFB Louisiana a B-47 catches fire on the
ground destroying the nuclear weapon aboard but does not detonate the conventional
explosive. Contamination was minimal.
17. On January 24, 1961 a B-52 carrying two each 24 megaton weapons crashes near
Goldsboro North Carolina. After the ensuing fire is extinguished it is discovered that on
one bomb five of the six fail safe switches had failed leaving only one to prevent nuclear
detonation. If it had detonated the explosion would have been 1,800 times more
powerful than the Hiroshima bomb. Of course, the Air Force claims there were no
nuclear detonators aboard either bomb. But in the aftermath of this incident all new
safety protocols were implemented along with a redesigned fail safe switch system
for all U. S. nuclear weapons.
18. On March 14, 1961 a B-52 from Mather AFB near Sacramento California
experienced a rapid depressurization of the crew cabin and started a rapid descent over
Yuba City California. During the maneuvering excess fuel was expended and a tanker
was called for but did not arrive in time and the all the crew except Bomber was
abandoned at 10,000 feet by the pilot who rode it down to 4,000 feet steering it away
from population centers. The aircraft crashed in a remote area. Both weapons on board
were damaged but the new safety devices prevented any explosion.
19. On June 4, 1962, a Thor ICBM on a test flight over the Pacific range is detonated
due to a malfunction and a nuclear warhead falls into the Pacific.
20. On June 20, 1962, another Thor ICBM malfunctions and blows up dropping the
nuclear warhead into the Pacific.
21. On April 10, 1965 a nuclear weapon armed Navy A-4 Bomber rolls off the U. S.
Aircraft Carrier Ticonderoga and sinks in 16,000 feet of water near Japan.
22. On January 17, 1966, a B-52 Bomber is involved in a midair collision over
Palomares Spain and drops four nuclear weapons. The conventional explosive triggers
detonate on two of the devices and scatters radioactive material over a wide area. The
Eighth and Ninth “Dirty Bombs”!
23. On January 21, 1968, a B-52 from Plattsburg AFB New York crashes while
attempting an emergency landing at Thule Air Force Base, Greenland. The conventional
explosive charges in the four nuclear weapons aboard detonate spreading radiation over a
36 square mile area. The Tenth, Eleventh, Twelfth and Thirteenth “Dirty Bombs”!
24. On September 20, 1980 an Air Force Missile Technician drops a wrench which
damaged a fuel line on a Titan-II ICBM in its silo. The resulting fire and explosion
throws off the 740 ton blast door on top of the silo and propels the 9 megaton
warhead 600 feet into the air killing one and injuring 21.
25. August 2006, The U. S. Air Force shipped Minuteman III nuclear warhead triggers to
Taiwan instead of helicopter parts.
26. August 2007, The U. S. Air Force lost track of 6 nuclear cruise missile warheads for
36 hours. They were found on a B-52 parked in a regular security area of an Air Force
Base in Louisiana.
The above list is only the United States nuclear accidents that were, made public. And, as
you can see, we got better at nuclear weapon safety with experience. 1958 was a bad year
for so called accidents. I did not mention the numerous nuclear accidents the Russians
have had over the years because the information on them is sparse and I want to be as
factual as possible. There were many disasters at sea involving nuclear powered
submarines with heavy loss of life. The only silver lining in that cloud is that the reactors
and possible nuclear tipped missiles and torpedoes are buried under miles of sea water
and out of reach of most salvage attempts. Hopefully the reactors were “Scrammed” (shut
down).
The Russians have had some spectacular submarine disasters and of course they neither
confirm nor deny the presence of nuclear weapons on their subs.
There have been numerous unreported accidents involving dropped nuclear weapons or
missiles misfiring on Navy ships. I have only reported what can be confirmed through
news sources and official press releases.
 Chapter 12:

The Cuban Missile Crisis!

In the U. S. Navy and Marine Corps Awards Manual, personnel in service in the Cuban
Quarantine Operation between January 3rd, 1961 and October 23rd, 1962 were awarded
the “Navy Expeditionary Medal” and the “Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal” was
authorized for all branches serving in the Cuban Quarantine from October 24th, 1962
through December 31st, 1962. The area of these operations was described as the area
between 12 degrees North Latitude to 28 degrees North Latitude and from 66 degrees to
84 degrees West Longitude or Cuban Littoral Waters. People risked their lives during this
time and the United States risked its’ very existence. I grew up in Mayport Florida which
is just outside the fence of Naval Station Mayport. My Father was a Supervisor in the
DOD Security Department there. I remember as a boy watching military cargo aircraft
unloading mysterious containers at the farthest end of the main runway out of sight of
prying eyes. I saw numerous combat armed Marines surrounding the area as well as DOD
security personnel and when the containers were loaded onto trucks the entire convoy
moved slowly with a heavily armed escort to the piers to load the containers onto Navy
ships. This scene was played out every time a fleet or aircraft carrier group was about to
sail and it did not take a genius to figure out that they were loading. This was
commonplace in the sixties at the height of the cold war. The Soviet leadership under
Premier Kruschiev was belligerent and provoked us at every turn so it would have been
foolish for our government to put its military assets in harm’s way without significant
nuclear strike capability. After all, we knew the soviets were trying to establish a base in
the Western Hemisphere (historically Cuba was first and then Granada and now
Venezuela) from where to threaten us just as we were threatening them from Europe
(Turkey, Italy and the Med) with out tactical and intermediate range missiles.
A sobering thought was postulated in the 1980’s before the Soviet Union broke up by
writer Oskar Morgenstern in his book, “The Question of National Defense”.
“Some day there will be an accidental explosion of a nuclear weapon, a pure accident,
which has nothing whatsoever to do with military or political plans, intentions, or
operations. The human mind cannot construct something that is infallible. Accordingly,
the laws of probability virtually guarantee such an accident—not because the Soviet
Union is relaxing any of the conscientious precautions designed to prevent one, or
because the Soviet Union is necessarily getting more careless with warheads, but simply
because sheer numbers of weapons are increasing….Nuclear weapons will surely spread
throughout the world. They may become available in international trade; even that is not
to be excluded. With thousands of nuclear weapons in existence, the danger of a nuclear
accident in the world is unquestionably increasing”.
Morgenstern’s scenario is sobering enough, but the present global political climate is so
unstable I don’t sleep as well as I used to knowing Pakistan and India are nuclear armed
and that there are nukes on the black market for sale and Iran would do anything to be
able to obliterate Israel. I worry that some terrorist group will get their hands on one or
more and use them against us. Some enterprising group could just find the nuclear
weapons we have lost and use them against us. I know our own government can’t find
them but a well funded effort with the right equipment could and have a very potent
weapon to use against us if they were successful. We can build a space station and send
robots to Mars but we can’t find a few lousy nuclear weapons we lost! Go figure. Now
that the whole world knows about our lost nukes thanks to satellite TV, I am as frightened
now as I was back in the military when I was briefed on how we came so very close to
nuclear war in 1962. I did not appreciate the seriousness of the Cuban Missile Crisis then,
but I do now!
In the fall of 1962 I was attending sophomore classes at Duncan U. Fletcher High School
in Jacksonville Beach, Florida. At the age of fifteen I was into football, girls and all
things military. The nation was in a dither that fall because of the buildup of naval forces
for the proposed invasion of Cuba. My mother was the Postmaster for the local Mayport
post office which handled all of the Navy mail.
As I grew up near Mayport Naval Station I was enthralled by its’ many fascinating
aspects. Having been raised in the area I saw the naval base grow and in 1962 it was a
very busy place on normal days. When the Cuban Missile crisis heated up to a boil it was
pure organized chaos. Being 15 and big for my age I was allowed to roam in many areas
where normal civilians couldn’t go due to my familiarity with everyone in DOD Security.
The building pressure of the Blockade and Missile crisis had been the topic of
conversation all over the neighborhood and the Nation. In Tom Hightower’s Barber Shop
between 2nd Avenue and 3rd Avenue North on 1st Street in Jacksonville Beach the men
were all speaking in reverent tones of our military might which was evident on the ocean
nearby. I counted so many military vehicles on the roads I lost count and became
disinterested. While doing my research for this book I found Department of Defense
documents which listed 232 U. S. Navy ships that took an active part in the build up to
and the actual blockade of the Island Nation of Cuba.
The Navy was the principle player in our military efforts due to Cuba being surrounded
by water.
The seriousness of the situation can be seen in the following list of vessels assigned to the
crisis by the Department of Defense.
Aircraft Carriers: 11
Crusiers: 12
Destroyers: 87
Destroyer Escorts: 18
Amphibious Landing Ships: 28
Tankers: 11
Ammunition Ships: 7
Troop Transports: 12
Supply Ships: 15
Command & Control Ships: 4
Mine Sweepers: 7
Submarines: 20
There were 8,000 U. S. Marines on those ships ready to land in Cuba. There were 12,000
Army Airborne troops ready to parachute into Cuba and three divisions (18,000 troops) of
reserve troops from various infantry and armor brigades standing by at various nearby
locations. The Florida Keys were packed with military hardware and troops ready for a
full scale invasion. My Aunt lived in Marathon in the Keys and had a “Hawk” anti
aircraft missile battery placed in her business parking lot.
I remember waking up one morning in November to find tanks and military trucks parked
up and down Palmer Street in front of my house. In the vacant lot next door were rows of
tents with troops milling about eating from C-ration cans. I went to Atlantic Beach with
my Mom to run errands and remember seeing Navy ships anchored offshore in the
Atlantic as far as I could see. I counted many aircraft carriers among all the anchored
ships plus the four that were moored to Mayport Naval Station piers. The air was filled
with helicopters and fixed wing aircraft of all shapes and sizes. The civilian airports were
packed as well having been commandeered for military aircraft parking areas. There were
military convoys on all the main roads heading in different directions.
I remember climbing the sand hill next to the old Mayport Lighthouse and it looked like
there were dozens of cruisers and destroyers plus assorted auxiliary ships docked in the
base along with the aircraft carriers.
At 15 I didn’t understand the implications of all that military power. I thought it was very
cool but did not understand at the time that we were one mistake away from nuclear
annihilation! In hindsight I did think we were going to war but at that age I just couldn’t
grasp the implications. As I write this now I have the luxury of the accumulated
knowledge that I have gleaned from various sources. All of which indicate that I should
have been terrified. Our government had been making moves against the Castro regime
and against the Soviet Union that were truly provocative in anyone’s view. The Cuban
Missile crisis was the culmination of the moves and countermoves executed by the Soviet
government and our government. It all started when Castro overthrew Cuban President
Fulgencio Batista. Batista gave up the reins of power in Cuba on January 1st, 1959 by
ceremonially turning over the government of Cuba to the Council of Ministers.
Shortly thereafter Batista and his family boarded a plane to the Dominican Republic and
safety. At that moment Fidel Castro was the leader of the Cuban people. Castro had been
fighting the U. S. backed and Mafia financed government of Batista for many years.
In 1953 Castro and his merry band of revolutionaries were captured and put in prison for
their part in a raid on a Cuban Army barracks. Castro grew popular in prison and when he
got out he was heralded as the savior of the Cuban people.
The popularity of Castro grew so much there were many people in the U. S. who thought
he was the answer to the corruption in the Batista government. There are still many
misguided folks in America who think he is a godsend and not the butcher he really is.
The adage of “One mans’ terrorist is another mans’ patriot” comes to mind. Once Castro
took over he started to turn against American interests in Cuba. He publicly aligned his
government with the Soviet Union. The American populace became concerned about a
communist regime so close to our shores and making itself a thorn in our side. President
Eisenhower quietly set in motion a CIA operation to train and equip the Cuban refugees
who came to America to escape Castro’s regime as guerrilla fighters charged with
overthrowing him and his government.
This group was known as “Alpha 66”. When President Kennedy was elected in
November of 1960 the Bay of Pigs invasion was already well along in the planning stages
at Foggy Bottom (CIA HQ in Langley VA). Kennedy inherited it from the Eisenhower
administration and the CIA. Eisenhower saw to it that Kennedy was briefed on the
“Black Op” that would later be called the “Bay of Pigs”!
There had been no love lost between the Kennedy campaign and the Eisenhower
administration during the 1959 presidential campaign. One of Kennedy’s campaign
platforms was a widely touted “Missile Gap” as he called it between the U. S. and the
Soviet Union. President Eisenhower knew there was no such thing as a “Missile Gap” but
because of national security concerns he couldn’t make the number of nuclear arms
possessed by each country a matter of public knowledge. Eisenhower stewed over the
“young whippersnapper” as he referred to JFK in private. As he was getting ready to
leave office Ike said sarcastically,
“We have a new genius in our midst, who is incapable of making any mistakes and
therefore deserving of no criticism whatsoever”! Ike once described the loss of that
election as his own greatest defeat.
In retrospect I think the incoming Kennedy administration was inexperienced and ill
equipped to handle such a time bomb as was the global political scene at the time. Soviet
Premier Kruschiev knew this and was intent to challenge the neophyte Kennedy in the
game of global domination.
The presence of Soviet Missiles in Cuba had the potential to be the trigger that would
cause a nuclear war that would end life as we knew it and the handling of such a delicate
situation should not be left in the lap of an administration still wet behind the ears. Many
foreign policy blunders were made and weakness on our part was perceived by the Soviet
leadership.
In my opinion, we are all lucky we survived! International mischief was afoot from
March of 1960 on as the CIA planned operations against Cuba. The seed had been sown
for a series of events which when seen in hind sight were guaranteed to provoke a
response of deadly seriousness from the soviets.
Move and counter move were enacted across Europe, Africa and South America as we
and the Soviets sparred. All it would have taken would have been a mistake made on
either side that would have been seen as a first strike by the other side!
I don’t think the average American could ever grasp how close we came in that time
frame to all out nuclear war with an adversary almost as powerful as we were. It would
have meant the end of all planetary life as we knew it.
Thank God someone blinked!
 Chapter 13:

Our Testing.

At the outset of the nuclear arms race from 1945 to 1949 the United States tested 6
nuclear weapons and we used two on the Japanese. The Soviets during this time frame
tested only one. By the 1960 to 1969 time frame we were testing 42.8 nuclear weapons
per year for a total of 428 in that decade. They were conducted mostly in Nevada, New
Mexico, the South Pacific and underground. There are three distinct types of nuclear
weapons tests:
Atmospheric, where the weapon detonates above ground.
Underground, where the weapon detonates under ground.
Underwater, where the weapon detonates under water.
The Soviets tested 232, the UK tested 5, France tested 31 and China tested 10.
The decade of 1960 to 1969 was the most prolific testing period in history. Some tests
were performed off of South Africa but the number and yield cannot be confirmed.
We did our last testing in the 1990 to 1999 period and haven’t tested any since. The
Russians tested one in the 90’s. The new kids on the block India and Pakistan each tested
6 weapons in the 90’s.

The total for all testing since we entered the nuclear age in 1945 is as follows:
United States………..1,030 nuclear tests of which 815 were underground.
Russia/USSR………….715 ………………………496……………………
UK……………………...45 ………………………..24……………………
France…………………210 ………………………160 …………………...
China……………………43 ……………………….22 …………………...
India…………………….. 7 …………………………6 …………………..
Pakistan…………………..6 ……………………….. 6 …………………..
Total Worldwide…… 2,056 ……………………… 714 ………………….
I realize the testing of nuclear weapons is necessary to prove the science but with 1,342
above ground tests didn’t we put a lot of radioactive material into the atmosphere? The
underground tests turn vast underground sites into molten glass and solid blocks of
radioactive debris that will remain hot for 300 years or more. I think the reason we
stopped testing was a consensus that the weapons work and the race was over in respect
to the major nuclear powers. The stoppage of testing also coincides with the collapse of
the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc nations. Although the USSR only had warheads in
territories it could trust such as the Ukraine it ran into trouble with the retrieval of the
weapons when independent minded leaders in these territories wanted to become instant
atomic powers. No one can guarantee that all of the soviet nuclear weapons have been
accounted for! We just have no way of knowing who has them and how amny are
missing!
The first U. S. Nuclear Weapon test was conducted in New Mexico on July 16, 1945 and
was code named “Trinity”. Many tests followed in the New Mexico and Nevada deserts
where there exist vast areas of land that will be uninhabitable for centuries due to nuclear
residual radiation. The last test was conducted underground in Nevada on September 22,
1992 and was code named “Divider”.
In the time span from 1945 to 1992 the total of nuclear weapon tests inside and outside
the U. S. continental borders stands at 1,030 of that number the great majority of tests
were CONUS or inside the Continental United States. Most tests were conducted at
White Sands New Mexico or the Nevada Test Site both above and below ground. Some
other tests were conducted in the Pacific Ocean on atolls owned by the U. S. after WWII.
The true thermonuclear weapons era got off to a rousing start in America with the
inception of the test series known as “Operation Castle” which was conducted in what
has been called the Pacific Proving Ground. These tests were high yield weapon design
tests used to perfect the optimum yield and blast effect. Lithium enriched with LI-6 was
an important factor in these high yield tests. Lithium enriched in Li-6 was discovered by
the physicists Ulam and Teller in 1951.
It is used in fusion weapons to increase yield. Many tests were experiments with
cryogenic nuclear fuels like lithium deuteride proved to be far more of an explosive yield
than anticipated. The use of “dry” non-cryogenic lithium deuteride caused a spectacular
and disastrous blast that was kept secret for many years.
The time line of some of the U. S. tests is listed here in chronological order, (these are not
all the tests).
Atmospheric Nuclear Test Code Name
Trinity, was the first nuclear explosion (1 shot) on earth on16 July 1945 at Alamogordo
NM.
Crossroads, was the first underwater nuclear detonations (2 shots) in 1946 at the Pacific
Proving Ground.
Sandstone, was the first test to use levitated cores ( 3 shots) in 1948 at the Pacific
Proving Ground.
Ranger, was the first test (5 shots) at the Nevada Test Site in 1951.
Greenhouse, was the first test using a boosted fission weapons (4 shots) at the Pacific
Proving Ground in 1951.
Buster-Jangle, was the first test with troops on the ground nearby (7 shots) at the Nevada
Test Site in 1951.
Tumbler-Snapper, was a test of new designs ( 7 shots) at the Nevada Test Site in 1952.
Ivy, was a test of the first hydrogen bomb (Mike) ( 2 shots) in November 1952 at the
Pacific Proving Ground.
Upshot-Knothole, was the first test of a nuclear cannon projectile (11 shots) in 1952 at
the Nevada Test Site.
Castle, (Bravo) was the largest yield nuclear detonation ever at that time of (6 shots) in
March 1954 at the Pacific Proving Ground.
Teapot, was the first tests of Lawrence Livermore designed devices, (14 shots) were
made at the Nevada Test Site in 1955.
Wigwam, was the first deep underwater nuclear test for submarine vulnerability in 2,000
feet of water with one shot in 1955 in the Pacific Ocean.
Project 56, was a safety test of combat designed equipment (4 shots) in 1955 at the
Nevada Test Site.
Redwing, was a test of three stage designed thermonuclear weapons (17 shots) in 1956 at
the Pacific Proving Ground.
Plumbbob, was a series of controversial tests exposing troops to radiation (29 shots) in
1957 at the Nevada Test Site.
Project 57, 58 and 58A, were a series of tests (5 shots) to test safety of designed
equipment in 1957-58.
Hardtack I, was a series of tests (35 shots) in the Pacific Proving Ground in 1958.
Argus, was a secret series of (3 shots) at high altitude over the South Atlantic Ocean in
1958.
Hardtack II, was a series of tests (37 shots) at the Nevada Test Site in 1958.
Dominic, was a series of tests of missile warhead tests (36 shots) at Johnston Island,
Christmas Island and over the South Pacific in 1962-63.
Storax, was a series (48 shots) of crater making experiments at the Nevada Test Site in
1962-63.
Sunbeam, was a series (4 shots) of tests of small tactical warheads at the Nevada Test
Site in 1962.
Many underground tests followed in Nevada and New Mexico.

These are typical test timelines for Operation Tumbler

1952 Nevada Proving Grounds Atmospheric Tests
Test Able
793 airdrop from B-50
Device detonated at 17:00 GMT on 1 April 1952.
Yield was 40 Kt.
Test Baker
1109 foot airdrop from B-50
Device detonated at 17:30 GMT on 15 April 1952
Yield was 1 Kt.
Test Charlie
3347 foot airdrop from B-50
Device detonated at 17:30 GMT on 22 April 1952
Yield was 31 Kt.
Operation Snapper
Test Dog
1040 foot airdrop from B-45
Device detonated at 16:30 GMT on 1 May 1952
Yield was 19Kt.
Test Easy
300 foot tower
Device detonated at 15:15 GMT on 7 May 1952
Yield was 12 Kt.
Test Fox
300 foot tower
Device detonated at 12:00 GMT on 25 May 1952
Yield was 11 Kt.
Test George
300 foot tower
Device detonated at 11:55 GMT on 1 June 1952
Yield was 15 Kt.
Test How
300 foot tower
Device detonated at 11:55 GMT on 5 June 1952
Yield was 14 Kt.
The “Castle” Series of Tests listed here are an example of what went on.
1954
February 28th-March 1st “Castle Bravo”
The location was an artificial island dredged up from the bottom sands around Bikini
Atoll off Nam Island. It was a surface burst with a planned yield of 4 to 8 Megatons. This
device was the first fueled with dry or solid lithium deuteride in the Ulam-Teller design
which was developed by the Los Alamos team. As the largest bomb ever tested it was
expected to be big but far exceeded the planned size. The test instruments recorded data
that the yield was 15 Megatons. The weapon detonated was designated as “Shrimp”. It
used partially enriched lithium as fuel.
Shrimp weighed 23,500 pounds and was 189.5 inches long and 54 inches in diameter.
The fuel consisted of 37-40 percent enriched lithium-6 deuteride encased in the natural
uranium tamper. Approximately 10 megatons of yield was from the fast fission of the
tamper. The reason for such a high yield was from the inclusion of the lithium-7 isotope
made up of mostly lithium and the tritium based boosted primary. The tritium-deuterium
fusion caused a collision of the neutrons with the lithium-7 atoms which greatly increased
yield.
The resulting ground burst crater was 6510 feet in diameter and 250 feet deep. The
mushroom cloud reached a height of 130,000 feet in altitude. This blast created the
worlds worst radiological disaster. The failure of the meteorological forecasters to predict
the drift path of the huge cloud of debris meant that the radiation levels in the central
Marshall Islands rose rapidly as fallout blanketed population centers and military bases.
Huge numbers of native islanders and military personnel had to be evacuated. A Japanese
fishing vessel downwind was covered in fallout and all 23 crewmen became ill with
radiation sickness and one died. All further tests we conducted in a much larger test range
exclusion zone of 850 miles in diameter with Bikini Atoll at its’ center.
March 26th, 1954 “Castle Romeo”
Just like “Bravo” the explosive yield of “Romeo” far exceeded the engineer’s projections.
The original yield estimate was 4 Megatons but actually yielded 11 Megatons due to the
use of enriched natural lithium Li-6 in a 7.5% ratio to the other fusion material present.
Li-6 was relatively cheap to produce and was only needed in small quantities to enhance
the explosive yield of the bomb design then in use. In this case 7 Megatons of yield were
provided by the fast fusion of the natural uranium tamper. This device was another
reliable Los Alamos team design. Romeo was mounted on a floating barge instead of on
land as in “Bravo”. The reason a barge was chosen was that the previous explosions had
vaporized too much sand and left huge craters not to mention the fallout fiasco. The
“Runt-1” test bomb used in “Romeo” was later to become the MK-17 nuclear weapon in
our arsenal. Runt-1 was 224.9 inches long by 61.4 inches in diameter and weighed 39,600
lbs.
April 6th-7th, “Castle Koon”
Koon was the first weapon designed by Lawrence Livermore Laboratory and was the last
weapon that was personally worked on by Edward Teller. It turned out to be a fizzle.
“Koon” was designed to have a yield of 1 Megaton but only managed to yield 110
Kilotons. The fusion components only contributed 10 KT to the yield while the primary
supplied a fission yield of 100 Kt. The bomb itself was named “Morgenstern”
(Morningstar) and the design was much more complex than the tried and true Los Alamos
design. The poor design by the Lawrence Livermore team had caused a flaw in the time
delay between the primary firing and the secondary ignition. This delay caused the
neuron flux from the primary to pre-heat the secondary leading to poor compression of
the molecules and a poor fusion reaction. A sister design to this weapon was immediately
cancelled.
April 25th and 26th “Castle Union”
This was a “dry fueled” thermonuclear weapon design employing what was referred to as
a “Sloika/Alarm clock weapon design”. It was a prototype of the weapon known as the
EC-14. This weapon design used a 95% enriched LI-6 deuteride fuel which was
expensive and rare. The “Alarm Clock” weapon was 151 inches long by 61.4 inches in
diameter and weighed 27,700 lbs. It was designed to yield 5 Megatons and in fact yielded
6.9 Megatons. Of that yield 72.5% was from fission of the Los Alamos designed “Racer
IV” primary trigger. This weapon was also fired from a barge.

May 4th and 5th “Castle Yankee”

This weapon was an improved “Runt II” design with a change in the thermonuclear fuel
content. The original “Runt” used natural LI-6 at 7.5% of total fuel. The “Runt-II” design
utilized enriched L6 at 37 to 40% of the fuel. “Runt II” was identical in appearance to
“Runt I” with same dimensions and weight. The predicted yield of this device was 9.5
Megatons and in fact yielded 13.5 Megatons due to the enriched LI-6 being used. Almost
half of the yield of this weapon was from fusion in the secondary. This weapon was also
fired from a barge which was vaporized.

May 13th and 14th “Castle Nectar”

This device was known as “Zombie” and was the prototype for the TX-15 light weight
weapon. This design by Stanislaw Ulam was a radiation imploded fusion boosted fission
bomb. The outer case of the secondary fuel was made of enriched uranium thus causing a
much higher yield. This design called for the addition of LI-6 and tritium to boost the
yield. The “Zombie” device was small in comparison to the previous designs in that it
was only 110 inches long by 34.5 inches in diameter and only weighed 6,520 lbs. It had a
design yield of 1.35 Megatons and was within 6% of that in actual yield. This weapon
design went on to become the MK-15.
 Chapter 14:

Our Atomic Power Generation versus the World.

On December 20th 1951 the experimental reactor at Arco Idaho came on line and
produced the first usable electricity generated via a nuclear fission reactor. It is now a
national historic site. It is called the EBR-1 site and is open for tours. It was used to light
the streets in Arco as a side benefit of being an experimental reactor test site for nuclear
propulsion of aircraft.
During the early life of nuclear reactors the United States Government experimented with
reactors to determine if electricity could be generated efficiently. In the 1950’s this idea
came to fruition in the town of Arco Idaho. In 1955 a reactor dubbed the Experimental
Breeder Reactor-1 or X-39 was run on a ground test stand (it was meant to be the power
plant for an atomic aircraft) in an experiment called the Heat Transfer Reactor
Experiment Number 1, (HTRE-1).
Because of the immense weight of these reactors due to the shielding required for crew
safety they were only tried in actual aircraft on a limited basis. The nationally registered
historic site in Arco Idaho consists of the aircraft power plant, comprised of one reactor, a
radiation shield, two X-39 engines, ducting, controls and instrumentation. This entire
apparatus is called the core test facility because it was designed to accept different types
of reactor cores as they were designed and perfected. In 1956 the engines were operated
successfully but required so much shielding as to make them un-flyable due to weight.
In 1957 with successive core designs HTRE-2 and HTRE-3 assembled and fired up with
less shielding the design produced enough thrust to theoretically sustain flight at 460
miles per hour for 30,000 miles.
Radiation levels were unacceptable and caused contamination over a 1,500 acre area. The
engineers finally realized that aircraft power via nuclear reactors was not feasible in the
current form. From the early days of nuclear generating and propulsion experiments we
now employ 104 separate operating nuclear power plants in the United States. These
plants are usually owned and operated by Utility Companies which also own coal, gas or
oil fired electric generating plants. There are a few companies that are sole owners of
nuclear plants only such as Entergy of Jackson Mississippi and Exelon of Chicago which
are both small utilities. In the U. S. we have many reactors but they are old and not as
efficient as new designs. Compared to the rest of the world there currently exists little
nuclear infrastructure in the United States for the generation of electricity.
At this writing there is only one steel company in the world that has the capacity and
expertise to cast the 42-foot, egg shaped reactor vessels used to house the core of the
reactor. That company is Japan Steel Works. They currently have a four year backlog of
orders for reactor core vessels. There is little hope for a new steel casting company to
arise and take some of the load off the Japanese. It is ironic that the United States
pioneered the use of nuclear energy in reactor design and operation and weapons, two of
which were used in anger on the only country on earth with a company capable of casting
nuclear reactor core vessels. There is a clamoring among the countries of the world to
build and operate nuclear power plants to alleviate the tremendous dependency we all
have on oil and to remediate the damage done to the environment by the burning of oil
for power. Although human kind has used the available natural materials at hand for
warmth, light and cooking since primitive man discovered fire. There has always been a
tradeoff or cost. Depletion on the forests for firewood, pollution and out of control fires
resulted from primitive campfires. When coal was discovered as a fuel and was readily
available in certain regions it replaced much of the wood fired sources of energy.
All energy stored in material is derived from the Sun. The Sun causes trees to grow. The
Sun baked our planet in its early formation into a ball of energy trapped in the terrestrial
layers.
Only 700 years ago the world was lit and heated by wood fires on every continent.
Mankind then progressed to coal (our most abundant and most polluting fuel) and we still
use coal in many electrical power plants. It’s cheap and it’s everywhere but it is the single
most damaging energy source on the planet. Smoke from coal fired industry is estimated
by the EPA to hasten the deaths of 30,000 Americans each year.
There is a very long word in the medical dictionary which is
“Pneumonoultramicroscopicsuperscilioconeosis” which is the clinical name for “Black
Lung” disease brought on by exposure to coal dust, coal smoke, and particulate fallout of
microscopic coal byproduct particles from the air. In China the death toll from
unregulated industrial coal fired plants is a well guarded state secret. But what do the
Chinese care about a few hundred thousand deaths in a nation whose population is
nearing two billion! In the heavily industrialized parts of China the snow is brown (much
like Pittsburg Pennsylvania back in the 1940’s) before our EPA air quality regulations
took hold. I have seen the pictures of Pittsburg back then in the winter of 1940 with the
snow colored brown after it fell through the clouds of pollution from the coal fired
industrial steel plants.
I’m sure the seed that Einstein planted (E=MC2) was never envisioned to cause such
lasting fear and dread among scientists and concerned citizens. Nuclear energy in any
form is dangerous if not handled correctly. The same can be said of fire derived from the
rapid oxidation of any fossil fuel, solar energy, hydroelectric, wind, etc. Once any fuel
(heat source) is transformed into an energy form it becomes dangerous. Many believe that
nuclear energy is to be feared because of its ability to cause mass destruction. This is a
valid concern in the field of nuclear weapons but not in the field of nuclear reactors.
When Einstein postulated his theory, the sheer simplicity grabbed physicists all over the
world and shook them to the core. For the first time mankind would be able to convert
latent energy in small amounts of fissionable material into vast amounts of energy
through a chemical reaction which caused heat. U-235 and U-238 are constantly breaking
down on an atomic level into smaller particles which in a controlled environment causes
heat. This is the process that causes radioactivity.
Since U-235 has almost all broken down, by now it only comprises one seventh of one
percent of all of the known natural uranium in the world. The fears and dreads of the
masses are unfounded and not based on scientific facts.

The following are common misconceptions about nuclear reactors:

Reactors will explode!
This is a myth brought on by unscientific anti nuke hysteria promulgated by the great
mass of uninformed people who do not understand chemistry or physics and get caught
up in the irrational fears of this crowd. In fact uranium in an un-enriched (Reactor grade)
state can not explode like a bomb. To reach critical mass for a nuclear explosion uranium
has to be enriched to at least 70 to 90 percent. Reactor grade (non-enriched) uranium only
creates heat sufficient to boil water into steam, not explode. There is no crashing of atoms
into each other in a reactor nor is there a concentrated implosion needed to create critical
mass in a uranium core sufficient to cause an uncontrolled nuclear reaction. A tamper of
sufficient mass would be needed to initiate a rapid uncontrolled reaction which does not
exist in a reactor.

What about Chernobyl and Three Mile Island?

When you remove all of the unscientific hype the Chernobyl disaster was caused by a
very poorly designed reactor with carbon moderators which absorb the emissions from
the reacting pile of rods. In this particular case Russian technicians in the control room
got into a physical altercation over the use of the reactor and fought over switches and
levers they were controlling. The direct cause was improper psychological screening of
reactor personnel) This one act caused series of blunders that lead to the overheating of
the core which set fire to the carbon moderators causing a four day fire that melted most
of the piping and systems in the building which partially melted the reactor vessel that in
turn split open exposing the core to water and debris. The smoke carried the radioactive
particles up and over vast regions of Europe downwind. Because the Chernobyl facility
was not built to western standards of safety there were no firefighting systems in place
for such an event.
Plus there was no containment building built over the reactor building as are required
here in the U. S. and other western nations. If there had been a containment building over
the Chernobyl Reactor there would not have been a disaster. The firefighters and
technicians would have still died but the world outside would not have been harmed or
notified. Keep in mind that there is no OSHA in Russia! Carbon modified reactors are
inherently dangerous. Most of the people that died at Chernobyl were fire fighters and
technicians who were not equipped to fight a fire in such a hazardous ionizing radiation
charged environment.

Three Mile Island

Was a minor incident hyped up by the press into a dangerous nuclear accident when it
released no more radiation than a common chest X-ray to most civilians exposed to the
escaping steam. In fact more fallout fell on Harrisburg PA (where Three Mile Island is)
from Chernobyl than from the much publicized partial meltdown at Three Mile Island
made famous in the anti nuke propaganda film “The China Syndrome”. The fact that here
was a containment building over the reactor incident at TMI limited outside exposure to a
minimum.
The cause at Three Mile Island was a stuck valve and indicator which led to a series of
mistakes by the operators in that they thought the reactor vessel had too much cooling
water in it when in actuality it had too little. The core was uncovered by the falling water
level and partially melted down to one third its normal size. This melt down did not result
in a catastrophe as the media would want you to believe. Because so much conflicting
information was passed to the public there was panic. Critics of Nuclear Energy had
played up the “China Syndrome” scenario where a core melts out through the bottom of
the steel reactor vessel and melts into the groundwater causing a steam explosion on its’
way to China.
This scenario is simply hype. Reactor vessels are extremely well built and can withstand
very high temperatures. After this incident cooling system redundancy was retrofitted into
all nuclear generating plants and there is simply no way a meltdown can occur with the
modern “fail safe” systems mandated by the DOE and the AEC.
Radioactive waste is deadly! Yet another misconception brought on by science fiction
and not fact. Spent reactor fuel rods from reactors are 95% U-238 and this is the same
material found in common dirt. Background radiation in all parts of the earth is caused by
U-238 and it’s commonality to all soils and rocks. This stuff is warm radioactively
speaking but it takes a vast quantity to make a concentrated radioactive signature.

The Facts:
Fact 1. The “Castle Bravo” hydrogen bomb test on February 28th 1954 in the South
Pacific Ocean spewed more radioactive material into Earth’s atmosphere than all other
nuclear detonations and accidents in world history have. That one test gone awry caused
the contamination of one percent of the Earth’s surface. Since the surface area of the
Earth is 197,000,000 square miles the contamination spread over 1,970,000 square miles
as it drifted around the Earth.
Fact 2. In 2007 the total output from all 104 U. S. operating nuclear generating plants
was 806,486,978 million watts. Yet the U. S. lags behind many European Nations in
nuclear generation per capita. 31 U. S. states have nuclear generating plants. They are
constantly on line unless they are shut down for mandatory safety inspections or for other
regulated inspection or maintenance periods. No pollution from these plants ever reaches
the environment because there is no pollution output from the nuclear generation of
electricity. Only waste steam and hot water are emitted.

The anti-nuke crowd will cry and wring their hands at the thought of all of those spent
fuel rods collecting in storage water pools at the plants waiting for transport to Yucca
Mountain Nevada. If the anti-nuke crowd ever stops the current legal action designed to
keep us from safely transporting the spent fuel rods and other low level contaminated
materials to Yucca Mountain this problem be solved. Yucca Mountain Nevada has been
chosen as the underground repository for the safe storage of radioactive materials by the
Department of Energy. Currently at the operating nuclear generating plants the spent fuel
rods are kept in metal drums under a layer of 3 feet of water in pools of water at the
plants. (3 feet of water prevents the escape of any ionizing radiation from low grade spent
fuel rods).
The 31 states that have nuclear generating plants are as follows:
1. Alabama has five (5) plants.
They are named Brown’s Ferry 1, 2, & 3 plus Joseph M. Farley 1 & 2.
Total 2007 output was 34,325,127 Megawatts.
2. Arizona has three (3) plants.
They are named Palo Verde 1, 2, & 3.
Total 2007 output was 26,782,391 Megawatts.
3. Arkansas has two (2) plants.
They are Arkansas Nuclear 1 & 2.
Total 2007 output was 15,486,102 Megawatts.
4. California has four (4) plants.
They are named San Onofre 2 & 3, Diablo Canyon 1 & 2.
Total 2007 output was 35,792,490 Megawatts.
5. Connecticut has two (2) plants.
They are named Millstone 2 & 3.
Total 2007 output was 16,386,142 Megawatts.
6. Florida has five (5) plants.
They are named Turkey Point 3 & 4, Crystal River 3 and St. Lucie 1 & 2.
Total 2007 output was 29,289,289 Megawatts.
7. Georgia has four (4) plants.
They are named Vogtle 1 & 2, Edwin I. Hatch 1 & 2.
Total 2007 output was 32,544,998 Megawatts.
8. Illinois has eleven (11) plants.
They are named Clinton, Dresden 2 & 3, Quad Cities 1 & 2, Braidwood 1 & 2, Byron 1
& 2, Bryon 1 & 2 and LaSalle County 1 & 2.
Total 2007 output was 95,728,845 Megawatts.
9. Iowa has one (1) plant.
It is named Duane Arnold.
Total 2007 output was 4,518,875 Megawatts.
10. Kansas has one (1) plant.
It is named Wolf Creek 1.
Total 2007 output was 10,369,136 Megawatts.
11. Louisiana has two (2) plants.
They are named Waterford 1 and River Bend 1.
Total 2007 output was 17,077,572 Megawatts.
12. Maryland has two (2) plants.
They are named Calvert Cliffs 1 and 2.
Total 2007 output was 14,353,192 Megawatts.
13. Massachusetts has one (1) plant.
It is named Pilgrim 1.
Total 2007 output was 5,119,789 Megawatts.
14. Michigan has four (4) plants.
They are named Palisades, Fermi 2, D. C. Cook 1 & 2.
Total 2007 output was 31,516,953 Megawatts.
15. Minnesota has three (3) plants.
They are named Monticello, Prairie Island 1 & 2.
Total 2007 output was 13,106,000 Megawatts.
16. Mississippi has one (1) plant.
It is named Grand Gulf 1.
Total 2007 output was 9,358,784 Megawatts.
17. Missouri has one (1) plant.
It is named Callaway.
Total 2007 output was 9,371,955 Megawatts.
18. Nebraska has two (2) plants.
They are named Fort Calhoun and Cooper.
Total 2007 output was 11,041,532 Megawatts.
19. New Hampshire has one (1) plant.
It is named Seabrook 1.
Total 2007 output was 10,763,884 Megawatts.
20. New Jersey has four (4) plants.
They are named Oyster Creek 1, Salem 1 & 2 and Hope Creek 1.
Total 2007 output was 32,010,376 Megawatts.
21. New York has six (6) plants.
They are named Indian Point 2, Nine Mile Point 1 & 2, James Fitzpatrick, Ginna and
Indian Point 3.
Total 2007 output was 42,452,854 Megawatts.
22. North Carolina has five (5) plants.
They are named Brunswick 1 & 2, Shearon Harris 1, and McGuire 1 & 2.
Total 2007 output was 40,044,705 Megawatts.
23. Ohio has two (2) plants.
They are named Perry 1 and Davis-Besse.
Total 2007 output was 15,764,049 Megawatts.
24. Pennsylvania has nine (9) plants.
They are named Peach Bottom 2 & 3, Beaver Valley 1 & 2, Susquehanna 1 & 2, Limerick
1 & 2 and Three Mile Island 1.
Total 2007 output was 77,366,316 Megawatts.
25. South Carolina has seven (7) plants.
They are named H. B. Robinson 2, Oconee 1, 2, & 3, Catawba 1 & 2 and Summer.
Total 2007 output was 53,199,914 Megawatts.
26. Tennessee has three (3) plants.
They are named Sequoyah 1 & 2 and Watts Bar 1.
Total 2007 output was 28,700,371 Megawatts.
27. Texas has four (4) plants.
They are named Comanche Peak 1 & 2 and South Texas Project 1 & 2.
Total 2007 output was 41,024,255 Megawatts.
28. Vermont has one (1) plant.
It is named Vermont Yankee 1.
Total 2007 output was 4,703,728 Megawatts.
29. Virginia has four (4) plants.
They are named Surry 1 & 2 and North Anna 1 & 2.
Total 2007 output was 27,268,475 Megawatts.
30. Washington has one (1) plant.
It is named Columbia Generating Station.
Total 2007 output was 8,108,560 Megawatts.
31. Wisconsin has three (3) plants.
They are named Point Beach 1 & 2 and Kewaunee.
Total 2007 output was 12,910,319 Megawatts.

World Wide Electricity Production by Nuclear Reactors

This international list grows every year and with China reaching out for all the energy it
can get it is the fastest growing market for nuclear reactor provided electricity. The latest
statistics I could find are from 2004 and indicate there were 435 reactors operating
worldwide that year of which we own 23.9% or 104 reactors.
We are loosing ground as the rest of the world reduces their dependency on fossil fuels by
going nuclear. The worldwide per capita production of electricity ranks as follows. As of
2004 the list ia as follows.
1. France generates 78.1% or 62,466 MW from 57 nuclear plants.
2. Lithuania 72.1% or 3,000 MW from 2 plants.
3. Slovakia 55.2% or 2,580 MW from 6 plants.
4. Belgium 55.1% or 5,824 MW from 7 plants.
5. Sweden 51.8% or 9,819 MW from 11 plants.
6. Ukraine 51.1% or 11,880 MW from 13 plants.
7. Bulgaria 41.6% or 3,760 MW from 6 plants.
8. Switzerland 40% or 3,200 MW from 5 plants.
9. Armenia 38.8% or 408 MW from 1 plant.
10. Slovenia 38.8% or 664 MW from 1 plant.
11. South Korea 37.9% or 13,716 MW from 16 plants.
12. Hungary 33.8% or 1,840 MW from 4 plants.
13. Germany 32.1% or 21,931 MW from 19 plants.
14. Czech Republic 31.2% or 1,760 MW from 4 plants.
15. Japan 29.3% or 45,907 MW from 53 plants.
16. Finland 26.6% or 2,400 MW from 4 plants.
17. Spain 22.9% or 7,400 MW from 9 plants.
18. USA 19.9% or 102,162 MW from 104 plants.
19. UK 19.4% or 14,620 MW from 33 plants.
20. Russia 15.6% or 22,316 MW from 30 plants.
21. Canada 15% or 15,795 MW from 21 plants.
22. Romania 10.1% or 708 MW from 1 plant.
23. Argentina 8.2% or 1,005 MW from 2 plants.
24. South Africa 6.6% or 1,930 MW from 2 plants.
25. Mexico 5.2% or 1,350 MW from 2 plants.
26. Netherlands 3.8% or 481 MW from 1 plant.
27. Brazil 3% or 1,966 MW from 2 plants.
28. India 2.8% or 3,180 MW from 14 plants.
29. Pakistan 2.4% or 462 MW from 2 plants.
30. China 2.2% or 2,268 MW from 3 plants.

We, here in the U. S. are the descendants of the scientists who invented nuclear reactors
and nuclear weapons and we rank 19th in the world. Why? I believe our government has
bent to the political pressure of the anti nuke faction fueled by a sensation oriented media
profit oriented global oil suppliers and environmental groups. This disinformation is
crippling our progress. We should be number one on the list and we should lead the world
in nuclear reactor design and construction. But, alas we are 19th. China is starting out in
the cellar and climbing fast with the help of the Canadians, Russians and Japanese and
will surpass all nations in twenty years. China is building nuclear powered generating
plants at the rate of one completed every 20 months! I repeat my earlier mantra. There is
no OSHA in China or Russia to stifle growth in nuclear energy production. Yes, there is
danger in nuclear energy production but there are far more oil refinery fires and coal mine
disasters per year than there are nuclear accidents!
The simple fact is more people die in Sushi Bar Fugu poisoning incidents than do in
Nuclear Accidents per year. No matter how you slice this loaf of bread it is readily
apparent to any logical person that we are running out of fossil fuels at an alarming rate.
We do have vast amounts of coal but the technology and equipment needed to scrub coal
fired power plant emissions clean of pollutant gasses and solids is prohibitively expensive
and requires intensive maintenance and up grades. The Engineering Sciences Department
at Western Kentucky University is conducting scale model experiments in cutting edge
emissions scrubber technology for coal fired plants with long term goals of developing
less costly and more efficient coal fired emissions control systems for the future so we
can utilize our vast coal reserves.
 Chapter 15:

Our Planned Nuclear Waste Repository.

Yucca Mountain, Nevada

A. Weapons Grade Nuclear Material perpetual storage.

During the infancy of our nuclear life in 1945 the custody of nuclear weapons fell to the
AEC or Atomic Energy Commission. At what was called National Storage Sites or NSS
and Operational Storage Sites or OSS. The cold war mission of these sites was to
maintain the capability of launching a sustained attack in a nuclear environment. The Air
Force Strategic Air Command or SAC needed a ready stockpile of protected special
weapons with secure storage and assembly areas hardened against attack. SAC
maintained 20 such sites worldwide by the close of the 1950’s. The Armed Forces Special
Weapons Project or AFSWP, (a civilian agency) oversaw these facilities commonly
referred to as “Q” areas. A secret security clearance credential with “Q” designation was
required for all personnel who entered these areas. (“Q” clearance meant a background
check back to your first grade classmates and teachers). The assembly, test and storage
sites were strictly controlled and all personnel were subjected to rigorous background
checks. All of these facilities were adjacent to or encompassed by standing military bases
which afforded added protection.
The AFSWP was superceded by the Defense Atomic Support Agency or DASA which in
turn was superceded by the Defense Nuclear Agency or DNA who controlled these Air
Force, Army and Navy nuclear facilities during the first years of the cold war. These
agencies paralleled the Atomic Energy Commission or AEC in jurisdiction over nuclear
weapons.
The stockpiling, testing and assembly of these special weapons in this early era required
the storage and testing of detonators or Pits which was highly dangerous and subjected
the personnel to high risks. All of these facilities were heavily guarded and distinct from
their surrounding military facilities in that the signage on the fences authorized deadly
force without warning.
The Sandia Site at the Sandia Corporation in Albuquerque NM was the first operational
national laboratory where weapons were stockpiled and assembled just as the Los Alamos
site was used during WWII. Sandia developed into the Sandia Base operated in close step
with Kirtland AFB which was a ready state SAC bomber facility where war footing
preparedness was expected daily.
As of 1999, there were known to be 12,067 disassembled “Pits”, (Primary Nuclear
Devices), in storage at the Plantex Plant in Amarillo Texas.
The stockpiling of nuclear weapons in the United States started in 1947. There were only
13 weapons in our arsenal at that time. The pace quickened to 56 weapons in 1948 and by
mid 1950 there were 298 weapons in the inventory. The great leap into the thousands of
nuclear weapons came during the Korean War when at the close of 1952 we had 832
weapons in the inventory and by 1955 an inventory of 2,280 weapons of varying design
and atomic yield. The first four storage sites were chosen to be the main stockpile sites
and were all completed prior to 1950. All sites were Alpha-Coded (alpha-numeric code
sequencing) with a break in the alpha sequencing for overseas locations. In the 1950’s
more sites were added to the original four. These sites included the following list:
Site A, is the Manzano Base, adjacent to Kirtland AFB and the Sandia Facility in New
Mexico.
Site B, is the Clarksville Base, adjacent to Campbell AFB and Fort Campbell which
straddles the Kentucky/Tennessee border.
Site C, is the Medina Base, adjacent to Kelly and Lackland AFB Texas.
Site D, is the Killeen Base, adjacent to Gray AFB and Fort Hood Texas.
Site E, is the Caribou AFS at Loring AFB in Maine.
Site F, is the Rushmore AFS at Ellsworth AFB in South Dakota.
Site G, is the Deep Creek AFS at Fairchild AFB in Washington.
Site H, is the Fairfield AFS at Travis AFB in California.
Site I, is the Stonybrook SFS at Westover AFB in Massachusetts.

The five alert sites (Site E through I) were transferred to the U. S. Air Force Air Materiel
Command in the late 50’s by Sandia Labs and were taken over by five Air Force
Squadrons numbered 3080th through the 3084th Aviation Depot Wing ADW. The HQ of
this command was located at Wright Patterson AFB in Ohio.
At the time of this writing an extensive reorganization of the U. S. Military storage
practices and locations is underway at the direction of the National Command Authority
(Read Secretary of Defense by direction of the President).

B. Low Grade Nuclear waste and contaminated material perpetual storage.

The Yucca Mountain Repository now under construction will be the largest underground
storage site in the world strictly designed to hold all levels nuclear contaminated material
for the foreseeable future. The Department of Energy began a study of Yucca Mountain
Nevada in 1978 while looking for a long term storage site for nuclear material. It will
safely house high grade (weapons grade) nuclear material as well as low grade nuclear
waste such as spent reactor fuel rods. Obsolete and discarded nuclear materials now
reside at 120 separate sites in 39 states in the continental U. S. and it’s possessions. On
July 23, 2003 President Bush signed House Joint Resolution 87 which allows the DOE to
take appropriate steps to establish the federal owned land of Yucca Mountain Nevada as
our nation’s primary nuclear waste repository.
This site is on federal land one hundred miles Northwest of Las Vegas in the Amargosa
Valley in Nye County on land adjacent to Nellis Air Force Base.
Fifty Eight Billion U. S. Dollars have been earmarked from DOE funds for the Yucca
Mountain Project.
Almost Nine Billion Dollars has been spent so far on design studies, environmental
impact, engineering/geologic testing and site preparation. This facility is scheduled to go
online and start receiving nuclear material by June 30th 2008 if not prevented by anti nuke
environmental lawsuits brought in federal courts.
For every year this facility is not in operation it costs the taxpayers seven billion in lost
payments into the nuclear waste management fund by the nuclear power companies
scheduled to use it. Most shipments will be by rail with some low level less hazardous
materials arriving at the site via truck. The DOE is planning on building a railroad
directly to the site which is another environmental nightmare in itself to get through all
the environmental regulations and lawsuits. The waste material will be transported into
the tunnels under the dense rock mountain by robotic machinery and placed in sealed
sections far underground to prevent the escape of any radiation. Some materials will be
buried further underground for security reasons and encased in thick concrete and steel
coffins. Security will be very tight and no flora of fauna will move in the vicinity without
being picked up by sensors located everywhere. Shoot first (deadly force authorized)
warning signs will be plentiful.
A side note on nuclear security. There have been many unfortunate incidents of late
where anti nuke protesters have lain down on the tracks in front of trains carrying nuclear
weapons or Nuclear Waste. Some protesters are so passionate they think the train would
stop before it ran over them. They are mistaken. What they don’t know is that the security
protocol for trains carrying nuclear materials or weapons components calls for an armed
agent to accompany the operator at all times and with an order to shoot the operator if
any attempt is made to stop the train until it arrives at it’s assigned and approved
destination! Also, a train engineer friend of mine said it is very difficult to stop a 1000 ton
train even if it is going 20 miles per hour due to the mass and inertia of that amount of
weight.
 Chapter 16:

Our Cost so far.

As mandated by the Start II Treaty the U. S. will have no more than 5000 total nuclear
warheads and bombs in the strategic stockpile. The remainder, some 7,500 individual
warheads and bombs will be dismantled and buried underground.
The Brookings Institution study tallied up the cost of the U. S. Nuclear Arms Program
from 1940 to 1996 and collected data from all sources inside and outside the U. S.
Government. The conclusion was that in those 56 years the U. S. Taxpayer footed the bill
for $5,800,000,000.00, (Five point Eight Trillion USD), which averages out to
$1,035,714,285.71, (One point Zero Three Five Billion USD), each year and
$2,837,573.39, (Two point Eight Three Seven Million USD) per day!
The Manhattan Project alone cost $20 Billion in WWII Dollars. The total number of U. S.
Nuclear weapons produced from 1945 to 1990 is 70,000 each of all types.
As of 1997 12,500 Nukes remained in our stockpile and of that number 8,750 were
deployable, 2,500 were in ready reserve and 1,250 were awaiting disassembly and
deactivation (burial). From 1956 to 1957 (At the height of the Cold War) the U. S. Army
requested 151,000 warheads from DOD procurement. As of this writing there is
approximately 43 metric tons of Plutonium remaining in U. S. weapons archive, inactive
or disassembled & buried.

As of 1997 the states with the most nuclear weapons contained within their borders are;
New Mexico……………………………………………………………….2,450 weapons.
Georgia…………………………………………………………………….2,000 weapons.
Washington State…………………………………………………………. 1,650 weapons.
Nevada…………………...……………………………………………….. 1,350 weapons.
North Dakota…………….…………………………………………………1,140 weapons.
Total…………………..…………………………………………………8,590 weapons.
Many of the Navy’s nuclear weapons are at sea on ships and submarines.
This is one reason the Navy will not confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weapons on
its’ ships if asked by the media. No one in the Federal government can tell us what the
final cost of the Yucca Mountain Repository will be as cost adjustments continue as we I
write. As an engineer I can tell you it will be a staggering final cost due to inflation in
materials and fuel costs.
The DOE has proposals on the table to spend 4.5 billion dollars per year on stewardship
of nuclear weapons in the U. S. stockpile. We are currently spending 35 billion per year
in research and development, maintenance, cleanup and storage costs for our nuclear
defense arsenal. A study done in 1964 stated that 400 megatons of nuclear weapons
would be enough to deter any attacker by the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction.
At that time the U. S. possessed 17,000 megatons in the arsenal. In today’s global
political climate we must maintain our defense system at peak readiness. However I
believe a comprehensive study must be conducted to ascertain all the possible scenarios
that may face our nation in the future and plan our nuclear force capability around those
results. If we only needed 400 megatons of weapons in 1964 to deter our enemies then
that amount adjusted to present day likely scenarios with a 25% reserve should be
maintained. We must not over develop our nuclear capability because we are rapidly
approaching a annual federal budget tipping point between national defense priorities and
social entitlement spending. We can not afford all things for all purposes in this nation
and expect our society to last. We will exhaust our funds quickly if we try to fund all
projects without a balance. I don’t mind paying my fair share of taxes if I get a reasonable
return on my investment. If I am reasonably sure this nation can defend itself against all
enemies and that the citizens will be provided for then I think we have reached an
understanding. A happy medium must be found and maintained.
 Chapter 17:

How to prepare for the future.

In any WMD the design of and intended use of the weapon is for maximum destruction
of infrastructure and maximum casualties. There are three main types of WMD weapons.

1. Nuclear Weapons,
A. Military nuclear warheads and bombs which explode due to a nuclear chemical
reaction.
B. Dirty bombs composed of nuclear material exploded and scattered by a
conventional explosive such as TNT, Amonium Nitrate, or a chemical explosive.
C. The deliberate breeching of a nuclear facility or power plant via the use of
conventional explosives or a projectile such as an aircraft.
D. The deliberate distribution of nuclear material or waste of sufficient yield to cause
physical harm or infrastructure access denial.

2. Biological Weapons,
A. Any biologically harmful element composed of microorganisms capable of causing
harm to humans or animals or the food supply chain. These biological weapons can be
distributed via air, water, consumables, direct contact or mail.

3. Chemical Weapons,
A. A chemical element such as a gas, vapor, powder, or liquid which when disbursed
causes harm to humans, animals or food supply. The gas used in World War I was
Chlorine. It caused severe burning of the mucus membranes and causes bleeding into the
lungs. On contact with skin it causes burns.
The only way to protect yourself and your loved ones from these weapons is to plan
ahead. If you have the capability to install a shelter on your property it must be:
1. Underground to protect from blast effect.
2. It must be windowless to protect from the light pulse from a nuclear
detonation.
3. It must be of a material that will block radiation from penetration into the
area where people will be.
4. It must have a heavy door on the one access point that is secured from the
inside.
5. It must have a two week supply of non-perishable food and water for each
person.
6. To protect from biological and chemical weapons it must have a self
contained air supply uncontaminated by outside air.
7. First aid supplies and medications including prescriptions.
8. Human waste disposal capability, containers and cleaning supplies.
9. Sleeping accommodations.
10. Portable battery operated or crank operated lights, LED lights last longer
and use less battery power) and radios.
11. Tools for making repairs to essential equipment.
12. A written plan and instructions (internet sources) on dealing with WMD
effects.
13. Small arms and ammunition for protection from looters or other threats.
14. Radiation detection equipment.
15. Breathing masks and hooded plastic rain suits and rubber gloves for
venturing outside.
16. Reading material and a log book or journal with pens and pencils.

Survival is simple with a little engineering, planning and expense. What is your life and
the lives of your loved ones worth?
When I built my home in Kentucky eleven years ago I designed into the plans a 10 foot
by 10 foot concrete bunker. I located it in the most underground corner of my all poured
and steel reinforced concrete basement and installed a three inch thick insulated steel
plated door. I placed a 100 pound cylinder of compressed air into the bunker for
pressurization in case of biological or chemical attack.
I can seal the inner seam of the door with duct tape and put an overpressure inside the
room to keep contaminants from entering.
The room contains drinking water, first aid supplies, fire extinguisher, chemical toilet,
canned food, candles, flashlights, radiation detection equipment and a double bunk bed. It
will keep me and my wife alive for at least two weeks no mater what form of WMD
attack or accident occurs. The walls and ceiling are 8” thick poured concrete with many
steel reinforcing bars as well as the 12” thick floor. When I located the building site of the
home I notched out the side of a rock and clay hill with a bulldozer and placed the
basement completely underground on three sides. This affords the basement area with
great blast protection as the walkout wall of the basement faces southeast. If you go to
http://members.aol.com/rafleet/hazmaps.htm you will find FEMA generated hazardous
condition maps for earthquakes, tornados, hurricanes and nuclear blast and fallout
predictions. This will help in determining where you want to build your house. It is also
essential that you determine at what compass bearing and distance the nearest military
bases and population centers are located in relation to your home location. Remember,
you don’t have to be deep underground unless you are near a prospective target ground
zero in an attack. Just being mostly underground in a strong structure made from a steel
shell or steel reinforced concrete will provide adequate protection in nuclear war. My
friend in Purvis Mississippi recently installed a steel ball type shelter in his yard for less
than $8,000. He is very happy with it.
Air supply must also be considered as the outside air will become contaminated with
radiation carrying particulates in a nuclear scenario or chemical/biological agents which
are lethal if inhaled. Dust from a nuclear explosion will be the main ingredient in fallout.
Breathing in contaminated particles is a death sentence. It is essential that some sort of
breathing protection be provided.
The minimum should be an ANSI 95 rated particulate mask whenever you are exposed to
outside air in a nuclear scenario. If you go to the website www.safetycentral.com you will
find a variety of masks used for biological, chemical and nuclear protection. A wet hankie
will not do in these situations. My home is equidistant from the U. S. Army Base at Fort
Knox Kentucky and the Blue Grass Army Depot (Chemical, Biological and Nuclear
Weapons Storage) facility. My home is 56 miles from each target area.
These bases will certainly be targets of our enemies. If you live in an area with a water
table (ground water) near the surface you can build a mounded shelter in your back yard
from readily available prefabricated shelter dealers. There are basic things you can do to
be prepared. These are located at the web site www.ki4u.com/survive/index.htm which
explains everything you need to know on how to survive a nuclear attack. Another
excellent web site is www.alpinesurvival.com where you will find all your WMD
survival supplies including shelter designs and plans.
There are many companies in existence that will help you build what you need or you can
consult with an engineer with military construction experience who can help you.
Secrecy is essential in building your shelter. Don’t let the general public or your
neighborhood know what you are building. If you have to get county or city government
approval then ask them to keep the plans quiet. The less people who know you have a
bomb shelter the better. If nuclear war breaks out you don’t want them all showing up at
your shelter entrance begging for you to let them in. This is one of the many reasons you
need to have adequate small arms to protect yourself, your family and your means of
survival. You have to adopt a “survive at any cost” philosophy or you will perish along
with the rest of humanity. The possibility of a WMD attack gets more and more likely as
we move forward in time. There are no actions being taken by any government in the
world to stop rogue nations from getting nuclear, biological or chemical weapons, other
than talk or diplomacy. The United Nations is inept and lead by fools who want to make
nice with everyone or control all of our carbon footprints. Our government here in the
United States is incompetent to the nth degree due to its’ sheer size and complexity.
We are basically on our own and if we want to survive we must take a leadership role in
our own individual and family survival.
Shortages of food, fuel and water are happening now so the future doesn’t look good. The
best case scenario is that when the war for survival starts either by some rogue nation
using a crude WMD or some nation coveting another’s resources. At least we in the know
will be prepared and self reliant enough to survive.
Peace!
GLOSSARY:

Military and Nuclear Industry terminology.

AAM, Air-to-Air Missile.

ABM, Anti-Ballistic Missile.
ACM, Advanced Cruise Missile.
ADM, Atomic Demolition Munition.
ADW, Aviation Depot Wing.
AEC, Atomic Energy Commission.
AFAP, Artillery Fired Atomic Munition.
AFB, Air Force Base.
AFNG, Air Force National Guard.
AFS, Air force Station.
AFSWP, Armed Forced Special Weapons Project.
AGM, Air to Ground Missile.
AIM, Air intercept Missile usually launched from an aircraft.
ALCM, Air Launched Cruise Missile.
ANG, Army National Guard.
ANSI, American National Safety Institute.
ASM, Air-Surface Missile.
ASROC, Anti-submarine Rocket.
ASW, Anti-Submarine Warfare.
CAPT. Military Officers Rank.
CIA, Central Intelligence Agency.
CGN, Nuclear Powered Cruiser/Destroyer.
CinC, Commander in Chief.
CID, Criminal Investigations Division, (U. S. Army Investigatory Agency).
CJCS, Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff, (The senior commanding officer of each service
makes up this board).
Clean, A nuclear weapon with an explosive yield that emits normal radiation particles.
CSA, Chief of Staff of the Army.
CSAF, Chief of Staff of the Air Force.
CONUS, Continental United States.
CVN, Nuclear Powered Aircraft Carrier.
DASA, Defense Atomic Support Agency.
Dirty, a nuclear weapon that spews out ionizing radiation particles by design or by
accident in higher concentrations than normal/
DNA, Defense Nuclear Agency.
DOD, Department of Defense.
DOE, Department of Energy.
ER, Enhanced Radiation (“Neutron Bomb”).
EC, Emergency Capability.
ECM, Electronic Counter-Measures.
EMP, Electromagnetic Pulse. (Nuclear explosion created dead zone for electronics)
EPA, Environmental Protection Agency.
F/F, Freefall.
FRP, Fire Resistant Pit.
FUFO, Full-Fuzing Options nuclear trigger control.
HEU, Highly Enriched Uranium.
HP, Horse Power.
HTRE, Heat Transfer Reactor Experiment.
HQ, Headquarters.
HWR, Heavy Water Reactor.
ICBM, Intercontinental Ballistic Missile.
IFI, In-Flight-Insertion.
IHE, Insensitive High Explosive.
IRBM, Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile, (Usually under 1500 miles).
JATO, Jet Assisted Take Off, Steel bottle shaped rockets filled with chemical solid rocket
fuel that produced high thrust output for 10 to 15 seconds.
Kt, Kilotons.
KNOT, One nautical mile per hour or 6,000 feet. 780 feet longer than a statute mile.
LANL, Los Alamos National Laboratory.
LASL, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory.
LED, Light Emitting Diode.
LLNL, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
LRL, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory.
LT, Military Officer Rank of Lieutenant.
LWR, Light Water Reactor.
MAD, Mutually Assured Destruction.
MAJOR, Field Grade Officer Rank in Army, Air Force and Marine Corps.
MAUD, The secret British Committee developing nuclear weapons in 1941.
MGM, Military designator for missile types.
MK, Mark.
MIRV, Multiply Independently Targeted Reentry Vehicle.
MPH, Miles Per Hour.
MRBM, Medium-Range Ballistic Missile.
Mt. Megatons.
MW, Megawatts.
NAS, Naval Air Station.
NASA, National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
NBC, Nuclear, Biological or Chemical weapons refer to WMD.
NS, Nuclear Ship, (Civilian Nuclear Powered Ship), or Naval Station.
NSA, National Security Agency.
NSC, National Security Council.
NRC, Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
NRO, National Reconnaissance Office.
NSS, National Storage Site.
OCONUS, Outside Continental United States.
OSHA, Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
OSS, Operational Storage Site or Office of Strategic Services.
OSRD, Office of Scientific Research & Development.
PAL, Permissive Action Link.
PHWR, Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor.
PLWR, Pressurized Light Water Reactor.
PU, Plutonium.
Q, Highest level of Nuclear Weapons Security Clearance.
RAM, Rolling Airframe Missile or Random Access Memory.
REM, “Roentgen Equivalent Man” a measurement of exposure to ionizing radiation.
RTD, Parachute Retarded.
RV, Re-entry Vehicle.
SAC, Strategic Air Command.
SALT, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.
SAM, Surface to Air Missile.
SLBM, Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile.
SLCM, Sea Launched Cruise Missile.
SNL, Sandia National Laboratory.
SRAM, Standard Rolling Airframe Missile.
SRBM, Short Range Ballistic Missile.
SSM, Surface to Surface Missile.
SSBN, Ballistic Missile Submarine.
SSN, Nuclear Submarine.
START I, Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty.
START II, Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. (Limits U. S. Operational Nuclear
Weapons to 5,000 bombs and warheads after a certain date).
STOL, Short Takeoff or Landing.
SUBROC, Submarine Rocket.
T, Tons.
TN, Ton.
UCRL, University of California Radiation Laboratory.
USAR, United States Army Reserve.
USACE, United States Army Corps of Engineers.
USAF, United States Air Force.
USAFR, United States Air Force Reserve.
USCG, United States Coast Guard.
USMMA, United States Merchant Marine Academy.
USMC, United States Marine Corps
USMCR, United States Marine Corps Reserve.
USNA, United States Naval Academy.
USN, United States Navy.
USNR, United States Navy Reserve.
WMD, Weapons of Mass Destruction.

References and Sources

“Where they were”, an article by R. S. Norris, W. M. Arkin and W. Burr published in the
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1999, Vol. 55, No. 6.
Department of Defense Directive Number 5230.16 dated December 20, 1993 and
certified current on November 21, 2003. Subject: Nuclear Accident and Incident Public
Affairs (PA) Guidance.
Air Force Search & Recovery Assessment of the 1958 Savannah, GA B-47 Accident
published by the USAF Nuclear Weapons and Counter-proliferation Agency on April 12,
2001.
The Center for Defense Information Document Number 0195-6450, Volume X,
Number 5. Titled, “U. S. Nuclear Weapons Accidents: Danger in Our Midst”,
published in 1981 by the Department of Defense.
“The Effects of Nuclear Weapons” by Russell D. Hoffman published on the internet in
1999.
“Polaris” by J. Barr and W. E. Howard published in 1960.
“Developing the ICBM” by E. Beard published in 1976.
“Annual Report to the President and the Congress” by W. S. Cohen Secretary of
Defense dated February 8, 2000.
“Missiles and Rockets” by K. Gatland published in 1975.
“Ballistic Missiles in the United States Air Force, 1945-1960” by J. Neufeld and
published by the USAF Office of Air Force History in 1990.
“Pegasus” published in the Facts on File World News Digest in 1990.
“The case for terrestrial (a. k. a. Nuclear) Energy”, Imprimis Magazine, Vol. 37,
Number 2, by William Tucker.
“Yucca Mountain Repository” from the U. S. DOE website.

“Global Submarine Proliferation: Emerging Trends and Problems” by J. K. Moltz.

“The illustrated directory of Submarines of the world” by David Miller.

“Secnavinst 1650.1C” issued 9 November 1966.

“Broken Arrow”, “The Declassified History of U. S. Nuclear Weapons Accidents” by
Michael H. Maggelet and James C. Oskins.
www.ocrwm.doe.gov
www.wikipedia.com
www.uic.com.au
http://nnptc.cnet.navy.mil/
www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/eng/index.html
www.combatindex.com
http://www.voa.marad.gov/programs/ns
www.radiationworks.com
www.nuclearweaponarchive.org
www.hypertextbook.com
www.globalsecurity.org
www.usgovinfo.about.com
www.vectorsite.net
www.fas.org/nuke/guide
www.animatedsoftware.com/environm/no_nukes/tnew/nuke_war.htm
www.highbeam.com
www.archives.cnn
www.nuclearfiles.org
www.cnn.com
www.greenpeace.org
www.milnet.com
www.af.mil/news/story.asp
www.apnews.myway.com
www.dtic.mil/execec/adr2000/adr2000.pdf
www.stratcom.af.mil
www.chinfo.navy.mil
www.armscontrol.gov
www.state.gov
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