COURSES > HUMAN ANATOMY II, DDS09, AUT06 > CONCISE ORAL HISTOLOGY > STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF ENAMEL

AND DENTIN

Structural Features of Enamel and Dentin

Structural features of enamel

The Rod Structure of Enamel The organization of the mineral phase of enamel follows a hierarchy of structural levels from the microscopic down to the atomic. The largest structural elements are the enamel rods. These densely packed and intertwined rods extend from the dentinoenamel junction toward the outer surface. Enamel rods are on the order of 4-5 m thick and up to 3 mm in length. A closer inspection of an enamel rod, however, reveals that they are composed of elongated crystals of mineral (related to hydroxyapatite) that are arranged in characteristic patterns. At the light microscopical level the characteristic arrangement of crystals gives rise to rod core and interrod substance, and to the rod sheath. In cross section, enamels rods demonstrate a characteristic "key hole" or "fish scale" pattern. These patterns are due to the differences in orientation of the enamel crystallites: In the rod core, apatite crystals are oriented parallel to the long axis of the rod. In interrod substance, the crystals have a an oblique angulation. The rod sheath (the boundary between rod core and interrod substance) is due to an increase in space, and as a result an increase in water and protein. Crystal Structure in Enamel Each apatite crystallite is composed of thousands of repeating subunits called "unit cells" (dimensions of the order of 10 ). A unit cell is the smallest repeating geometric unit in a crystal, and in enamel that repeating unit is a molecule of a highly modified calcium hydroxyapatite{Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2}. The actual size of hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel is a matter of debate. Classically, the crystals of apatite in enamel were describe as being 30 nm in width and 90 nm in thickness (larger than in either dentin or bone). However, the length of the crystals in enamels is still being debated. Recent data suggest that the crystalites may be up to 100 microns in length, or even possibly longer. The standard electron microscopic view of crystalite structure may actually be due to preparation artifact (shattering). Effects of Ionic Substitutions on the Properties of Biological Apatites The arrangement of ions in the hydroxyapatite unit cell is common to all apatites, and it can accommodate a variety of substitutions without drastic alteration. Nevertheless, changes in the structure of the apatite crystal do result from the substitution of other mono- and divalent cations for Ca2+, replacement of PO43- by CO3-2, or the exchange of Fl-, Cl- or CO3-2 for OH-. Although crystal structure is preserved, the chemical and structural perturbations that accompany such ionic substitutions can substantially affect the stability and chemical reactivity of the enamel. For example: The replacement of some of the hydroxyl groups by fluoride ions, decreases solubility in acids. Carbonate ions, on the other hand, tend to disrupt a number of ionic interactions that stabilize apatite structure. This increases the susceptibility of enamel to carious attack. Incremental Lines in Enamel

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Enamel matrix is synthesized at a rate of 4m/day, but there is a diurnal variation in the rate of synthesis. This results in the formation of daily imbrication lines. Over longer periods of time (7-9 days) other cyclical variations in enamel matrix production and in the shape of Tomes' processes results in the formation of lines of Retzius that run obliquely to the direction of the enamel rods. At the surface, the lines of Retzius end as a series of parallel, shallow grooves called perikymata. Gnarled enamel and Hunter-Schreger bands During enamel formation, individual ameloblasts, or groups of ameloblasts sometimes take nonparallel routes towards the surface. This results in an interweaving pattern of enamel rods. At the cusp tips and incisal edges, variability in the direction of individual enamel rods results in the formation of gnarled enamel. In lateral enamel, groups of enamel rods demonstrate differing orientations, which under reflected light or polarizing microscopy can be recognized as Hunter-Schreger bands. These two patterns of interlocking and intertwining enamel rods may increase enamel strength by eliminating or reducing planes of fracture. Enamel Spindles, Enamel Tufts and Enamel Lamellae Enamel spindles are the terminal ends of dentinal tubules that formed when odontoblastic processes became trapped between ameloblasts during the initiation of enamel matrix synthesis. Enamel tufts are areas of hypomineralized enamel(i.e. more organic material remains) that extend for short distances from the dentinoenamel junction. Histologically, enamel tufts resemble small "whirl winds" or "tufts of grass". Enamel lamellae are also areas of hypomineralization, but unlike enamel tufts they make extend as thin, leaf-like structures all the way to the enamel surface. The significance of enamel lamellae to the initiation and progression of dental caries is probably negligible.

The dentinoenamel junction

The boundary between the enamel and dentin, the dentinoenamel junction, is characterized as a "scalloped border". Convexities of the enamel fit into corresponding concavities in the dentin. "Micro scalloping" is also present. These features are thought to play a role in the mechanical bonding of enamel to the underlying dentin. This simple mechanical adhesion between enamel and dentin, however, does not adeqately explain the ability of enamel to withstand repeated functional loading. Enamel is brittle, and excessive forces will lead to fracture formation in the enamel. Interestingly, these fractures seldom penetrate into the dentin. In addition, while enamel may chip and fractures through the dentin do occur, enamel does not normally delaminate from the underlying dentin core. The biomechanical properties of the DEJ have recently been reexamined, and as a result there is now considerable evidence to suggest that the enamel and dentin adjacent to the DEJ should be more properly thought of as a specialized zone. Within this zone there is a transition from the brittle enamel to the softer dentin that acts to dampen and transmit stresses.

Structural features of dentin

Dentin is a highly permeable tissue, and this is due mainly to the presence of numerous dentinal tubules that extend from the pulp to the DEJ. These tubules (~ 1-3 m in diameter) are formed because of the presence of the odontoblastic procesess that extend into the newly formed dentin matrix.

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Because of the geometry of dentin formation, i.e. inward apposition, the dentinal tubules describe S-shaped curves in the crown (primary S-curves). The dentinal tubules also display lateral branches and terminal branching in the periphery. In the root, complex terminal branching leads to the appearance of Tomes' granular layer. On average there are 20,000-30,000 tubules per mm2 at the DEJ, and this increases significantly as one gets nearer to the pulp. Thus, a large portion of the dentin is actually fluid-filled space and not mineralized matrix. Because of the presence of dentinal tubules, circumpulpal dentin can be divided into: Intertubular dentin Intratubular (peritubular) dentin. Intertubular dentin is simply normal mineralized dentin. In contrast, intratubular dentin is a highly mineralized sheath that is added to the inside walls of the tubule (Think of a water pipe closing as calcified matter is deposited). It contains no collagen type I and is continuosly synthesized. Under some circumstances intratubular dentin may obliterate the tubule completely. This results in the formation of sclerotic dentin. Conversely, groups of empty tubules (no processes, just fluid filled) are called dead tracts. Incremental Lines in Dentin As in enamel there is a diurnal variation in the rate of synthesis, but daily imbrication lines are not recognizable in dentin. However, two other incremental lines are present: Lines of von Ebner Lines of Owen Lines of von Ebner represent changes in the orientation of the collagen matrix that occur approximately every 5 days. Lines of Owen, on the other hand are formed by more dramatic long term changes in odontoblast function that lead to a compression of a series of lines of von Ebner. For example, the neonatal line is an exaggerated line of Owen. A neonatal line can also be seen in the enamel, and it represents an exaggerated line of Retzius. Globular and Interglobular Dentin Areas of hypomineralization are also found in dentin. When mineralization begins, the sites of mineral nucleation (calcospheres) are separated from one another within the predentin. They increase in size and eventually fuse to form the mineralization front. However, this is not a perfect process, and areas of hypomineralized dentin may become trapped between areas displaying normal mineral content. The mixture of normal and hypomineralized dentin is recognized histologically as globular dentin, and the regions of hypomineralization are called interglobular dentin.

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