APPENDIX 1

WEB APPENDIX 1: AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS OF INTEREST TO DESIGNERS, ARCHITECTS, AND DRAFTERS
WEB SITES ANSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .www.ansi.org ASME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .www.asme.org TITLE OF STANDARD Abbreviations for Use on Drawings and Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y1.11999 American National Standard Drafting Practice: Metric Drawing Sheet Size and Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.1M1995 Decimal Inch Drawing Sheet Size and Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.11995 Line Conventions and Lettering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.2M1992 (R1998) Multi and Sectional View Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.3M1994 (R1999) Pictorial Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.41989 (R1999) Revision of Engineering Drawings and Associated Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.35M1992 Dimensioning and Tolerancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.5M1994(R1999) Dimensioning and Tolerancing with Mathematical Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.5.1M1994 (R1999) Certification of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Professionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.5.2(1995) Screw Thread Representation, Engineering Drawing and Related Documentation Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.61978 (R1998) Engineering Drawing and Related Documentation Practices Screw Thread Representation (Metric Supplement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.6AM1981 (R1998) Gears and Splines Gear Drawing StandardsPart 1, for Spur, Helical, Double Helical, and Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.7.11971 (R1998) Gear and Spline Drawing StandardsPart 2, Bevel and Hypoid Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.7.21978 (R1999) Castings and Forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.8M1989 (R1996) Engineering Drawing and Related Documentation Practices Mechanical Spring Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.13M1981 (R1998) Electrical and Electronics Diagrams (includes supplements ANSI Y14.15a1971 and ANSI Y14.15b1973) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.151966 (R1988) Fluid Power Systems and ProductsMoving Parts Fluid Controls Method of Diagramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME/(NFPA) T3.28.9R11989 Engineering Drawings and Related Documentation PracticesOptical Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.18M1986 (R1998) Types and Applications of Engineering Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.241999 (R2000) Digital Representation for Communication of Product Definition Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .US PRO/IPO1001993 Chassis FramesPassenger Car and Light Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.32.1M1999 Parts Lists, Data Lists, and Index Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.34M1989 Surface Texture Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.361978 (R1996) Graphic Symbols: Electrical Wiring and Layout Diagrams Used in Architecture and Building Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.91972 (R1989) Plumbing Fixtures for Diagrams Used in Architecture and Building Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.41977 (R1999) Railroad Maps and Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.71972 (R1994) Fluid Power Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.101967 (R1999) Process Flow Diagrams in the Petroleum and Chemical Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.111961 (R1998) Mechanical and Acoustical Elements as Used in Schematic Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.181972 (R1998) Pipe Fittings, Valves, and Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/ASME Y32.2.31949 (R1999) Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.2.41949 (R1998) Heat-Power Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.2.6M1950 (R1999) Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/AWS A2.41993 Letter Symbols: Glossary of Terms Concerning Letter Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y10.11972 (R1988) Quantities Used in Electrical Science and Electrical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/IEEE 2801985 (R1992) Letter Symbols and Abbreviations for Quantities Used in Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/ASME Y10.111984 Chemical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y10.121955 (R1988) Illuminating Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y10.181967 (R1977) Mathematical Signs and Symbols for Use in Physical Sciences and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/IEEE 260.31993 Engineering Drawing Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.100M1998 Engineering Drawings and Associated Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.35M1997

Appendix 2

WEB APPENDIX 2: DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING SYMBOLS

APPENDIX 3

WEB APPENDIX 3: DESIGNATION OF WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES BY LETTERS

Welding and Allied Processes Letter Designation Welding and Allied Processes Letter Designation

adhesive bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ABD arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AW atomic hydrogen welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AHW bare metal arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BMAW carbon arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAW gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAW-G shielded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAW-S twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAW-T electrogas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EGW flux cored arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FCAW gas metal arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GMAW pulsed arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GMAW-P short circuiting arc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GMAW-S gas tungsten arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GTAW pulsed arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GTAW-P plasma arc welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PAW shielded metal arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SMAW stud arc welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SW submerged arc welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAW series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAW-S brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B arc brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AB block brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BB carbon arc brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAB diffusion brazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DFB dip brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DB flow brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLB furnace brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FB induction brazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IB infrared brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IRB resistance brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RB torch brazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TB other welding processes electron beam welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EBW high vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EBW-HV medium vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EBW-MV nonvacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EBW-NV electroslag welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ESW flow welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLOW induction welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IW laser beam welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBW thermit welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TW oxyfuel gas welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFW air acetylene welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AAW oxyacetylene welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OAW oxyhydrogen welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OHW pressure gas welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PGW resistance welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RW flash welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FW percussion welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PEW projection welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PW resistance seam welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RSEW high frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RSEW-HF induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RSEW-I

resistance spot welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RSW upset welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UW high frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UW-HF induction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UW-I soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S dip soldering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS furnace soldering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FS induction soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IS infrared soldering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IRS iron soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INS resistance soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RS torch soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TS wave soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WS solid-state welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SSW coextrusion welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CEW cold welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CW diffusion welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DFW explosion welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXW forge welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FOW friction welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FRW hot pressure welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HPW roll welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ROW ultrasonic welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . USW thermal cutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TC arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AC air carbon arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AAC carbon arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAC gas metal arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GMAC gas tungsten arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GTAC metal arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MAC plasma arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PAC shielded metal arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SMAC electron beam cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EBC laser beam cutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBC air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBC-A evaporative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBC-EV inert gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBC-IG oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBC-O oxygen cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OC chemical flux cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FOC metal powder cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . POC oxyfuel gas cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFC oxyacetylene cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFC-A oxyhydrogen cutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFC-H oxynatural gas cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFC-N oxypropane cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFC-P oxygen arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AOC oxygen lance cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOC thermal spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THSP arc spraying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASP flame spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLSP plasma spraying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PSP

Appendix 4

WEB APPENDIX 4: SYMBOLS FOR PIPE FITTINGS AND VALVES

APPENDIX 5

WEB APPENDIX 5: Common Fractions

MATH INSTRUCTION ARITHMETIC

Examples are:
.375 = .014 = 375 3 = 1000 8 14 7 = 1000 500 75 3 =6 100 4

To add and subtract common fractions, the denominators (bottoms) must be the same.
1 3 4 + = 16 16 16

Normally, fractions are reduced to lowest form by dividing both the numerator (top) and denominator by the same number. Dividing by 4 reduces the previous fraction.
4 1 = 16 4

6.75 = 6

To multiply fractions, the denominators do not have to be the same. Simply multiply the numerators and denominators separately.
1 2 2 1 = = 4 3 12 6

With the advent of computers and calculators, it has become important to know how to round decimal answers properly. Look one place to the right of where the decimal is to be rounded. If that digit is 5 or more, increase the value of the digit to the left of it by one; if it is 4 or less, do not increase the left digit. This concept is best grasped by viewing examples. Rounding to the nearest hundredth: .275 becomes .28 (due to the 5 one place to the right of the hundredth position) .273 become .27 (the 3 is 4 or less) .27499 also becomes .27 (the 9s have no effect on rounding to hundredths) .279 becomes .28 (the 9 is 5 or more) Rounding to the nearest tenth: .275 becomes .3 .274 also becomes .3 (look only to the 7) .249 becomes .2 (look only to the 4) .05 becomes .1 .04 becomes .0 .729 becomes .7

To divide fractions, flip the second fraction upside down (invert the divisor), then multiply.
1 2 1 3 3 = = 4 3 4 2 8

When multiplying and dividing mixed numbers, it is necessary to convert them to fractions first. This is done by multiplying the whole number by the denominator of the fraction and adding that to the top of the fraction for a new numerator.
6 3 6 8 + 3 51 = = 8 8 8

For example:
2 1 2 9 11 99 1 3 = = =8 4 3 4 3 12 4

Percentages
Percents are hundredths:
5% = 50% = 5 1 = 100 20 50 1 = 100 2

The final answer was obtained by dividing the 99 by the 12 with long division.

Decimal Fractions
To convert a common fraction to a decimal fraction, divide the numerator by the denominator. Dividing 3 by 8 shows that
3 = .375 8

To convert a decimal to common fraction form, place the decimal number without the decimal point on top and place its place value, given by this scheme, on the bottom of the fraction. 0 . 1 4 1 5 9 2 tenth hundredth thousandth ten thousandth hundred thousandth millionth

Percentages are easiest to calculate in decimal form. To convert a percentage to a decimal, move the decimal point two places to the left. Examples follow. 5% = .05 50% = .50 3.75% = .0375 Success in working percentage problems requires correctly identifying three pieces of the problem called the part, the base, and the rate. The part is a portion of any whole amount, the base is the whole amount, and the rate is the number with the percent sign (%). To find the part: 1. Convert the rate to decimal form. 2. Multiply the rate by the base.

Appendix 5

Example 1: What is 15% of 233? In this example the rate is 15% and 233 is the whole amount or base. The answer is 34.95 because 15% 233 = .15 233 = 34.95. Example 2: What is 5.25% of 1000? The answer is 52.5 because .0525 1000 = 52.5. Example 3: What is 125% of 500? The answer is 625 because 1.25 500 = 625. To find the base: 1. Convert the rate to decimal form. 2. Divide the part by the rate. Example 4: 10% of what number is 375? This problem requires realizing that 375 is a portion of some unknown whole amount. So you know the rate and part and are seeking the base. The answer is 3,750 because 375 .10 = 3,750. Example 5: An old copy machine is known to waste 2% of the copies it makes. How many copies were run if 14 were wasted? The wasted copies are the part and the entire run is the base, so the answer is 14 .02 = 700 copies run. To find the rate: 1. Divide the part by the base. 2. Convert the answer to percent by moving the decimal point two places to the right. Example 6: What percent of 500 is 125? This type of problem requires identifying which number is the base. From the wording, the whole amount is 500 so that is the base, and 125 is a portion of this whole amount, making it the part. Often, the base is the number immediately following the word of. The answer to the problem is 25% because 125 500 = .25, which equals 25%. Example 7: A machine cutting tool has a useful life of 110 hours. If the tool is used 50 hours, what percentage of its useful life is left? In this problem first find the useful life left in hours: 110 50 = 60. So this problem is the same as asking what percent of 110 is 60. The solution is 54.5% because 60 110 = .545 (after rounding), then .545 = 54.5%. Example 8: $200 is what percent of $50? The answer is 400% because 200 50 = 4 = 400%. The moral of this example is that the base is not always the larger number.

3 Example 3: 125 = 5. This cube root of 125 equals 5 because 5 cubed is 125. Example 4: The square root is the most common root. The 2 square root of 49 may be written 49, but the index number 2 is usually suppressed for square root. Write 49 = 7. It equals 7 because 7 squared is 49. Here are other examples of powers and roots. 3 25 = 32 62 = 36 8 = 2 16 = 4 All scientific calculators have buttons or sequences of buttons that make finding powers and roots very easy. The booklet that comes with the calculator should be consulted to learn how to do this.

ALGEBRA Signed Numbers

The sign of a number is found immediately to the left of a number. If there is no sign, this means the same as if there is a plus sign. For example, in the expression 4 7 the 4 is a positive number and the 7 is a negative number. Multiplication of two numbers is indicated by parentheses around one or both numbers and no sign between the numbers: (3)(6) is multiplication, but (3) + (6) is not multiplication. Here are other examples of multiplication: (2)(3) 7(8) (5)(6) 7(4) = = = = 6 56 30 28

As these examples show, the rules for signs when multiplying are: 1. If signs are the same, the answer is positive. 2. If signs are different, the answer is negative. Multiplication is also indicated by a raised dot (not to be confused with a decimal point). 4

3 = 12

The sign rules for division are identical to multiplication. For example, 9 3 = 3. Often in algebra, division is indicated as a fraction. The previous division example might be expressed as 9 3 The rules for combining (adding and subtracting) signed numbers are: 1. If signs are the same, add the numbers and give the answer the common sign. 2. If signs are different, subtract the two numbers and give the answer the sign of the bigger. Example 1: 1 +3 This is not a multiplication problem because there are no parentheses or raised dots; it is a combining problem. The 1 is negative and the 3 is positive, so their signs are different, which

Powers and Roots

A power is a small, raised number and stands for repeated multiplication. Example 1: 53 = 5 5 5 = 125. This third power is called a cube. The example is read, 5 cubed equals 125. Example 2: 72 = 7 7 = 49. The second power is the square, and this example is read, 7 squared equals 49. A root is the reverse of a power.

APPENDIX 5

calls for subtraction: 1 from 3 leaves 2. The 3 is bigger than the 1 so the answer gets the positive sign of the 3. Thus, 1 +3 = 2. Example 2: 4 6 This is also a combining problem. Both numbers are negative so their signs are the same. Add 4 and 6 and get 10. Give the answer the common negative sign, so 4 6 = 10. It does not matter whether you interpret this problem as 4 add 6 or 4 subtract +6, but the easiest interpretation is combine 4 and 6. Here are further examples of combining problems: +7 5 = +2 +5 7 = 2 3 1 = 4 4 +3 = 1 Sometimes parentheses do occur in combining problems involving equations. Such problems require parentheses to first be removed by using the rules of multiplication on the signs around the left parenthesis of each pair. The following example illustrates this. Example 3: (3) + (6) The (3) has no sign in front so a positive sign can be attached: +(3). Now the signs around the left parenthesis symbol are + and . These signs are different, and applying the multiplication sign rule for them (different signs, answer is negative) resolves them into a single negative () sign. Likewise, the signs around the left parenthesis of the 6 resolves them into a single negative () sign. So the problem (3) + (6) is the same as 3 6. Using the combining rules on this, 3 6 = 9. Example 4: 4 (5) = 4 +5 = 1 Example 5: 6 (7) = +6 (+7) = +6 7 = 1 Sometimes technical publications and applications omit the parentheses and show just the double signs. Solve such combining problems in the same way: 4 5 = 4 +5 = 1 Here are further examples of combining problems: 4 (4) = 4 +4 = 0 3 (3) = 3 + 3 = 6 2 + (7) (8) = 2 7 8 = 5 8 = 13

1. Work within parentheses first. 2. Then do powers and roots. 3. Then do multiplication and division. 4. Finally, do addition and subtraction. Example 2: (5 1)2 3 = (4)2 3 = 16 3 = 13 Example 3: 17 8 4 = 17 2 = 15 (It is tempting to subtract the 8 from the 17, but the division must be done first.)

Solving Simple Equations

There are basically two operations that solve simple equations. One operation involves combining, the other involves multiplying. When a letter (unknown) has a number combined with it, move that number to the other side of the equal sign but also change its sign. Example 1: x + 5 = 7 Moving the +5 to the right side of the equation and changing its sign to 5 gives x = 7 5. Evaluating x = 2. Example 2: or just: so: or: Example 3: 10 = 4 + y 10 +4 = +y 10 +4 = y 14 = y y = 14 3+z=2 z=23 z = 1 x + abc = z x = z abc When a letter is being multiplied by a number, divide both sides of the equation by that number. 5 x = 15 5 x 15 = 5 5 x=3 2 y = 10 Example 6: 2 y 10 = 2 2 y = 5 Ax = B Example 7: Ax B = A A B x= A Conversely, if the problem has division, multiply. Example 5: Example 8: x =6 2 x 2 = 6 2 2 x = 12

Example 4: Solve for x.

Evaluating Expressions
When using formulas, the first step is to replace (substitute) the letters with numbers. The resulting expression is then solved by applying the rules for signed numbers. Example 1 (temperature): Find F if C = 10 using the formula F = 1.8 C + 32 Replacing the letters with numbers gives F = (1.8) (10) + 32. In algebra, when a letter is next to a number and there is no + or sign, multiplication is indicated. This formula calls for C to be multiplied by 1.8: (1.8) (10) = 18. So we now have F = 18 + 32, which gives F = 14. Since most formulas involve a mixture of addition, multiplication, and other math operations, it is necessary to follow the worldwide order of operations when evaluating expressions:

()

( )( )

Appendix 5

The solution of larger simple equations involves applying these two basic operations more than once. 5 x + 7 = 22 5 x = 22 7 5 x = 15 5 x 15 = 5 5 x=3 Example 10: 2 y 9 = 11 2 y = 11 + 9 2 y = 20 2 y 20 = 2 2 y = 10 To solve an equation with a letter squared, take the square root of both sides of the equation. Example 9: Example 11: x 2 = 49 x 2 = 49 x = 7 and x = 7 ( because 7 7 also equals 49 ) Conversely, to solve an equation with the square root of a letter, square both sides of the equation. Example 12:

Example 3: A cylindrical container holds 1,000 gallons of oil when filled to a depth of 8 feet. How many gallons are there when the depth is 312 feet?

FIGURE 1

A cylindrical container.

Set up a proportion. 1000 gallons x gallons = 8 feet 3.5 feet (8)( x ) = (1000 )( 3.5)

( y)

y =8
2

8 x = 3500 x = 437.5 gallons

= 82

y = 64

Ratio and Proportion

One very common and useful type of equation is called a proportion. Each side of a proportion is a fraction or ratio. To solve a proportion by cross-multiplying, multiply the top of one ratio by the bottom of the other and set them equal. Example 1: x 15 = 6 5 x 5 = 6 15

GEOMETRY Two-Dimensional Figures

This section contains formulas for the perimeter (P) and area of common geometric figures the drafter may encounter. Perimeter is the straight-line (linear) distance around a figure, and area is the number of square units that fit within a figure.

( )( ) ( )( )

5 x = 90 5 x 90 = 5 5 x = 18 An older way to express this example is X:6::15:5. The x and 5 were the extremes and the 6 and 15 the means. Example 2: On a drawing, the scale is 1:150. What actual length does a 3.25'' line of the drawing represent? Set up a proportion. 1 '' 3.25'' = 150'' x (1) x = (150 )( 3.25)

Right Triangle A + B = 90 x2 + y2 = r2 P=x+y+r 1 Area = xy 2

x = 487.5'' or 40' 7 1 2 ''

FIGURE 2

Right triangle.

APPENDIX 5

General Triangle A + B + C = 180 P=a+b+c Area = 1 bh 2 FIGURE 3

s

General triangle.

Area = s s a s b s c where s =

)(

)(

1 a+b+c 2

Rectangle P = 2a + 2b Area = ab d = a 2 + b2

Circle FIGURE 7 R = radius D = diameter = 3.14159 . . . C = the circles perimeter, or circumference C = D Area = r2 D 2 Area = 4

Circle.

Circle Inscribed within a Right Triangle ab R= a+b+c FIGURE 4

s

Rectangle.

Parallelogram A + B = 180 P = 2a + 2b Area = bh

FIGURE 8 FIGURE 5
s

Circle within a right triangle.

Parallelogram.

Circle Inscribed within a General Triangle R=

( s a )( s b )( s c ) where s = 1
s

(a + b + c)

Rhombus P = 4a FIGURE 6 s Rhombus. 1 Area = pq 2 Note: The letters and p and q represent diagonal distances. p2 + q2 = 4a2

FIGURE 9

Circle within a general triangle.

10

Appendix 5

Circle Circumscribed around a Right Triangle 1 R= c 2 Note: The letter c is the diameter of the circle as well as the hypotenuse of the right triangle.

Regular Polygons n = number of sides P = nf n 2 = 180 n 180 f = 2R sin n 1 360 Area = nR 2 sin 2 n f d= 180 2 tan n FIGURE 13

Regular polygon.

FIGURE 10

Circle around a right triangle.

Arc of a Circle s = length of the arc of the circle (arc length) Note: must be in radians. s = R 2 g = R cos 2 h =Rg F = 2R sin

Circle Circumscribed around a General Triangle a b c R= = = 2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C

FIGURE 14

Arc of a circle.

Ellipse FIGURE 11
s

Circle around a general triangle.

Angle Relationship for the Genera1 Triangle Inscribed within a Circle 1 B= D 2

x2 + y2 2 (The perimeter formula is approximate.) Area = xy (The area formula is exact.) P = 2

FIGURE 12

Angles within an inscribed triangle.

FIGURE 15

Ellipse.

APPENDIX 5

11

Three-Dimensional Figures
This section shows formulas for total surface area (S) in square units and volume (V) in cubic units for common shapes. Rectangular Solid S = 2(wh + lw + lh) V = lwh

TRIGONOMETRY Right Triangle Trigonometry

Trigonometry is based upon the lengths of sides and the angles of right triangles. It is best to treat the trigonometric function definitions as simply working formulas involving two sides and an angle of the right triangle of Figure 20 and to use the formula that involves the information in the problem. Here are the definitions of the trig functions: In the right triangle, the longest side (r) is called the hypotenuse. The side (y) is called the opposite side, because it is opposite to angle (A). Side (x) is called the adjacent side. y r x Cos A = r y Tan A = x Sin A = The first formula says that dividing the length of side y by hypotenuse r gives a number called the sine of angle A. (Sine is abbreviated sin but still pronounced sine.)

FIGURE 16 Cylinder S = 2R2 + 2Rh V = R2h

Rectangular solid.

FIGURE 17 Right Circular Cone S = R 2 + RL L = R2 + h2 1 V = R 2 h 3

Cylinder.

y r x Cos A = r y Tan A = x Sin A =

FIGURE 20

Right triangle used for trigonometry definitions.

Example 1: A very common right triangle is the 3-4-5 right triangle. In Figure 21, find the sine of angle A. Using the sine formula: FIGURE 18 Sphere S = 4 R 2 S = D 2 , where D = 2R 4 V = R 3 3
s

Right circular cone.

y r 3 Sin A = = .6 5 Sin A =

FIGURE 19

Sphere.

FIGURE 21

3-4-5 right triangle.

12

Appendix 5

The usefulness of trigonometry is that it provides a connection between the lengths of sides and measurement of angles. Knowing, for example, that sin A = .6, a calculator can be used to find angle A. For most calculators, entering .6 then pushing INV and SIN (or 2ND and SIN) gives angle A as 36.9. Similarly, cosine is the adjacent side divided by the hypotenuse, and tangent is the opposite side divided by the adjacent side. An additional formula used to solve right triangles involves only the sides. It is the Pythagorean theorem: x2 + y2 = r2 Example 2: Find the diagonal distance in Figure 22 for a rectangular plate. Using the formula: x2 + y2 = r2 2 7 + 102 = r2 49 + 100 = r2 149 = r2 r = 149 = 12.21''

The answer is 4+ 50 35 + = 4 + .8333 + .0097 60 3600 = 4.843 or 4.84

Example 2: Convert 10.268 to degrees, minutes, and seconds. Working with the decimal fraction of the degrees, .268 60 = 16.08 for 16 whole minutes. Then, working with the decimal fraction of minutes, .08 60 = 4.8 or (rounding off) 5 whole seconds. The complete answer becomes 1016'5''. Here are additional conversion facts: Degrees and Radians: 180 = radians (where = 3.14159 . . .) 1 radian = about 57.3 1 = about .01745 radian Example 3: Convert 30 to radians (nearest thousandth). The answer is 30 .01745 = .5235 or .524 radian. Example 4: Convert 2 radians to degrees (nearest tenth). The answer is 2 57.3 = 114.6.

Vectors
FIGURE 22
s

Rectangular plate.

Example 3: Find the length of side x for the right triangle in Figure 23. Because you know angle A and side y, use the tangent formula; only tangent involves the unknown side x and the known angle and side. y x 12'' tan 40 = x 12'' .8391 = x .8391 x = 12 '' 12'' x= .8391 x = 14.3'' tan A =

A vector is a directed line segment, or arrow, with two attributes: length (magnitude) and angle (direction). Points in the plane may be specified by their x and y coordinates or by magnitude and direction of a vector with its tail at the origin and its head at the point in the plane as shown in Figure 24. Vector notation and equations conform to the definitions of the trig functions except that Greek letter (theta) is often used for the angle A. Here are the conversion formulas: Polar to Rectangular (vector form to x-y form): x = r cos y = r sin The x and y are also called vector components.

FIGURE 23

Right triangle.

Angle Conversion and Arc Length

One degree equals 60 minutes of arc: 1 = 60' One minute equals 60 seconds of arc: 1' = 60'' Therefore, 1 = 3600'' Example 1: Convert 450'35'' to decimal degrees (nearest hundredth). FIGURE 24
s

Vector.

APPENDIX 5

13

Example 1: Find the components of the vector shown in Figure 25. Using the conversion formulas with r = 10 and = 30, x = (10)(cos 30) = (10)(.8660) = 8.66 lb, and y = (10)(sin 30) = (10)(.5) = 5 lb

line), and letter b is the y-axis intercept (the point on the vertical axis that the line crosses). For example, Figure 27 is the graph of the equation y = 2x + 5.

FIGURE 27

Graph of y = 2x + 5.

FIGURE 25

Vector in polar form.

Rectangular to Polar (x-y form to vector form): x2 + y2 y = Inv Tan x Example 2: Convert the coordinates (7,13) in Figure 26 to polar form. Using the conversion formulas with x = 7 and y = 13, 7 2 + 132 = 49 + 169 = 218 = 14.8 13 = Inv Tan = Inv Tan 1.857 = 61.7 7 r= r=

Example 1: What is the equation of the line in Figure 28? The slope is 12 3 = 4 and the y-intercept is -5, so the equation is y = 4x 5. Positive slopes in math slant up and to the right; negative slopes slant down and to the right.

FIGURE 28

Graph requiring an equation.

Example 2: What is the equation of the line in Figure 29? The slope is 6 3 = 2 and the y-intercept is 4, so the equation is y = 2x + 4.

FIGURE 26

Vector in rectangular form.

Slope of a Line
The slope-intercept form of the equation of a straight line is: y = mx + b. Letter m is the slope (rise divided by run of the FIGURE 29
s

Graph requiring an equation.

14

Appendix 5

Oblique Triangles
In trig, lowercase letters usually stand for the lengths of sides and capital letters stand for angles, as shown in Figure 30.

When an oblique triangle has an angle greater than 90, care must be taken when using the Law of Sines to find that angle. The calculator gives only angles less than 90 when INV SIN is pushed. A theorem from trig class must be used: sin = sin (180 ), which means the calculator answer must be subtracted from 180 to get the true answer. The next example illustrates this. Example 2: Find angle A in Figure 32. First, convert to inches: 16' 8'' = 200'' and 14' 2'' = 170'', then using the version of the Law of Sines involving as and cs:

FIGURE 30

General oblique triangle.

To solve a triangle means to find all missing angles and sides. The Law of Sines can be used to solve a general triangle when one side and the opposite angle are known. The Law of Sines is usually expressed as: a b c = = Sin A Sin B Sin C It is really three separate equations; each one is a proportion. a b = Sin A Sin B b c = Sin B Sin C c a = Sin C Sin A Example 1: Find side b in the triangle shown in Figure 31. Angle B can be found quickly knowing that the sum of the angles of any triangle is 180. B = 180 (80 + 45) = 180 125 = 55 Now the Law of Sines can be used: a b = Sin A Sin B 14 b = Sin 45 Sin 55 14 b = .7071 .8192 .7071b = (.8192)(14 ) .7071b = 11.486 b = 16.2'' FIGURE 32
s

a Sin A 200 Sin A 200 Sin A 170 Sin A 170 Sin A 170 Sin A 170 Sin A A A

c Sin C 170 = Sin 15 170 = .2588 = ( 200 )(.2588) = = 51.76 51.76 = 170 = .3045 = Inv Sin .3045 = 17.7

Oblique triangle with unknown angle.

Angle A is known to be greater than 90, so A = 180 17.7 = 162.3. This final subtraction from 180 is taken only when finding an angle greater than 90 with the Law of Sines. Sometimes a side and opposite angle are not available. In that case, the triangle may be solved with the Law of Cosines. Again, there are three versions of this law. a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos B c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C

FIGURE 31

Oblique triangle with unknown side.

APPENDIX 5

15

Example 3: Find side b of the triangle in Figure 33. Use the version of the Law of Cosines containing angle B. b = 11 + 14 2(11)(14 ) ( cos 130 )
2 2 2 2

Example 4: Find angle A of the triangle in Figure 34. Use the version of the Law of Cosines containing angle A. 3, 600 = 10 , 000 + 7 , 569 17 , 400 cos A 3, 600 = 17 , 569 17 , 400 cos A 3,600 17,569 = 17,400 cos A 13,969 = 17,400 cos A 13, 969 17,400 cos A = 17 , 400 17,400 .8028 = cos A A = Inv cos .8028 A = 36.6 60 2 = 100 2 + 87 2 2(100 )( 87 ) cos A

b = 121+ 196 2(11)(14 ) ( .6428) b 2 = 121+ 196 + 197.98 b 2 = 514.98 b = 514.98 b = 22.7''

FIGURE 33

Oblique triangle with unknown side.

FIGURE 34

Oblique triangle with unknown angle.