MST532

Microstrip Trainer
MST532
Microstrip
Trainer
MST532
Feedback
Feedback Instruments Ltd, Park Road, Crowborough, E. Sussex, TN6 2QR, UK.
Telephone: +44 (0) 1892 653322, Fax: +44 (0) 1892 663719.
email: feedback@fdbk.co.uk website: http://www.fbk.com
Manual: 532 Ed B 092000 Printed in England by Fl Ltd, Crowborough
Feedback Part No. 1160–00532
NOTES
Microstrip Trainer MST532
PREFACE
THE HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK ACT 1974

We are required under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, to make available to users of this equipment certain information
regarding its safe use.
The equipment, when used in normal or prescribed applications within the parameters set for its mechanical and electrical
performance, should not cause any danger or hazard to health or safety if normal engineering practices are observed and they are
used in accordance with the instructions supplied.
If, in specific cases, circumstances exist in which a potential hazard may be brought about by careless or improper use, these will be
pointed out and the necessary precautions emphasised.
While we provide the fullest possible user information relating to the proper use of this equipment, if there is any doubt whatsoever
about any aspect, the user should contact the Product Safety Officer at Feedback Instruments Limited, Crowborough.
This equipment should not be used by inexperienced users unless they are under supervision.
We are required by European Directives to indicate on our equipment panels certain areas and warnings that require attention by the
user. These have been indicated in the specified way by yellow labels with black printing, the meaning of any labels that may be fixed
to the instrument are shown below:
CAUTION - CAUTION - CAUTION -

RISK OF RISK OF ELECTROSTATIC
DANGER ELECTRIC SHOCK SENSITIVE DEVICE
Refer to accompanying documents
PRODUCT IMPROVEMENTS
We maintain a policy of continuous product improvement by incorporating the latest developments and components into our
equipment, even up to the time of dispatch.
All major changes are incorporated into up-dated editions of our manuals and this manual was believed to be correct at the time of
printing. However, some product changes which do not affect the instructional capability of the equipment, may not be included until it
is necessary to incorporate other significant changes.
COMPONENT REPLACEMENT
Where components are of a ‘Safety Critical’ nature, i.e. all components involved with the supply or carrying of voltages at supply
potential or higher, these must be replaced with components of equal international safety approval in order to maintain full equipment
safety.
In order to maintain compliance with international directives, all replacement components should be identical to those originally
supplied.
Any component may be ordered direct from Feedback or its agents by quoting the following information:
1. Equipment type 2. Component value

3. Component reference 4. Equipment serial number
Components can often be replaced by alternatives available locally, however we cannot therefore guarantee continued performance
either to published specification or compliance with international standards.
i
PREFACE
DECLARATION CONCERNING ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY

Should this equipment be used outside the classroom, laboratory study area or similar such place for which it is designed and sold then
Feedback Instruments Ltd hereby states that conformity with the protection requirements of the European Community Electromagnetic
Compatibility Directive (89/336/EEC) may be invalidated and could lead to prosecution.
This equipment, when operated in accordance with the supplied documentation, does not cause electromagnetic disturbance outside
its immediate electromagnetic environment.
COPYRIGHT NOTICE
© Feedback Instruments Limited
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of Feedback Instruments Limited.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Feedback Instruments Ltd acknowledge all trademarks.
IBM, IBM - PC are registered trademarks of International Business Machines.
MICROSOFT, WINDOWS 95, WINDOWS 98, WINDOWS 2000, WINDOWS NT, WINDOWS 3.1 are registered trademarks of
Microsoft Corporation.
ii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT 1
CHAPTER 2 INSTALLATION CHECKS 10
CHAPTER 3 MICROSTRIP TECHNOLOGY 13

3.1 Introduction to Microstrip 13
3.2 Microstrip Substrates 14
3.3 Microstrip Circuit Production 15
3.4 Microstrip Parameters: Z o and λg 20
CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE

MEASUREMENTS 25
4.1 Insertion Loss and Gain 25
42 Reflection coefficient, VSWR and Return Loss 26
4.3 Mismatch and Return Loss 30
4.4 Detection and Measurement of Microwave
Power 31
4.5 Calibration of the Crystal Detector for use as a
power meter 33
4.6 Measurement of frequency: Microwave
Counters and Wavemeters 34
4.7 Frequency calibration of VCO Microwave
Source 36
4.8 Basic measurements for insertion loss/gain
using equipment available with MST532
Microstrip Trainer 38
4.9 Basic measurement of return loss using
equipment available with MST532 Microstrip
Trainer 40
4.10 Swept frequency and scalar analyser
techniques for insertion and return loss
measurements 44
4.11 Scalar/amplitude analyser systems for
semi-automated measurement 47
iii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5 ASSIGNMENTS 51
Assignment 1 Introduction to the microwave VCO source and

detector and action of a 3-port circulator 52
Practicals
1.1 Initial setting-up and measurement of
transmission power 61
1.2 Measurement of power transmitted to
decoupled/isolated Port 3 63
1.3 Measurement at Port 3 with power reflected at
Port 2 64
1.4 Measurement of transmission power P1 with
circulator reversed 65
1.5 Results summary and observations on
circulator characteristics 66
Assignment 2 Measurement of Insertion Loss: insertion loss

characteristic of a Low Pass Filter 70
Practicals
2.1 Measurement of insertion loss of low pass filter,
unit LPF 77
Assignment 3 Properties of Directional Coupler 80

Practicals
3.1 To investigate the directional properties and
determine the coupling directivity and insertion
loss of a Directional Coupler 86
3.2 Calculation of Coupling, Directivity and Insertion
loss 90
Assignment 4 Measurement of Return Loss, Reflection

Coefficient and VSWR 92
Practicals
4.1 Measurement of return loss 100
iv
CONTENTS
Assignment 5 Matching investigations 104

Practicals
5.1 Matching investigations; determination of
impedance of an unknown resistive load and its
matching by 1/4 λg transformer and shunt stub
techniques 114
Assignment 6 Properties of a Power Divider and Rat-Race Hybrid

coupler 118
Practicals
6.1 Power divider, unit PD, investigations 125
6.2 Rat-race hybrid ring coupler, unit RRH,
investigations 126
6.3 Processing results and further investigations 127
Assignment 7 Measurement of effective dielectric constant

using a Ring Resonator 130
Practicals
7.1 Ring resonator, unit RR, investigations 135
Assignment 8 DC biasing and MMIC amplifier investigations 140

Practicals
8.1 DC bias lines 145
8.2 Amplifier investigations 150
Assignment 9 PIN diode modulator investigations 154

Practicals
9.1 PIN diode investigations 159
Assignment 10 Microwave radio link and patch antenna

investigations 164
Practicals
10.1 Link transmission loss investigation and
determination of antenna gain 174
10.2 Use of radiation diagrams 175
v
CONTENTS
NOTES
vi
INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION The Feedback MST532 is a completely new system which

has been specially developed to provide an innovative
approach to microwave circuit and systems training. The
trainer comprises the fundamental passive and active
microwave integrated circuit (MIC) building blocks now
used in modern microwave radio, radar and satellite
communications systems equipment.
The properties and characteristics of the components can

be individually investigated and then components may be
integrated to form complete working microwave systems.
The trainer together with this manual gives a good insight
to the structure of MIC circuits and provides an excellent
grounding in basic microwave measurements right the way
through to the design and investigation of complete
systems. It is especially easy to use, requires no previous
microwave experience and is suitable for courses in
engineering and science at all levels.
1
Chapter 1
EQUIPMENT
System Components
Qty Ident. Description/Function

letters
1 VCO Microwave source voltage controlled oscillator tuneable over the

range 2.4 to 3.7GHz.
1 DC Directional coupler microstrip component with directional

transmission properties used for measuring
power reflection coefficient, return loss,
power monitoring.
1 LPF Low pass filter microstrip component designed to pass lower

frequency microwave signals and attenuate
high frequency components above the cut-off
frequency.
1 ML Matched load microstrip component designed to act as a

matched termination to microwave incident
power, ideally a reflectionless load.
1 PD Wilkinson power microstrip component designed to split

divider incident microwave power equally to its two
output ports.
1 RRH Rate race hybrid microstrip component designed to couple

coupler incident power at one port equally to two
other ports but providing isolation between
the incident and a fourth port; finds important
application in microwave mixers, power
splitters, combiners and cancellers.
1 RR Ring resonator microstrip resonator circuit used to

investigate effective dielectric constant and
loss of microstrip.
1 ZT Unknown load, 1/4λ microstrip circuits to illustrate quarter-

and shunt stub wavelength transformer and shunt stub
matching unit matching.
1 CIR Three-port circulator ferrite circulator mounted in microstrip used

for its non-reciprocal transmission properties;
widely used as an isolator, diplexer and
channel separator.
1 PIN PIN diode modulator unit in which PIN diode is mounted in

microstrip to act as a modulator, voltage-
controlled attenuator of microwave power.
2
Chapter 1
System Components (continued)

letters
1 AMP MMIC amplifier microwave amplifier utilising a silicon bipolar

monolithic microwave integrated circuit
(MMIC) device mounted in microstrip and
suitably biased to provide gain up to 4GHz.
1 BL DC biasing unit microstrip unit illustrating bias line circuits

used to bias active devices.
2 ANT Patch antenna microstrip planar antenna for radiation and

reception of microwaves.
1 D Crystal detector coaxial crystal detector employing Schottky

diode to detect microwave power from
micro- to milliwatts, widely used as the power
sensor in microwave power meters.
8 PPC SMA plug-to-plug coaxial used for interconnection of microstrip units.

connector
3 MT 50 ohm coaxial termination miniature coaxial load for terminating 50 ohm

characteristic impedance microstrip in a
matched load (identified by red spot on its
casing).
1 SC Coaxial short-circuit miniature coaxial short-circuit (identified by

termination white spot on its casing).
1 OC Coaxial open-circuit miniature coaxial open-circuit (identified by

termination blue spot on its casing).
1 ATT 20dB attenuator miniature coaxial attenuator producing a

transmission loss of 20dB, i.e a power
reduction of one-hundredth.
1 ADR SMA plug - BNC jack adapter for interconnecting miniature coaxial
adapter to standard coaxial line, used to connect PIN
diode modulator.
3 – Power leads for microwave source (VCO).
2 – Coaxial BNC to 4mm leads for PIN modulator.and crystal detector

connections
2 – Leads for MMIC amplifier.
1 – Spanner DE/OJ 2BA - 4BA
– – Calibration curves VCO and Detector
3
Chapter 1
DESCRIPTION The MST532 trainer comprises a set of high quality MIC

microstrip components, a number of miniature coaxial
components, connectors, spanner, calibration curves,
instruction manual and all necessary leads housed in a
protective carrying case. Ancillary equipment, a DC power
supply for powering the microwave source and amplifier units
and a digital multimeter for measuring the microwave detector
output can also be supplied by Feedback Instruments.
The MIC components are designed for operation in the S band,

2 to 4GHz. All MIC circuits are fabricated on high quality
microwave PTFE softboard and are mounted in nickel plated
aluminium packages with miniature SMA coaxial connectors for
easy interconnection between units. Microstrip line and circuit
configuration may be clearly viewed through a top transparent
protection plate.
A detailed list of the system components is given in the

foregoing Equipment Section, together with diagrams showing
the MIC and coaxial components.
4
Chapter 1
System Components
5
Chapter 1
2 3
1 4
RRH RR
Rat-race hybrid Ring Resonator

(RRH) (RR)
a
1 2
b
c
ZT 3 CIR
Load termination and 4λ

1
transformer and shunt stub Three-port Circulator

matching unit (ZT) (CIR)
IN OUT
PIN AMP
PIN Diode Modulator MMIC Amplifier

(PIN) (AMP)
6
Chapter 1
A B C
BL
DC biasing unit
(BL)
ANT
Patch antenna
(ANT)
7
Chapter 1
Coaxial Components
SMA plug-to-plug
Crystal Detector (D)
connector (PPC)
20dB ATT
50 Coaxial Termination 20dB Attenuator

(MT, red spot) (ATT)
Short-circuit Termination SMA plug - BNC jack adap tor

(SC, white spot) (ADR)
Open-circuit Termination
(OC, blue spot)
8
Chapter 1
Ancillary Equipment

letters
1 – Dual power supply 0 to 30V DC for supply of VCO, MMIC and

PIN units. Type AX 322 is recommended.
1 – Bench multimeter used as voltmeter to measure crystal

detector output over range 1mV to 1.5V.
Type MX 545 is recommended.
Note The instructions given in the assignments assume that

these two items of ancillary equipment are used.
9
Chapter 2
Power Suppy Digital Voltmeter
mV ·· ·
DC ···
A V A V ·
V · V
··
OFF·
Com
+ - + -
Coaxial
cable
+15V
Red Tuning
voltage 3-Port
Light 2 to30V Circulator
emitting Crystal
(CIR) Detector
diode 0V Black White (D)
(LED)
1 2
OUT •
3
SMA
Microwave Source (VCO) Plug-plug
Modulator Connector 50 Coaxial
switch (PPC) Termination (MT)
Fig 2.1 Circuit for installation checks
CAUTION
The Crystal Detector in this kit is EXTREMELY sensitive.
Under no circumstances should any DC or AC voltage be applied directly to
the detector.
Claims for warranty will only be considered if you return with the detector a
signed declaration, on established letterhead, stating that it has only been
used as specified in the assignments in the manual.
10
Chapter 2
INSPECTION Check that all components and leads as listed in the

Equipment Section of Chapter 1 are all present.
Check the equipment for mechanical damage.
The 14 microstrip units and the crystal detector are mounted in

the base of the case. The coaxial components, connectors,
leads, spanner, calibration curves and manual are stored in the
case lid.
In order to check that the microwave source and the crystal

detector are operating satisfactorily the following procedure
should be carried out.
Connect the Microwave Source (VCO), the 3-port Circulator

(CIR) and Crystal Detector (D) as shown in fig 2.1.
Use a miniature SMA coxial plug-to-plug connector to

interconnect the VCO to the circulator at the input marked 1 on
the circulator. The Crystal Detector mates directly with the
circulator at the output marked 2 on the circulator. The output
marked 3 on the circulator should be terminated with a 50 ohm
coaxial termination (unit MT, distinguished by a red spot on its
outer casing).
Note: The connections may be tightened easily by hand with

final tightening made with the spanner provided. Do not
overtighten as this could cause damaged.
A dual 0-30V DC supply is required to power the VCO. Fig 2.1

shows Type AX322 supplied by Feedback Instruments.
• Using one set of the dual power supply terminals and red
and black leads provided connect the positive (+) terminal
of the supply to the red 2mm socket terminal on the side
casing of the VCO. Connect the negative (–) terminal of the
supply to the black terminal of the casing of the VCO.
• Strap the negative terminals of the dual power supply

together.
• Connect the positive terminal of the second pair of supply

terminals to the white 2mm terminal on the casing of the
VCO (the tuning voltage terminal of the VCO).
Connect the crystal detector output to a digital voltmeter using

the coaxial cable provided. Fig 2.1 shows Type MX545, a
general purpose multimeter supplied by Feedback Instruments.
11
Chapter 2
The BNC female connector of the coaxial cable connects

directly to the BNC jack output of the Crystal Detector.
At the output end of the cable connect the black lead to the
terminal marked COM and the red lead to the terminal marked
VΩ. Set the meter switch to DC volts, the position denoted by
V − − − − for type MX545.
Note: When the MX545 is switched on it is in the auto-

ranging mode and this should not be changed.
The DC output voltage from the crystal detector is displayed

directly. The display also shows the voltage units: mV
(millivolts) or V (volts) , and the voltage polarity: in this case –,
since the Crystal Detector produces a negative polarity output.
Switch on the DC power supply. Set the VCO supply voltage

(red-black terminals) to +15V.
Set the VCO tuning voltage (white-black terminals) to +10V.
The microwave power output from the VCO may be either

continuous wave or modulated at 1kHz. A light emitting diode
(LED) on the VCO casing is used to indicate which mode. In
the continuous wave mode the LED remains on; for 1kHz
modulation the LED flashes once every two seconds. Switching
between the two modes is effected by the switch on the VCO
casing.
Switch to continuous wave operation
Switch on the digital voltmeter.
The digital voltmeter displays the Crystal Detector output

voltage corresponding to the microwave power input delivered
by the VCO via the circulator.
For satisfactory operation and confirmation that source and

detector are working correctly, the digital voltmeter should
display the order of several hundred millivolts.
If this test fails please check all connections and ensure the
VCO supply voltage delivers 15V and the VCO tuning voltage
is approximately 10V. If still unsuccessful please contact your
Supplier.
12
MICROSTRIP TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION This chapter serves as background material for those

interested in microstrip technology and the production of
microwave circuits.
The chapter introduces the importance of microstrip as a

transmission medium for microwaves and its suitability for the
inclusion of microwave integrated circuit (MIC) devices. The
properties of microstrip substrates and the techniques used to
fabricate microwave circuits are described. Analytical
expressions and graphs are also included for the fundamental
design parameters in microstrip: the line characteristic
impedance Zo and the guide wavelength λg.
3.1
Introduction to
Microstrip
'Microstrip'
Conductor
Dielectric
Ground plate
conductor
Fig 3.1 Microstrip
Microstrip consists essentially of a metal - dielectric insulator -

metal sandwich as shown in fig 3.1.
The top conductor strip, the dielectric substrate and conductor

ground plate form a microwave transmission line - the
combined structure acts as a guide to the transmission of
electromagnetic waves. Although its open structure has some
limitations it is an especially suitable medium for the
connection of microwave MIC devices. It is ideal for
applications where low volume and weight are important and
lends itself to methods of high volume and low-cost production.
Microstrip is used over the frequency range from a little below

1GHz to, currently, in excess of 40GHz. Below 1GHz circuit
dimensions become excessively large whilst above 40GHz
circuit dimensions are very small and circuit losses become
high. In practice microstrip is used extensively over the 2 to
12GHz range where small, compact circuits, suitable for the
inclusion of active devices and capable of handling up to
several watts of power are readily achievable.
13
Microstrip Trainer
Chapter 3
Microstrip is now very widely used in microwave electronic and

communications applications. It forms an excellent medium for
the fabrication of the following components: filters, attenuators,
limiters, detectors, mixers, amplifiers and oscillators etc.
3.2
Microstrip
Substrates The characteristics of some substrate materials are listed in
the table given in fig 3.2. Ideally a substrate should have very
low-loss and constant dielectric properties over the range of
frequencies for which it is used, together with excellent
temperature and dimensional stability. In addition it should be
chemically resistant, be easy to machine and provide a good
thermal expansion match to the strip conductor material.
Two principal substrates are currently used:
PTFE (poly-tetra-fluor-ethylene, trade name Teflon)
and
Alumina (aluminium oxide - Al2O3)
PTFE 'plastic' type substrates, usually referred to as soft-

boards, are normally supplied with a copper coating on one or
both sides. The copper is compressed or resin bonded to the
dielectric. The copper layers are specified in oz. per square
foot, 0.5, 1, 2 and 3 oz normally being available:
0.5 oz corresponds to a copper thickness of 0.007" = 17µm
Soft-boards are available in various thicknesses from 3 mil to

250 mil (1 mil = 0.001" = 0.0254mm or 25.4µm) usually in 5 or
10 mil steps. They are supplied in relatively large sheets sizes,
typically 12" x 12" or 18" x 36" , and are double-sided copper
coated.
Alumina (and sapphire, quartz) substrates are supplied in small

sheets, typically 1" x 2" or 2" x 2", and are highly polished with
a surface roughness normally below ± 1µm. Typical substrates
thicknesses for alumina are in the range 10 to 50 mil (0.01" to
0.05").
14
Microstrip Trainer
Chapter 3
Substrate Dielectric Loss Comments

Material Constant Tangent
PTFE woven 2.17 0.001 Very good dimensional stability.

glass laminates Temperature range –27°C to
2.13 0.0015 260°C.
2.4 to 2.55 0.002 Medium cost.
Easy matching.
PTFE ceramic 10.2 ± 0.25 0.002 Extremely useful for compact
filled. circuits and a good alternative to
e.g 'Epsilam 10' alumina.
PTFE glass cloth 6.0 ±0.5 0.002 Typical loss for PTFE softboards:
ceramic powder εr Freq (GHz) Loss(dB/m)
filled. 2.17 2.0 0.8
2.17 10.0 4.0
10.0 2.0 2.4
10.0 10.0 8.0
Alumina 9.7 to 10.3 0.004 Excellent dimensional stability.

Temperature range to 1600°C.
Medium to high cost.
Difficult to machine.
Sapphire 9.0 0.0001 Excellent dimensional stability.
Temperature range –24°C to
371°C. Very high cost.
Glass bonded 7.5 0.002 Excellent dimensional stability.
mica Medium cost.
Fig 3.2
3.3
Microstrip Circuit
Production There are three basic techniques for producing microstrip
circuits:
• Printed circuit board (pcb) etch techniques
• Thick film techniques
• Thin film techniques
15
Microstrip Trainer
Chapter 3
3.3.1
PCB etch techniques
for plastic type
dielectrics This technique is the same as used for conventional pcb
production. It is ideal for soft-board substrates and high volume
production. The process for making the microstrip circuit is to
etch away copper on one side of the board leaving the
conductor pattern - the top conductor microstrip lines - whilst
leaving the ground plate completely covered with copper.
The technique is essentially a photographic process. The

principal stages, starting with a double-sided copper-coated
softboard, are summarised below.
(1) A mask to represent the conductor pattern required for the

design is first made up. This is usually scaled up 10 to 20
times larger than actual size and then photo-reduced to
produce the final mask. The positive mask represents the
required conductor pattern as opaque to light. A negative
mask is the exact opposite, see fig 3.3.
Fig 3.3 Mask for shunt stub microstrip component
(2) The copper on each side of the softboard substrate can be

supplied pre-coated with a photo-resist material. If not the
softboards must be carefully prepared with a fine uniform
coating of photo-resist.
Photo-resist is a material which is chemically changed by

the action of ultra-violet light.
Photo-resist can be either positive or negative type. With

positive photo-resist, and the use of a special developer
solution, those areas exposed to ultra-violet are removed.
If a positive photo-resist is used then a positive mark must

be prepared. Likewise if the softboard is coated with a
negative photo-resist, a negative mask is required.
16
Microstrip Trainer
Chapter 3
Fig 3.4 Basic steps in the production of microstrip

circuits using pcb etch techniques
(3) The next step is to place the mask on the photo-resist

coated softboard and expose the board to ultra-violet light,
see fig 3.4(a).
(4) Remove the mask and place the board in developer

solution, see fig 3.4(b).
17
Microstrip Trainer
Chapter 3
(5) Place the board in an etch bath (usually ferric chloride or

an acid). This removes copper where not protected by
photo-resist, see fig 3.4(c).
(6) Finally wash the board and use a suitable solvent (fixer) to
remove unexposed photo-resist, see fig 3.4(d).
3.3.2
Thick film
techniques For non-polymer based substrates such as alumina, sapphire,
quartz and where the substrate is not 'factory' coated with
copper or gold, thick and thin film techniques are employed.
Note, gold, although expensive is often preferred at the higher
frequencies because its surface finish, conductivity and
corrosion resistance is better than other conductors yielding
higher performance.
Thick film technology is similar to silk-screen printing. A mask

defining the required circuit pattern is first produced and the
processes summarised below is then followed.
(1) The screen used for printing the microstrip pattern is

supported in a rigid frame and consists of a stainless steel
mesh of between 100 to 500 lines per inch, i.e approx 4 to
20 lines per mm with a line separation of between 50µm
and 250µm. This screen is first coated with photo-resist.
Negative photo-resist for a positive mask and vice-versa.
(2) The mask is then placed in the screen and exposed to ultra
violet light.
(3) The mask is removed and the screen developed with the
unexposed photo-resist being removed. The screen is thus
blocked in all places other than where the required
conductor pattern is to be.
(4) The screen is now placed on the substrate and a special

'ink' - a paste containing gold or palladium-silver with an
organic binder - spread over the screen. The paste is then
forced through the unblocked regions of the screen onto
the substrate using a high pressure roller. To form the
ground plate the whole surface of the reverse side of the
substrate is covered in the same way.
(5) The 'printed' substrate is then placed in an oven for

approximately 15 minutes which first drives off the organic
binder. The metal particles in the ink then coalesce to form
the printed tracks and ground plane conducting layers with
the metal particles firmly attached to the dielectric surfaces.
18
Microstrip Trainer
Chapter 3
Resolution of the microstrip lines down to the order of

100µm can be obtained using thick film techniques.
Conductor losses, however, are higher since the conductor
layers are not truly metallic. Line thicknesses of the order of
10µm are usually obtained.
3.3.3
Thin Film
Techniques Thin film techniques provide much better resolution and can
give a definition for fine lines and narrow gaps down to a few
microns. However, the technique is considerably more
expensive. The basic steps are as follows.
(1) Remove all traces of grease etc from the substrate by

cleaning with an organic solvent, e.g trichlorethylene.
(2) Thinly etch the substrate surface using a solution of

concentrated sulphuric acid and hydrogen peroxide. This
process removes about 1 to 5nm from the surface of
substrate.
(3) Using vacuum evaporation techniques apply a thin 'seed'

layer of chromium - a layer of 1 to 5nm is sufficient.
Chromium is used because it adheres much better to the
substrate surface than gold or copper.
(4) A mixture of chromium and copper, or chromium and gold,

is then evaporated to form a further layer about 5nm thick
and finally copper or gold is evaporated to form a final
conducing layer about 5nm thick.
(5) The 5nm layer is much less than the skin depth (δ ≅ 0.7µm
for copper at 10Ghz) so a copper or gold layer is electro-
plated to build up a final thickness of the conducting film to
between 5 to 10µm.
(6) Finally the microstrip circuit is formed using a mask and

etching process exactly similar to that already explained for
softboards. In many cases the electroplating of step (5) is
performed after the circuit pattern has been put down on
the evaporated layers.
Thin film techniques, which can achieve higher precision than

thick-film methods, especially for narrow gaps and lines, are
used with alumina, sapphire, quartz and ferrite substrates. The
substrate must be very carefully prepared - extremely smooth
(highly polished) and free from dust and grit, otherwise the
evaporated layers become perforated.
19
Microstrip Trainer
Chapter 3
3.4
Microstrip Parameters:
Zo and λg The two fundamental parameters for the design of microstrip
circuits are the characteristic impedance Zo and the guide
wavelength λg of the microstrip considered as a conventional
TEM transmission line.
Based on assuming transverse electro-magnetic (TEM) mode

propagation in the microstrip, which is reasonably valid for
frequencies up to about 10GHz, good approximations for Zo
and λg can be determined in terms of the line dimensions and
substrate dielectric constant and thickness, shown in fig 3.5.
Fig 3.5
Fig 3.6 shows the TEM type field pattern in the cross-sectional
plane of the microstrip, whilst fig 3.7 illustrates the meaning of
the Zo and λg definitions.
Electric field
Magnetic field
Fig 3.6
20
Microstrip Trainer
Chapter 3
Fig 3.7
The closed-form expressions following, are based upon the

results of several research workers and represent useful
w
approximations for evaluating Zo and λg as a function of h :
w
For > 1,
h
Zo= 60 h + 0 . 25 w )
l o g e (8 w
ε eff h
λo
λg =
ε
eff
where
1
−
= 1 [ (ε r + 1) + (ε r −1) [ (1 + 12h + 0. 04 (1 − w ) ] ]
2 2
ε eff w )
2 h
εeff is known as the effective dielectric constant of the substrate

and takes into account the fact that the electric field is present
both in air and the dielectric of the substrate, λo = free-space
wavelength and is related to the frequency by λo = c/f where
c = 3x108m/s and f is the frequency in Hz.
21
Microstrip Trainer
Chapter 3
w
For < 1,
h
120 π
ε
Zo= w
eff
+ 1. 393 + 0. 677 × log e( w + 1. 444)
h h
−1
where ε = 1 [(ε r + 1) + (ε r − 1) (1 + 12h ) 2
]
eff 2 w
λo
λg =
ε
eff
The above results do not take into account the line thickness t,
but for t/h ≤ 0.005 and 2 ≤ εr ≤ 10 and 0.1< w/h ≤ 5 they
produce values close to those observed experimentally.
Computer aided design (CAD) packages are now available

which enable direct determination of Zo and λg (and other data)
for a given substrate w, h, t, εr and frequency input. The graphs
of fig 3.8 obtained using such a package show the variation of
Zo with w/h (valid over the frequency range 1 - 10GHz) and the
variation of λg with frequency for the case of PTFE woven
glass substrate of εr = 2.17, the same material used in the
fabrication of the microstrip circuits in the MST532 Microstrip
Trainer.
22
Microstrip Trainer
Chapter 3
Fig 3.8
23
Microstrip Trainer
NOTES
24
INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION This chapter provides first an explanation and definitions of the

important terms: insertion loss and gain, reflection coefficient,
voltage standing wave ratio (vswr) and return loss, used to
quantify the transmission performance of microwave
components in systems use. It then proceeds with an outline of
how power and frequency can be measured at microwave
frequencies and describes how the crystal detector used in the
Microstrip Trainer for power measurement and the frequency
of the VCO microwave source were calibrated.
Transmission and reflection measurement methods for

determining insertion and return loss are described using the
equipment available with the MST532 and finally swept-
frequency and reflectometer techniques are also considered.
4.1
Insertion Loss
and Gain The insertion loss is a measure of the loss that is produced
when a component is inserted in a transmission system. It is
the ratio of the power output from the component to the load
when the component is inserted in the system to the power
received by the load when generator and load are directly
connected. If the component produces gain, as would be
normally the case with an amplifier, the ratio is referred to as
insertion gain.
• • •
P1 Component P2
• • •
Generator Load
Direct connection Component inserted
Fig 4.1
The insertion loss/gain of a 2-port component is defined, with

reference to fig 4.1, as:
P
2
Insertion Loss Ratio (ILR) = P
1
Note The term port is used to denote the junction of a
component at which microwave energy may be
supplied or withdrawn.
25
Chapter 4
Insertion Loss (IL), quoted in decibels (dB) = 10 log10 (P2/P1)
where P1 = power delivered to load in direct connection

P2 = power delivered to load with component inserted.
For example,
if P1 = 50mW in the direct generator-load connection and

P2 = 40mW with the component inserted:
ΙLR = 40 = 0. 8; ΙL = 10 log (0. 8 ) = −0. 97dB

50
However, as may be the case for an amplifier, if

P1 = 2mW and P2 = 56mW, then the gain produced is
56
= 28 and
2
Insertion gain = 10 log10 (28) = 14.5dB.
4.2
Reflection
coefficient, vswr
and return loss When a component is not correctly matched to the
transmission line system in which it forms a part, it causes
reflection at the junctions between the line and the component.
These reflections set up a standing wave pattern in the feed
lines, as shown, for example in fig 4.2.
Incident wave V i
Component Matched
Load
Reflected waver
RMS Amplitude of
resultant wave
Vmax
V
min
Distance from junction
Fig 4.2
26
Chapter 4
The parameters; reflection coefficient, voltage standing wave

ratio (vswr) and return loss are all used to quantify the degree
of mismatch.
The voltage reflection coefficient denoted by the symbol Γ

(Greek gamma) is defined as
Vr
Γ=
V
i
where Vi = amplitude of the incident wave to component

Vr = amplitude of the reflected wave from component
The voltage standing wave ratio (vswr) denoted by the letter S

is defined as:
V max
S=
V
min
where Vmax = voltage at a voltage maxima on input line

Vmin = voltage at a voltage minima on input line
and since
V max = V + V r = V (1 + Γ )
i i
V = V − V r = V (1 − Γ )
min i i
we can express S in terms of the magnitude of the voltage

reflection coefficient Γ :
1+ Γ
S=
1− Γ
and vice-versa,
Γ = S −1
S +1
27
Chapter 4
The reflection coefficient at the input junction to the component

may also be expressed in terms of the input impedance of the
component Zin and characteristic impedance of the line Zo:
Z −Zo
in
Γ=
Z + Zo
in
The Return Loss, expressed as a numerical fraction, is defined

as the ratio of the power reflected from the load Pr to the power
Pi incident on the load:
Pr
Return Loss Ratio = P
i
2 2
and as P ∝V and P r ∝V r ,
i i
2
V 2
Return Loss Ratio = r
= Γ
2
V
i
Normally in practice, return loss values are expressed in

decibels:
Pr
Return Loss, dB = 10 log 10 ( )
Pi
= 20 log 10 Γ
Example A broadband, coaxial crystal detector has a specified vswr of

1.3. Calculate the reflection coefficient, fraction of power
reflected and return loss when used to terminate a line.
Solution
Γ = S −1 where vswr , s = 1. 3
S +1
so the magnitude of reflection coefficient is given by:

−
Γ = 1. 3 1 = 0. 3 = 0. 13
1. 3 + 1 2. 3
28
Chapter 4
the fraction of power reflected is,

pr 2 2
= Γ = 0. 13 = 0. 017 or 1. 7%
pi
and the return loss, in dB,
20 log 10 Γ = −17. 7 dB
A table of VSWR, reflection coefficient and return loss are

given below:
2
Γ
VSWR S Γ Return loss dB
% Power reflected
1.0 0 0 − system matched
1.05 0.048 0.22 –33.3 good match
1.50 0.20 4.0 –14.0
2.0 0.33 11.1 –9.5 ¬ progressively
5.0 0.67 44.4 –3.5 ¬ poor match
10.0 0.82 66.9 –1.7 ¬
29
Chapter 4
4.3
Mismatch and
Return Loss The insertion loss of a component consists of two factors: the
actual attenuation produced in the component itself and the
mismatch loss occuring due to reflections at the generator-
component input and component-load output junctions.
Zo Zo Pi
Pi Zo Component Zo
Pr
Generator Matched
Load
Fig 4.3
The mismatch and return loss are defined with respect to

fig 4.3 where it is assumed that the component is designed for
a transmission system of characteristic impedance Zo as:
Pi −P r
Mismatch loss, dB 10 log 10
P
i
Pr
Return loss, dB 10 log 10
Pi
where Pi = maximum available power from generator when

working into a matched load
Pr = power reflected from input junction to component

when the component is inserted in the Zo system.
For example, if the vswr, S, were measured in the input line

with the component in the system as S = 1.5,
S −1 1. 5 −1
the reflection coefficient, Γ = S + 2 = 1. 5 + 1 = 0. 2
2 Pr 2
and the power reflection coefficient, Γ = = 0. 2 = 0. 04
P
i
30
Chapter 4
Hence the return loss,
Pr
10 log = 10 log 0. 04 = −14dB
10 Pi 10
and the mismatch loss,
P i −P r 2
10 log 10 = 10 log 10 (1 − Γ )
P
i
= 10 log 10 (1 −0. 04 ) = −0. 18dB
4.4
Detection and
Measurement of
Microwave Power At lower RF frequencies voltage and current can be readily
measured but these quantities become increasingly difficult to
measure with certainty as the frequency is raised and in the
microwave range it is power that is the most important entity.
There are several techniques for measuring power at

microwave frequencies. At the very high power levels
encountered in some radar and satellite communication
transmitters, where kilowatts and even megawatts may be
radiated, the basic technique employed is to absorb the
microwave energy in a matched load attached to a known heat
sink. The temperature rise produced over a given time is
measured and hence the quantity of microwave energy
dissipated as heat can be calculated.
At lower power levels, microwatts to watts, three types of power

sensors are employed and these are summarised in the table
below.
Power sensor Typical power Typical frequency

range range
Bolometer: barretter/thermistor types 1µW to 10W DC to 18GHz
Thermocouple: thin film Bi–Sb and 0.1µW to 1W DC to 40GHz
semi-conductor (Seebeck effect) type
Diode detector: Shottky barrier diodes 10–4µW to 20mW DC to 26GHz
31
Chapter 4
Bolometer type sensors consist of a fine metal wire element

(known as a barretter) or a thermistor (semi-conductor heat
sensitive resistance element) and operate on the principle of
measuring the change in resistance produced by the
microwave power heating the element. The element forms part
of an initially balanced bridge arrangement. A sophisticated
measuring system detects the in-balance in the bridge when
the element is subjected to microwave power and displays
power direct.
Thermocouple power sensors work on the thermo-electric

principle. Incident microwave power dissipates its energy as
heat in the sensor and the sensor produced a proportional
voltage. Two types of sensors are used: a thin film type
consisting of two dissimilar metals, usually bismuth and
antimony, and a semi-conductor type constructed as a double
element chip containing tantalum nitride resistors to provided
heat conversion and a semi-conductor across which the
voltage is produced. Semi-conductor thermocouple (Seebeck
effect) elements have emerged as standard power sensing
devices over the micro-to-milliwatt microwave power range.
The diode detector, using Schottky barrier diodes with low

noise and thermal drift properties, is a widely used power
sensor especially at very low power levels.
Schottky
DC Block barrier diode
• •
Microwave V
R RF bypass detector
power C
Matching capacitor output
input
resistor voltage
•
Fig 4.4 Diode detector circuit
A basic diode detector circuit is shown in fig 4.4. The input

resistor R is made equal to the line characteristics impedance
Zo to provide a good quality match to the incident microwaves.
The rectified microwave signal is smoothed by the RF by-pass
capacitor C. The detector output voltage V is directly
proportional to microwave input power for levels up to 10µW or
so but thereafter the relationship is non-linear.
32
Chapter 4
The MST532 Microstrip Trainer utilises a high-quality matched

crystal detector both for the detection of microwave signals and
also as a power meter in conjunction with a digital voltmeter. Its
calibration; detector output voltage versus microwave power
input is described in the next section.
4.5
Calibration of the
Crystal Detector for
use as a power meter
Crystal Diode Digital
Detector Voltmeter
D DVM
Microwave Isolator or Stepped 1 2
source Pad Attn. Attenuator 3 Power
P
meter
Power Divider
Fig 4.5 Basic set-up for the calibration of crystal

detector for use as a power meter
The calibration of the diode Crystal Detector used in the

MST532 Microstrip Trainer for power measurement over the
range 0.5µW to 30mW was accomplished using the set up
shown in fig 4.5. The microwave source used was capable of
providing a variable power output 0 to 100mW over the
S-band range 2-4GHz, the band for which the MST532
components were designed to operate. However, if a non-
variable microwave power source only is available, power may
be controlled using stepped coaxial attenuators. In fig 4.5 the
isolator is used as an isolating pad to absorb any reflections,
the stepped attenuator is used to provide an additional control
of transmission power to the power divider which acts to split
the incident power at port 1 to two equal magnitude outputs at
ports 2 and 3.
The crystal detector was connected to port 2 and a calibrated

power meter able to measure power over the range to 0.1µW
to 50mW was connected to port 3.
Thus with equal power outputs at ports 2 and 3 the calibration

procedure is relatively straightforward. The microwave source
frequency is set at the centre-band frequency of 3GHz and its
power output set at low-level so, for example, a 1µW reading is
obtained on the power meter (P). The voltage output of the
33
Chapter 4
crystal detector, measured on the digital voltmeter,

corresponding to the power at P can then be noted.
Power levels are then stepped up, typically in 1dB steps at the
lower levels up to 10µW and then subsequently in 2dB steps
so that the detector may be calibrated over the full range up to
30 plus milliwatts.
Over the range 0-10µW the detector output voltage is

observed to be linearly related to microwave power - the so-
called square law range where the detected current and hence
detector output voltage is proportional to the square of the
incident microwave voltage amplitude and hence microwave
power. Calibration curves for the crystal detector are supplied
for convenience in the MS532 in four ranges:
• 0-10mV detector voltage corresponding to 0-16µW approx.
• 10-110mV corresponding to 16-350µW approx.
• 100-450mV corresponding to 0.27-3.8mW approx.
• 0.4-1.4V corresponding to 3-32mW approx.
4.6
Measurement
of Frequency:
Microwave Counters
and Wavemeters Measurement of frequency in the microwave frequency range
may be accomplished either by means of a microwave
frequency counter or wavemeter.
}
9 digit buttons to select
display resolution eg. 0.1, 1,10kHz
for frequency
buttons to vary display rate
Coaxial
input for
Auto
microwave signal
button
Fig 4.6 Diagram of a typical microwave frequency counter
Microwave counters normally employ the principle of harmonic

heterodyne frequency conversion whereby the microwave
signal is first down-converted in frequency by mixing with a
34
Chapter 4
harmonic of a locally generated oscillator to an intermediate

frequency (IF) usually in the 10 to 100MHz range. The
frequency of the IF can then be accurately measured by
standard digital counter circuits and with the knowledge of the
local oscillator harmonic frequency, the microwave signal
frequency can be calculated. Such counters produce excellent
accuracy to the order of a few parts per million, resolution to
within 1Hz and usually a 9 digit direct display of frequency.
Minimum microwave input is typically the order of microwatts.
Fig 4.7
Prior to the development of microwave counters, frequency

measurement depended on using cavity wavemeters
consisting of sections of short-circuited waveguide and short-
circuited or capacitively loaded coaxial transmission line. An
example of the latter is shown in fig 4.7.
35
Chapter 4
The wavemeter is tuned to resonance by varying the insertion

depth of the centre conductor. The cavity resonates when the
length L is approximately one quarter wavelength and at
resonance this type of wavemeter causes a dip due absorption
losses as indicated in fig 4.7(c). A scale engraved on the
wavemeter barrel can be calibrated directly in frequency.
Accuracy of such wavemeters are typically within ± 0.2%.
4.7
Frequency calibration
of the VCO Microwave
Source
Microwave
+15V Frequency
Tuning voltage:
0V Counter
variable -30V
3
Microwave source Isolator
Matched
or 1 2
VCO Coupler Load
Pad
(a) Calibration using mi crowave frequency counter
Wavemeter
+15V
0V
0 -30V
Frequency scale
Isolator Power meter

Microwave source
or or
P
VCO Pad Crystal detector
(b) Calibration using wavemeter
Fig 4.8 Calibration of frequency versus tuning voltage

for Microwave VCO Source
36
Chapter 4
Basic experimental set-ups for measuring the frequency of a

microwave source with particular reference to calibrating the
voltage controlled oscillator, VCO, of the MST532 Microstrip
Trainer are shown in fig 4.8.
The source output should be buffered by an isolator or

10dB/20dB attenuator pad to prevent any reflections from the
measurement system affecting the source frequency. In
fig 4.8(a) the microwave frequency counter is connected to the
forward coupled port 3 of a directional coupler, (a 10 to 20dB
coupler) and the output port 2 for the main transmission power
terminated in a matched load. Thus if the VCO is producing the
order of 10mW, the counter will receive via the directional
coupler, one tenth (10dB) or one hundredth (20dB) of this
power, well above the counter threshold level.
The VCO frequency can be varied over the range of

approximately 2.4 to 3.7GHz by adjusting the tuning voltage
between 2 and 30 volts. Starting at 2 volts, minimum tuning
voltage corresponding to frequency of about 2.4GHz, the
frequency can be directly read off the counter display and by
incrementing in 1 volt steps the full range of the VCO may be
calibrated. Alternatively, as shown in fig 4.8(b), frequency may
be measured using an absorption-type wavemeter. Output
power is observed on the power meter or crystal detector and
the wavemeter tuned to resonance by observing a small dip,
typically 1dB, in transmission power. A calibration curve of
frequency versus VCO tuning voltage is supplied in the
MST532 Microstrip Trainer.
37
Chapter 4
4.8
Basic measurements
for insertion loss/gain
using equipment available
in MST532 Microstrip Trainer
Fig 4.9
The measurement of insertion loss and gain may be made with

the components available in the MST532 Microstrip Trainer
using the test set-up shown in fig 4.9. Mismatch errors are
relatively small and accuracies to with ±1dB or better are
normally obtained.
38
Chapter 4
The circulator (CIR) is used as an isolator with low-loss

transmission between its ports 1 and 2 and port 3 terminated in
a 50 ohm matched load to absorb any reflections from the
component under test. The crystal detector (D) provides a
good match over the S-band 2 to 4GHz range with an input
vswr less than 1.2 corresponding to a power reflection
coefficient of less than 1%.
The procedure for measuring insertion loss is straightforward.

At any given frequency, the power P1 in the direct connection
and the output power with the device inserted is measured and
the ratios:
P2
Insertion Loss Ratio =
P
1
P2
Insertion Loss = 10 log 10 dB
P
1
calculated.
The frequency of the VCO microwave source is set at the

desired frequency using the voltage-frequency calibration
curves provided to determine the required VCO tuning voltage.
The transmission powers P1 and P2 are found by measuring
the crystal detector output voltage and converting this to
microwave power using the detector voltage – power
calibration curves also provided with the MST532.
For wideband measurement it is more convenient to measure

the direct-connection power P1 at regular intervals over the
band in one sequence without continually inserting the device.
With the device under test inserted the band is first slowly
scanned to identify any specific areas of interest. In this way,
for example, any rapid change in P2 over a narrow band can
be noted and not lost as could occur in fixed interval point-to-
point measurements.
Note that in insertion gain measurements it may be necessary

to include an attenuator in series with the device input. For
example, a 20dB attenuator is required in investigating the gain
of the MMIC amplifier unit to reduce the VCO output and
prevent the amplifier being driven into saturation. The VCO
output is typically the order of 10mW, more than enough to
saturate the amplifier. A 20dB attenuator must be inserted at
the amplifier input to effect the smaller signal level input
required.
39
Chapter 4
The insertion gain in this case is given by:
P2
Insertion Gain = 10 log 10
P1
where P2 = power output of amplifier
P1 = power in direct connection with the attenuator in-

circuit
4.9
Basic measurement of
Return Loss using
equipment available
in the MST532
Microstrip Trainer
Fig 4.10
The measurement of reflection coefficient and return loss of a

microwave device may be made with the components available
with the MST532 Microstrip Trainer using the test set-up shown
in fig 4.10.The technique employed uses the directional
coupler to measure reflected power. The procedure is
explained first followed by a description of the directional
properties of a coupler and the basis of the method of
measurement used.
40
Chapter 4
With reference to fig 4.10:

(1) Set the VCO at the desired measurement frequency and
connect the component under test at point X. Measure the
reflected coupled power at port 4 of the directional coupler
using the crystal detector D. Note this power, Pr' say. Pr' is
directly proportional to the power reflected from the input to
the device under test.
(2) Disconnect the device and connect the coaxial short-circuit
termination at point X. Measure the coupled reflected
power at port 4, Psc' say. Psc' is directly proportional to the
power reflected at the short-circuit.
(3) Disconnect the short-circuit and replace by the coaxial
open-circuit termination. Measure the coupled reflected
power from the open-circuit at port 4, Poc' say. Poc' is
directly proportional to the power reflected at the open-
circuit.
(4) Ideally both short and open-circuit terminations should
produce 100% reflection so Psc' and Poc' may be taken as
a measure of the level of the input power supplied by the
microwave source at point X. In practice the equality of Psc'
and Poc' is close but may differ slightly due to mismatch
uncertainties and line lengths. To take the latter into
account it is usual to take the average value of Psc' and
Poc' to represent the measure of 'coupled' incident power
Pi', i.e
1
P ' = (P sc' + P oc' )
i 2
(5) The return loss ratio, allowing for the fact that the constant
of proportionality effected by the coupling coefficient of the
directional coupler is identical in measurements 1, 2 and 3,
is given by:
Pr
Return Loss Ratio =
Pi
P r' P r'
= =
P i' 1 (P ' + P ' )
2 sc oc
as Pr' = c Pr, where Pr = power reflected from device under

test
Pi' = c Pi, Pi = incident power fed to device
c = coupling coefficient of directional
coupler
41
Chapter 4
Properties of a directional coupler
Coupled Decoupled port Decoupled port Coupled

power power ideally power ideally
power
zero zero
P3 P4 P3 P4
P2 P1 P2
P1 3 4 3 4
1 2 1 2
(a) (b)
P3 P4
Coupling Coefficient, c =
P1 P2
Fig 4.11
The directional properties of a 4-port directional coupler as

used in the above measurement of return loss may be
described with reference to fig 4.11.
In (a) microwave power incident at port 1 is transmitted to port

2 with a certain fraction coupled to port 3. Ideally zero power is
coupled to port 4. The coupling coefficient of the directional
coupler is defined as:
P
3
c=
P assuming all ports are matched
1
e.g if c = 0.1 (a – 10dB coupler), P3 = c P1 = 0.1 P1
if c = 0.01 (a – 20dB coupler), P3 = 0.01 P1
In the reverse direction, as shown in (b), power incident at port

2 is transmitted to port 1 with coupling this time to port 4, and
ideally zero power to port 3.
P4 = c P2
42
Chapter 4
As a measure of the directional coupling properties, the term

directivity is used. It represents the ratio of the power to the
decoupled port to the power at the coupled port:
P
4
d =
Directivity P in fig 4.11(a)
3
Good quality directional couplers have directivities ranging

from 0.01 (-20dB) to 0.0001 (-40dB).
Matched D
Load P r '= cP r
Matched
3 4 Pr Load
Device under
1 2 test
P
Input power i
from source
Measurement of reflected power
using a directional coupler
Fig 4.12
With these directional properties in mind the basis of

measuring reflected power and hence return loss can now be
explained. Referring to fig 4.12 the power reflected from the
device under test and coupled to port 4 where it is measured
by the crystal detector (D).is given by,
Pr' = c Pr
where c = coupling coefficient of directional coupler
Pr = actual power reflected from device when fed

with an incident power of Pi
When the device is replaced by a short-circuit (or an open-

circuit) the incident power Pi will be totally reflected and the
power measured by D at port 4,
Pi' = c Pi
Thus, the return loss ratio,
Pr P r'
RLR = =
Pi Pi'
43
Chapter 4
As explained in (4) above Pi' is usually taken as the average of

the short and open-circuit reflected powers measured at
port 4.
4.10
Swept frequency and
scalar analyser techniques
for insertion and
return loss
measurements The methods of measurement for insertion and return loss
described in the previous two sections may be carried out
easily at point-to-point spot frequencies over the band of
interest. Care, however, must be exercised that important
information is not missed. For wideband assessment of
component performance it is current practice to use swept
frequency techniques.
An example of typical test set-ups for swept frequency

measurement of insertion and return loss is shown in fig
4.13(a) and (b) respectively.
Microwave Precision
Isolator A B Isolator
Sweep stepped/
or Pad or Pad D
variable
Generator Attenuator Attenuator
attenuator
Oscilloscope
or X-Y plotter Crystal detector
or Powermeter
Device
P under
test
f
Sweep voltage X Y Detector output proportional to

proportional to microwave power, P
frequency, f
Measurement of insertion loss-frequency characteristic
Fig 4.13 (a) Swept frequency measurements
The microwave sweep generator is capable of sweeping over a

selected frequency range and also provides an output voltage
proportional to the frequency being generated. This voltage is
used to drive the X-plates of an oscilloscope or X-input of an X-
44
Chapter 4
Y plotter, thus providing a known frequency axis. The

transmitted/reflected microwave power from the test system is
detected by a crystal detector or powermeter and applied to the
Y-input.
The basic procedure for making insertion loss measurements

using the test set of fig 4.13(a) is as follows:
1 Select the appropriate frequency range on the sweeper.
2 With the device out of the circuit and the stepped/variable

attenuator set to zero make a trace on the X-Y plotter. This
trace corresponds to 0dB insertion loss. Repeat with the
attenuator set at 1dB, 2dB, 3dB etc, or use other
convenient steps. If an oscilloscope is used these traces
can be used to calibrate the screen graticule.
3 Now insert the device. The resulting sweep traces out the
insertion loss over the calibration lines, see for example
fig 4.14.
Device insertion loss

0dB
-3dB
-10dB
-20dB
Calibration lines
-30db
-40dB
2 3 Frequency GHz
Fig 4.14 Example of insertion loss characteristic
45
Chapter 4
P
Oscilloscope f
or X-Y plotter Signal ∝
Reflected power
X Y
Crystal detector
or Powermeter D
Precision
stepped/variable
attenuator Short-circuit
Microwave Isolator X
Sweep or Pad Open-circuit
Generator Attenuator
Directional
Coupler Device
under
test
Measurement of return loss-frequency characteristic
Matched load
Fig 4.13(b) Swept frequency measurements
The procedure for measuring return loss using the test set-up
of fig 4.13(b) is as follows:
1 Select the appropriate frequency range on sweeper.
2 Terminate the directional coupler in a short-circuit at point

X and set the stepped/variable attenuator to zero. Make a
trace on the X-Y plotter or oscilloscope. This corresponds
to:
Γ = 1, or 0 db return loss
Repeat with the attenuator set at convenient intervals, e.g

10dB, 20dB, 30dB etc. These traces correspond to the
magnitude of the return loss in dB. Check the calibration
with the open-circuit at X.
3 Remove the short-circuit, return the variable attenuator to

0dB and connect the device into the circuit. The resulting
46
Chapter 4
sweep traces out the return loss of the device super-

imposed on the calibration lines, see for example fig 4.15.
Device return loss

0dB
Calibration lines
-10dB
-20dB
-23dB
-30db
Frequency GHz
2 3 4
Fig 4.15 Example of return loss characteristic
4.11
Scalar/amplitude
analyser systems for
semi-automated
measurement Instruments known as scalar or amplitude analysers are
available for the accurate measurement of insertion loss/gain,
return loss and vswr. These analysers working with a
compatible microwave sweep generator cover a wide dynamic
power range, typically –50dBm to 20dBm (10nW to 100mW),
and provide many automated features: digital signal
processing to correct for non-linearity in the crystal detector
response, storage facilities (especially useful for eliminating
cable connection uncertainties in the measurements),
keyboard control for processing, displaying, scaling etc of the
results.
Scalar analysers normally operate with a programmable

sweeper, one which can be set to any specific frequency
sweep range and power output level consistent, of course, with
its overall specification, e.g sweepers are available in ranges 2-
8GHz, 2-20GHz, 8-12GHz etc with maximum power levels up
to 100mW.
Fig 4.16 illustrates typical set-ups for insertion and return loss
measurements.
47
Chapter 4
In (a) the power transmitted in the direct connection is

detected by the crystal detector and as well as being
displayed may also be stored in the analyser memory
circuits. Insertion loss/gain characteristic with the device
under test in circuit can then be automatically obtained
by comparing the direct and device transmitted power
stored in memory and displaying this comparison, all
calculations etc being performed within the analyser's
computing circuitry.
(b) shows an alternative method using a power splitter, two

detectors and two channels, A and R, a reference
channel.
(c) shows the set-up for return loss and vswr

measurements where the reflected waves are picked up
and also detected in the directional bridge circuit.
Short and open-circuits are used in the calibration process, the
average of their reflected wave powers is stored in the analyser
and then compared with the reflected power of the device
under test.
48
Chapter 4
Fig 4.16 Measurement of insertion and return loss using Scalar Analyser
49
Microstrip Trainer
NOTES
50
ASSIGNMENTS CHAPTER 5
This chapter comprises the following 10 assignments by which

students will gain knowledge and practice in the techniques of
microwave scalar measurements – measurement of insertion
loss and gain; reflection coefficient, voltage standing wave ratio
and return loss – and also will provide experience with working
with basic passive and active components of modern
microwave circuits, culminating in building-up complete
systems.
All assignments are essentially free standing. They contain the

necessary information to accomplish the investigation on an
individual basis. However, it is assumed that users have
carried out the Installation Checks described in Chapter 2, and
therefore be familiar with the basic operation of the equipment.
Note: Due to the normal spread of product tolerances and

testing methods it is not possible to provide 'typical'
test results.
1 Introduction to the microwave VCO source and detector

and action of a 3-port circulator.
2 Measurement of insertion loss: insertion loss characteristic

of a low pass filter.
3 Properties of a directional coupler.
4 Measurement of a return loss, reflection coefficient and

vswr.
5 Matching investigations : determination of impedance of an

unknown resistive load and its matching by quarter-wave-
length (1/4 λg)transformer and shunt stub techniques.
6 Properties of a power divider and rat-race hybrid coupler.
7 Measurement of effective dielectric constant using a ring

resonator.
8 DC biasing circuits and MMIC amplifier investigations.
9 PIN diode modulator investigations.
10 Microwave radio link and patch antenna investigations.
51
INTRODUCTION TO THE MICROWAVE VCO SOURCE AND

DETECTOR AND ACTION OF A 3–PORT CIRCULATOR ASSIGNMENT 1
CONTENT A simple microwave test system comprising the microwave

voltage controlled oscillator source, a 3-port circulator and the
crystal detector used as a power meter is set up. The operation
of the VCO source and detector is explained and the non-
reciprocal transmission properties of the circulator and its
action as an isolator are investigated.
EQUIPMENT
REQUIRED Qty Designation Description
1 VCO Voltage controlled oscillator,

microwave source
1 CIR 3-port circulator
1 D Crystal detector
1 MT (red spot) 50 ohm coaxial termination
1 PPC SMA plug-to-plug coaxial connector
1 SC (white spot) Coaxial short-circuit termination
1 – Power Supply for VCO source,

(e.g AX322C)
1 – Digital voltmeter for diode detector,

1mV to 1.4V,
(e.g MX545)
52
INTRODUCTION TO THE MICROWAVE VCO SOURCE AND

DETECTOR AND ACTION OF A 3–PORT CIRCULATOR ASSIGNMENT 1
OBJECTIVES When you have completed this assignment you will:
• Be able to use the VCO oscillator and set its frequency to a

given value within its tuning range
• Be able to use the crystal detector for the measurement of

microwave power
• Know the basic properties of a circulator and its

applications in microwave systems
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL No prior microwave knowledge is required to carry out the

assignment. For those interested in knowing how the VCO
source was calibrated in terms of frequency and how the diode
detector was calibrated for use as a power meter, see sections
4.7 and 4.5 respectively in Chapter 4: 'Introduction to
Microwave Measurements'.
53
Assignment 1
INTRODUCTION
The VCO Source,
Diode Detector and
Three-Port Circulator
Components The microwave generator supplied in the MST532 and used as
the microwave source in all assignments is voltage tuneable
allowing the oscillator frequency to be set to any desired value
within its range. It incorporates a silicon transistor operated as
a negative resistance oscillator element which may be tuned by
a varactor diode acting as a voltage controlled capacitor in a
thin film microwave resonator circuit.
The approximate specification of the voltage controlled
oscillator, the VCO, is as follows:
frequency range: 2.4 to 3.7GHz

power output into 50 ohms: 10mW, minimum
power variation: ±1.5dB, maximum
tuning voltage limits:
low frequency (2.4GHz), 2V approx.
high frequency (3.7GHz), 30V approx.
dc supply: 15V, maximum
Tuning voltage - microwave frequency output data for the VCO

in the MST532 Microstrip Trainer are provided.
+15V
0V dc supply Tuning voltage
ground (2-30V)
Light emitting
diode (LED) Microwave
Black Red White power
2mm sockets output
Continuous - CW rf output
Flashing - 1kHz modulated
rf output
Modulator SMA coaxial

connector
On-OFF switch
Fig 5.1.1 External connections to VCO Microwave Source
54
Assignment 1
Fig 5.1.1 gives the external connections to the VCO unit. Three
2mm sockets mounted on the side casing are available for the
connection of the dc supply and the VCO tuning voltages. The
Connections are:
Black ground
Red power supply = +15V
White tuning voltage +2.0V to 30V
The output from this oscillator unit may be either constant wave
(CW) or switched-keyed (on-off type) modulation at 1kHz.
Switching between CW and modulated output is achieved by
operating the modulator switch. A light-emitting diode, LED,
indicator is used to indicate in which mode (CW or modulated)
the oscillator is operating. In the CW mode the LED indicator
remains on. When switched to 1kHz modulation the LED
flashes at a rate of approximately once every 2 seconds.
The diode crystal detector, see fig 5.1.2, is used in the

MST532 Microstrip Trainer to detect (rectify) microwave
signals and measure microwave power. The crystal detector is
designed to effect an excellent match to 50 ohm lines and for
CW inputs produces a dc voltage output which may be
accurately measured by a digital voltmeter and converted to
power using the calibration curves provided. The detector
sensitivity is better than 0.5mV per microwatt at low power
levels and is used to measure power levels over a wide
dynamic range, typically 1µW to 30mW plus.
Note The connection of the diode in the crystal detector used

is such as to produce a negative rather than a positive
voltage output. Thus a negative voltage will be
measured on the digital voltmeter. The negative sign is
of no consequence in using the calibration curves and
may be discarded.
55
Assignment 1
Fig 5.1.2
As well as introducing and using the VCO and detector, this

first assignment serves to investigate the characteristics of a
3-port circulator and in particular its isolation properties.
A circulator is an important microwave component and is

extensively used in microwave systems. It depends on its
operation on the non-reciprocal properties of ferrites — non-
conducting magnetic materials with high permeability and
permittivity. Fig 5.1.3 shows a simplified diagram of a 3-port
circulator. The ferrite, placed at the centre of the junction
produces non-reciprocal effects on the transmission of energy
between junctions when correctly magnetised. Magnetisation is
usually produced by a permanent magnet, not shown in the
diagram; however, for switching applications current carrying
magnetisation coils are also used. The effect of the
magnetised ferrite on transmission is as follows:
Microwave energy entering at Port 1 leaves at Port 2 with

ideally zero energy reaching Port 3. Energy entering at Port 2
leaves at Port 3 and energy at Port 3 emerges at Port 1.
56
Assignment 1
P2
Port 2
Ferrite
1 2
P1
3
Port 3
P3 Zero
Fig 5.1.3 Action of a 3-port circulator
Typically, the transmission loss between coupled ports is only

about –0.5dB whilst the isolation at the decoupled port is of the
order of –20 to –30dB, i.e with reference to fig 5.1.3 with power
Port 1 P1 incident at Port 1:
P2
transmission loss, 1 to 2 = 10 log 10 ≈ −0. 5dB
P1
P3
isolation, 1 to 3 = 10 log 10 < −20dB
P1
most of the incident power emerges at port 2 and less than 1%

at port 3. The input vswr is typically less than 1.2 and the
bandwidth ±15% of the centre frequency.
Circulators are widely used in microwave systems and some

major applications are illustrated in fig 5.1.4.
57
Assignment 1
Fig 5.1.4 Some applications of circulators
58
Assignment 1
NOTES
59
Assignment 1
Fig 5.1.5 Connections for basic test system
60
Assignment 1
In Practical 1.1 described below a basic test system is set up

and the operation of the VCO microwave source and detector
to measure microwave power is explained. The transmission
power from the source via the low loss transmission path, port
1 to port 2, of the circulator is measured at a number of
different frequencies in the S-band range centred on 3GHz.
In Practical 1.2 the power to the decoupled or isolated port of

the circulator is measured.
In Practical 1.3 port 2 is terminated in a short circuit and the

power to port 3 remeasured.
Finally in Practical 1.4 the circulator is set up so power is

incident from the source at port 2 and the power transmitted to
port 1 is measured.
From these measurements the non-reciprocal transmission

properties can be quantified for a practical circulator and its
applications as an isolator, diplexer, channel separator
reinforced.
PRACTICAL 1.1
Initial setting-up
and measurement
of transmission
power 1 Connect up the microwave source (VCO), circulator (CIR)
and crystal detector (D) as shown in fig 5.1.5. The VCO
and circulator at its port 1 input are interconnected using an
SMA plug-to-plug connector, 8 of which are supplied. The
crystal detector input is an SMA plug connector and mates
directly with the circulator at its output port 2. These
connectors can be easily tightened by hand and finally by
the spanner. Do not over-tighten. Terminate port 3 of the
circulator in a 50 ohm coaxial termination (distinguished by
a red spot on its outer casing).
2 The DC power supply (unit AX322C) has a dual 0 to 30 volt

output. Using one set of these terminals and the leads
provided connect the positive (+) terminal of the supply to
the red 2mm socket terminal of the VCO unit, connect the
negative (–) terminal to the black 2mm socket terminal of
the VCO.
Strap the negative terminals of the dual supply together.

Connect the positive terminal of the second pair of the
power supply to the white terminal, the tuning voltage
terminal, of the VCO.
61
Assignment 1
3 Connect the crystal detector output by means of the coaxial

cable provided to the digital voltmeter (unit MX545). The
BNC female connector on the cable connects directly to the
BNC jack output of the detector. At the voltmeter end
connect the black lead to the terminal marked COM and
the red lead to the terminal marked VΩ. Set the rotary
switch to DC volts, the position denoted by V . . . . .
When switched on, the voltmeter is in the auto-ranging

mode and this should not be changed. The DC output
voltage from the crystal detector is displayed directly.The
display also shows the measurement units millivolts (mV)
or volts (V) and the polarity, in this case negative, since the
detector produces a negative output.
4 If not already done so, switch on the digital voltmeter and

switch on the DC power supply. Set the VCO supply
voltage to +15 volts. Set the VCO tuning voltage to 10 volts
or so. The digital voltmeter will display the crystal detector
voltage corresponding to the power output at port 2 of the
circulator. Ensure the VCO is in its CW mode, i.e LED
indicator is on continuously.
5 Now complete the following.
Using the tuning voltage — frequency data supplied for the

VCO set the oscillator frequency at 2.5GHz. Measure the
transmission power P2 at port 2, i.e record the digital
voltmeter reading and use the detector voltage - power
calibration curves to convert the reading to microwave
power.
Use this procedure to obtain similar measurments for the

frequencies given in Table 5.1.1.
Record the results in a copy of Table 5.1.1, reproduced at the

end of this assignment.
62
Assignment 1
PRACTICAL 1.2
Measurement of
power transmitted to
decoupled/isolated
Port 3 Interchange the crystal detector D and 50 ohm coaxial
termination as shown in fig 5.1.6 and using the VCO voltage
settings found in Practical 1.1, measure the detector voltage
and hence the power P3 transmitted to port 3 at the five
frequencies, 2.5, 2.75, 3.0, 3.25 and 3.5GHz. Record the
results in a copy of Table 5.1.2, reproduced at the end of this
assignment. Calculate the ratios P3/P2 and 10 log P3/P2, where
P2 is the power transmitted to port 2, measured in Practical
1.1.
Circulator
(CIR)
P1
1 2 50Ω Coaxial
VCO
Termination (MT)
PPC
plug-to-plug
Microwave Source connector 3 P3
Crystal D
Detector (D)
Digital
DVM Voltmeter
Fig 5.1.6 Set-up for measuring power P3 at decoupled port 3
63
Assignment 1
PRACTICAL 1.3
Measurement at
port 3 with power
reflected at port 2
Circulator
(CIR)
P2
1
VCO 2 Short-circuit
Termination (SC)
PPC
plug-to-plug
Microwave Source connector 3 P3
Crystal
Detector (D) D
Digital
DVM Voltmeter
Fig 5.1.7 Set-up with short-circuit at port 2
Replace the 50 ohm co-axial termination at port 2 with the

coaxial short-circuit termination (distinguished by a white spot
on its casing). Make measurements of P3 at the five
frequencies recording the results in a copy of Table 5.1.3,
reproduced at the end of this assignment.
Calculate the ratio P3/P2
64
Assignment 1
PRACTICAL 1.4
Measurement of
transmission
power P1 with
circulator reversed
50Ω Coaxial Digital
Termination (MT) Voltmeter
DVM
3 P1
2 1
VCO D
PPC
plug-to-plug Crystal
Microwave Source connector Circulator
Detector (D)
(CIR)
Fig 5.1.8 Set-up with circulator reversed in direction.
Finally set up the components as shown in fig 5.1.8
with the circulator reversed so that port 2 is now connected to

the VCO output and port 1 to the detector. Terminate port 3 in
the 50Ω coaxial termination. Measure P1 and record the results
in a copy of Table 5.1.4, reproduced at the end of this
assignment.
Calculate the ratios P1/P2 and 10 log10 P1/P2 where P2 is the

reference power measured in Practical 1.1.
65
Assignment 1
PRACTICAL 1.5
Results summary
and observations
on circulator
characteristics The results obtained in Practicals 1.1-4 and calculations
performed enable a summary of the basic characteristics of the
3-port circulator to be made and its performance specified over
the range 2.5 to 3.5GHz. Use a copy of Table 5.1.5,
reproduced at the end of this assignment, to record its
performance.
Exercise 1.1 Comment on the results recorded in the first and third
columns as regards the directional/isolation properties of
the circulator. Explain also the significance of the results
in the second column.
SUMMARY A basic microwave test system has been set up and the non-
reciprocal transmission properties of a 3-port ferrite circulator
have been investigated.
It is observed that with power incident at a given port, the

circulator directs the power with low loss in a given direction
but not in the reverse sense, e.g with power incident at port 1
low loss transmission occurs to port 2 but little power reaches
port 3 when both these ports are terminated in matched (50
ohm) impedances; if power were to be reflected at port 2 it will
be directed to port 3.
An important application of the circulator is as an isolator — a

one-way transmission device which presents low-loss
transmission in one direction but high loss (isolation) in the
reverse. In microwave measurements it is standard practice to
use an isolator to protect the source. Any reflections produced
in the system will be effectively absorbed in the isolator
(see fig 5.1.4b) thus preventing these affecting the source
output. The application of the 3-port circulator as an isolator for
the VCO microwave source is used in most of the following
assignments for this reason.
66
Assignment 1
NOTES
67
Assignment 1
VCO Frequency VCO Tuning Detector Voltage Transmission

f GHz Voltage Output at Port 2 Power P2
2.5
2.75
3.0
3.25
3.5
Table 5.1.1 Results
VCO Port 3 Port 3 Port 2 10log10 P3/P2
f GHz volts Detector V Power P3 Power P2 P3/P2 dB
(from Table
5.1.1)
2.5
2.75
3.0
3.25
3.5
Table 5.1.2 Results
VCO Port 3 Port 3 Reference 10log10 P3/P2
(from Table
5.1.1)
2.5
2.75
3.0
3.25
3.5
Table 5.1.3 Results
VCO Port 1 Port 1 10log10 P1/P2
(from Table
5.1.1)
2.5
2.75
3.0
3.25
3.5
Table 5.1.4 Results
68
Assignment 1
Power input at Port 1 Power input at Port 2

ports 2 and 3 port 2 short-circuited ports 3 and 1
terminated in 50Ω port 3 matched terminated in 50Ω
i.e matched
P2 input P2 S/C 3 P1
input input
f GHz 1 2 1 2 2 1
3
P2
3 P3 P
P2 = power measured P2 = power ref. P2 = power measured

in Practical 1.1 in Practical 1.1 in Practical 1.4
P3 = power measured P3 = power measured P3 = power ref.
in Practical 1.2 in Practical 1.3 in Practical 1.1
10log10 P3/P2 dB 10log10 P3/P2 dB 10log10 P1/P2 dB
2.5
2.75
3.0
3.25
3.75
Table 5.1.5 Results
69
MEASUREMENT OF INSERTION LOSS: INSERTION

LOSS CHARACTERISTIC OF A LOW PASS FILTER ASSIGNMENT 2
CONTENT A basic test system comprising the VCO microwave source,

the circulator used as an isolator and the crystal detector as a
microwave power meter is set up to measure the insertion loss
characteristic of a low pass microstrip filter.
EQUIPMENT

microwave source
1 MT (red spot) 50 ohm miniature coaxial

termination
1 LPF Low pass filter
2 PPC SMA miniature plug-to-plug coaxial

connectors
1 – Power supply for VCO source,

(e.g AX 322C)

(e.g MX 545)
70
MEASUREMENT OF INSERTION LOSS: INSERTION

LOSS CHARACTERISTIC OF A LOW PASS FILTER ASSIGNMENT 2
• Have calibrated the VCO source plus isolator to obtain the

output power versus frequency characteristic.
• Know the basic means of measuring the insertion loss of a

microwave component and have measured the insertion
loss of a microstrip low pass filter
• Appreciate the pass and attenuation band characteristics of

this type of filter
• Know that a microstrip low pass filter may be fabricated as

an L-C type ladder network where series L elements may
be synthesised as short lengths of high impedance line and
shunt C elements of low impedance line.
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL No prior microwave knowledge is required to carry out this

assignment. However, it would be very useful additional
background to read sections 4.1 and 4.8 in Chapter 4:
'Introduction to Microwave Measurements', which respectively
define insertion loss and describe the basic method used to
measure insertion loss using the MST532 Microstrip Trainer.
71
Assignment 2
INTRODUCTION Filters are frequency selective networks designed so as to

pass certain bands of frequencies and reject others. Filters are
normally classified as low-pass, band-pass, high-pass or band
stop according to the bands they pass with low loss or in the
case of the band stop filter, the band they reject. Typical
insertion loss characteristics for the four classes are sketched
in fig 5.2.1.
Fig 5.2.1
72
Assignment 2
Low-pass, band-pass and band stop filters find important

applications in signal selection in microwave systems and may
be fabricated in microstrip. In this assignment we investigate
the insertion loss characteristic of a low pass filter designed to
attenuate frequencies in the upper part of S-band whilst
providing low loss up to 2.7GHz.
The filter, LPF, and its equivalent circuit is shown in fig 5.2.2.
The filter is the microstrip equivalent of a 5-element L-C ladder
network. The L and C values are designed to produce the
required cut-off frequency, the frequency determining the limit
of the pass-band range, and the rate at which the loss rises in
the attenuation band.
• • •
• •
LPF
• • •
(a) (b)
Low Pass Filter Equivalent circuit of filter:
(LPF) 5-element L-C ladder network
Fig 5.2.2
73
Assignment 2
The series inductance L elements are synthesised using short

lengths of high impedance line. Such lengths behave
predominantly inductively when terminated in low impedance
lines as indicated in fig 5.2.3(a). The characteristic impedance
of a microstrip line is a function of its width w; the smaller w the
higher the impedance. The shunt capacitance C elements are
synthesised again by short lengths but of relatively large w to
give the line a low characteristic impedance. Short lengths of
low impedance line terminated in high impedance lines
simulate closely a shunt capacitance as indicated in
fig 5.2.3(b). In the complete filter, see fig 5.2.3(c), corrections
must be made for the abrupt junction discontinuities between
adjacent elements and the effects of the terminations on the L
and C line elements. In practice microstrip filters are designed
using computer aided design packages which accurately model
all these effects and also contain facilities for simulated testing
and optimisation. In this way the L and C line lengths and
respective widths can be obtained with a good degree of
confidence that they satisfy the filter specification before
fabrication is commenced.
74
Assignment 2
75
Assignment 2
From Power Supply

+15V
0V 2-30V Digital
voltmeter
Circulator (CIR)
DVM
P1
1 2
VCO D
3 Crystal detector (D)

SMA (Power meter)
Microwave Source
plug-to-plug
50Ω coaxial
connector
termination (MT)
(PPC)
(a) Direct connection for measurement of power P1
+15V 2-30V SMA plug-to-plug

connectors (PPC)
0V
Circulator
(CIR) DVM
P2
1 2 Low pass
VCO filter LPF D
3
Microwave Source
50Ω Coaxial
termination (MT)
(b) Circuit with low-pass filter inserted for measurement of power P 2
Fig 5.2.4 Circuits for measurement of Insertion Loss of Low Pass Filter
76
Assignment 2
PRACTICAL 2.1
Measurement of
insertion loss of
low pass filter,
unit LPF The measurement of Insertion Loss of a component (see
Section 4.8 of Chapter 4 'Introduction to Microwave
Measurements') at a given frequency involves two
measurements: the determination of the power P1 in the direct
connection with the microwave source directly connected to a
matched power sensor and the determination of the power P 2
from the component output with the device inserted between
the source and power sensor:
P2
Insertion Loss Ratio =
P1
P2
Insertion Loss = 10 log 10 dB
P1
The procedure described below measures first P1 over the

band and then with the filter inserted P2 over the same band,
thus avoiding the rather tedious need to break the
measurement set up at each point-to-point frequency.
1 Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram of

fig 5.2.4(a) with the filter out of circuit, i.e in the direct
connection. Note the circulator with the 50 ohm termination
at port 3 acts as an isolator for the microwave source. It
provides low loss transmission from port 1 to port 2 and
any reflected power from the test system is absorbed in the
50 ohm termination at port 3.
Connect the power supply to the VCO microwave source
and using the frequency-tuning voltage calibration data set
the source frequency at 2.45GHz.
Measure the crystal detector voltage and determine the
corresponding direct power P1 using the detector voltage
— power calibration curves.
Repeat at 50MHz intervals up to 3.65GHz, i.e at 2.5, 2.55
... 3.6, 3.65GHz to cover the band.
Enter the results in a copy of Table 5.2.1, reproduced at
the end of this assignment.
2. Now insert the low pass filter LPF in circuit as shown in the
diagram of fig 5.2.4(b). Measure the power P2 from 2.45 to
3.65GHz in 50MHz steps. Enter the results in tabular form
in your table.
77
Assignment 2
PROCESSING
RESULTS Using the results obtained in the direct connection plot a curve
of the power P1 versus frequency over the range 2.45 to
3.65GHz. This will serve as a useful reference for the power
output via the circulator-isolator for other assignments.
At each of the set frequencies calculate the insertion loss ratio

and insertion loss in dB:
P2
lLR =
P1
P2
lL = 10 log 10 dB
P1
Plot the insertion loss characteristic of the low pass filter, i.e
insertion loss magnitude in dB versus frequency. From this
curve determine the 3dB critical frequency, i.e the frequency at
which the insertion loss magnitude equals 3dB. Determine also
the gradient of the characteristic over the range 3.0 to 3.6GHz.
SUMMARY A simple 50 ohm test system comprising a VCO microwave

source isolator and crystal detector acting as a power meter
has been set up and the insertion loss characteristic of a low
pass microstrip filter has been measured. The filter
investigated was the microstrip equivalent of an L-C ladder
network with the L and C elements synthesised by short
lengths of high impedance (narrow line width) and low
impedance (relatively broad width) line.
78
Microstrip Trainer
RESULTS TABLE ASSIGNMENT 2
VCO l.L.R l.L

f GHz Tuning Detector Readings P2/P1 10 log10 (P2/P1)
volts dB
Direct Device inserted
V1 P1 V2 mV P2
2.45
2.50
2.55
2.60
2.65
2.70
2.75
2.80
2.85
2.90
2.95
3.0
3.05
3.10
3.15
3.20
3.25
3.30
3.35
3.40
3.45
3.50
3.55
3.60
3.65
79
PROPERTIES OF A DIRECTIONAL COUPLER ASSIGNMENT 3
CONTENT The properties of a microstrip directional coupler, its coupling

and directivity, are investigated experimentally. The directional
properties of a coupler are explained and applications of this
important component in microwave measurements and
systems are described.
EQUIPMENT

microwave source
1 DC Directional coupler
2 PPC SMA plug-to-plug coaxial

connectors

(e.g AX 322C)

(e.g MX 545)
80
PROPERTIES OF A DIRECTIONAL COUPLER ASSIGNMENT 3
• Know the definitions of coupling coefficient and directivity

as applied to a directional coupler
• Have measured the coupling coefficient and directivity of

the microstrip directional coupler supplied in the MST532
Microstrip Trainer
• Appreciate the bandwidth limits over which the directional

coupler operates
• Know applications of the directional coupler in microwave

measurements and systems.

assignment.
81
Assignment 3
INTRODUCTION
Directional Coupler
Definitions and Applications
Coupled Decoupled Decoupled Coupled

power port power port power power
P3 P4 P3 P P4 P4
3
(ideally zero)
3 4 P2 3 4 P2
P1 P1
1 2 1 2
Incident
power
(a) Forward transmission: (b) Reverse direction:

P3 P4
coupling coefficient , c =P c=
P2
1
P4
directivity , d =P d=
P3
3
P4
Fig 5.3.1 Transmission properties of a directional coupler
A directional coupler consists essentially of a pair of coupled

transmission lines designed so a specific fraction of the power
flowing in one line in a given direction is coupled to the other
line; to propagate only in one direction but not in the other. The
directional coupling properties and definitions of coupling
coefficient and directivity may be explained with reference to
fig 5.3.1. In (a) microwave power incident at port 1 is
transmitted to port 2 with a certain fraction coupled to the
second line to emerge at port 3. Ideally zero power emerges at
port 4. The coupling is directional.
The coupling coefficient of the directional coupler is defined as:
P
3
c=
P
1
assuming all ports are matched. Coupling is usually expressed

in decibels, dB, i.e
P3
coupling = 10 log 10 dB
P1
82
Assignment 3
e.g if c = 0.1, a -10dB coupler, the coupled power at port 3 is,
P3 = c P1 = 0.1 P1
if c = 0.01, a - 20dB coupler, P3 = 0.01 P1
In the reverse direction, see (b), power incident at port 2 is

transmitted to port 1 with directional coupling this time to port 4.
Ideally no power is coupled to port 3.
As a measure of the directional coupling properties, the term

directivity is used. It is defined as the ratio of the power to the
decoupled port to the power at the coupled port:
P
4
directivity , d = in fig 5 . 3 . 1 (a )
P
3
Directivity is usually quoted in dB,
P4
directivity in dB = 10 log 10 dB
P
3
Good quality directional couplers have directivities ranging

from 0.01 (–20dB) to 0.0001 (–40 dB).
83
Assignment 3
Fig 5.3.2 Applications of directional couplers
84
Assignment 3
Directional couplers find important application in microwave

measurements, power monitoring and levelling, signal
combiners ... etc. Fig 5.3.2 shows three typical uses.
In (a) a small amount of the source power is coupled to the

power meter terminating the forward coupled branch of the
coupler. The power meter reading thus gives a direct measure
of the source power suitably scaled down by the coupling
coefficient of directional coupler (typically –20dB or –30dB
down on the main power).
(b) shows a simple measurement of reflection coefficient/return

loss. The power reflected at the input to the device under test
is measured by the power meter at port 4.
(c) shows a power levelling application. A small fraction of the

sweeper's power output is coupled to port 3, detected by the
crystal detector and the resulting voltage fed back to control,
via a voltage controlled attenuator network, the power output of
the sweeper, so it remains levelled (constant) with frequency.
3 4
L
s
1 3 4 2
1 2
DC
L= coupling length
s = coupled line separation
Fig 5.3.3 Directional Coupler, unit DC
The directional coupler to be investigated, unit DC shown in

fig 5.3.3, is an edge coupled microstrip coupler designed for S-
band operation centred on 3GHz and to work in the standard
50 ohm system. Edge coupled types are suitable for relatively
weak coupling applications, typically in the coupling coefficient
range 0.03 (–15dB) to 0.001 (–30dB).
The important design parameters are the coupling length L and

the separation s between the two coupled lines. At the mid-
band design frequency L should be approximately one quarter
of a guide wavelength, L ♠ 1/4λg. The separation s determines
the coupling coefficient. The smaller the value of s the tighter
the coupling.
85
Assignment 3
PRACTICAL 3.1
To investigate the
directional properties
and determine the Coupling
Directivity and Insertion
Loss of a Directional
Coupler
To investigate experimentally the directional properties and
determine the coupling, directivity and insertion loss of a
directional coupler we need to measure the powers at its 4
ports, see fig 5.3.4:
P1 = incident power at port 1

P2 = through-put transmission power to port 2
P3 = power coupled to port 3
P4 = power to decoupled port 4
with ports 2, 3 and 4 matched, i.e terminated in 50 ohms.
P3 P3
Then, coupling = or 10 log 10 dB
P P
1 1
P P
directivity = 4
or 10 log 4
dB
P 10 P
3 3
P P
insertion loss = 2
or 10 log 2
dB
P1 10 P1
P3 P4
P1 P2
Fig 5.3.4 Powers at direction coupler ports
These measurements can be undertaken using the

experimental set-ups shown in fig 3.5.
86
Assignment 3
NOTES
87
Assignment 3
Fig 5.3.5 Directional Coupler measurement investigations
88
Assignment 3
1 P1 is measured using the circuit of (a). Note the circulator

port 3 is terminated in a 50 ohm matched load and acts as
an isolator for the VCO microwave source with low loss
transmission from port 1 to port 2.
The procedure for setting up the VCO to a given frequency

and using the detector and digital voltmeter for power
measurement are described in Assignment 1 Practical 1.1.
2 The coupled power P3 is measured using circuit (b). Note

ports 2 and 4 of the directional coupler are terminated in
matched loads. The crystal detector also presents a very
good match at port 3.
3 The power P4 to the decoupled port is measured using

circuit (c) with ports 2 and 3 terminated in 50 ohm matched
loads.
4 Finally the transmission through-put power, P2, is

measured using (d) with ports 3 and 4 each terminated in
50 ohms.
So as to investigate the directional coupler performance over a

band of frequencies take measurements at 2.5, 2.75, 3, 3.25
and 3.5GHz and use a copy of Table 5.3.1, reproduced at the
end of this assignment, to tabulate the results.
89
Assignment 3
PRACTICAL 3.2
Calculation of Coupling,
Directivity and
Insertion Loss From the results obtained, use a copy of Table 5.3.2,
reproduced at the end of this assignment, to record the values
of coupling, directivity and insertion loss of the directional
coupler over the range 2.5 to 3.5GHz. Summarise these in a
brief statement of specification of the directional coupler's
performance over this band.
SUMMARY The performance of an S-band microstrip directional coupler

for low-level coupling applications of the order of –20dB has
been investigated experimentally. From the measurements,
values of coupling, directivity and insertion loss over the range
centred on the mid-band frequency have been calculated and
a specification for the direction coupler drawn up.
90
RESULTS TABLES ASSIGNMENT 3
VCO
f GHz volts
V1 P1 V3 P3 V4 P4 V2 P2
2.5
2.75
3.0
3.25
3.5
Results Table 5.3.1
Coupling Directivity Insertion Loss

f GHz P3/P1 10 log P3/P1 P4/P3 10 log P4/P3 P2/P1 10 log P2/P1
dB dB dB
2.5
2.75
3.0
3.25
3.5
Results Table 5.3.2
91
MEASUREMENT OF RETURN LOSS, REFLECTION

COEFFICIENT AND VSWR ASSIGNMENT 4
CONTENT The measurement of the return loss of a microwave

component utilising a directional coupler to monitor reflected
power is described. Return loss measurements are made on
three microwave components: a microstrip matched
termination, a 50 ohm coaxial termination and a low pass filter.
From these measurements the magnitude of the input
reflection coefficient and voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)
are calculated.
The operation of the microstrip matched termination is

explained and its performance compared with the 50 ohm
coaxial termination. The reflection effects of the low pass filter
in its pass and attenuation bands are also investigated.
EQUIPMENT

microwave source
1 ML Matched load
1 LPF Low pass filter
2 MT (red spot) 50 ohm coaxial terminations

connectors
1 SC (white spot) Coaxial short circuit termination
1 OC (blue spot) Coaxial open circuit termination
1 Power supply for VCO source,

(e.g AX 322C)
1 Digital voltmeter for diode detector,

(e.g MX 545)
92
MEASUREMENT OF RETURN LOSS, REFLECTION

COEFFICIENT AND VSWR ASSIGNMENT 4
• Know the meaning of return loss and its relationship with

reflection coefficient and voltage standing wave ratio (vswr)
• Know how return loss may be measured utilising a

directional coupler
• Know how a 50 ohm matched termination can be produced

in microstrip using a 50 ohm surface mount resistor and a
quarter-wavelength, open-circuited line to make an
effective short-circuit to the ground plane conductor.
• Have measured return loss for microstrip and coaxial 50

ohms loads and investigated the reflection produced by a
low pass filter in its pass and attenuation bands.

assignment. However, it would be useful preparatory
background to read Sections 4.2 'Reflection coefficient, VSWR
and return loss' and 4.9 'Basic measurement of return loss' in
Chapter 4 'Introduction to Microwave Measurements'.
93
Assignment 4
INTRODUCTION
Summary of definitions,
method of measurement
and action of microstrip
matched load
5.4.1
Reflection coefficient,
VSWR and return loss
Incident wave
Component Matched
termination
Reflected wave
Resultant voltage
amplitude
Distance along line

Fig 5.4.1
If a transmission line is terminated in an impedance other than

the characteristic impedance Zo of the line, reflection will occur
at the termination and a standing wave will be set up on the
line.
The voltage reflection coefficient Γ caused by such a

termination, see fig 5.4.1, is defined as:
Vr
Γ=
V
i
where Vi = amplitude of the incident wave

Vr = amplitude of the reflected wave
94
Assignment 4
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) on the line, S, is

defined as,
V max
S=
V
min
where Vmax = amplitude of voltage at positions of voltage

maxima
Vmin = amplitude of voltage at positions of voltage
minima
and is related to the magnitude of reflection coefficient, Γ , by
(1 + Γ )
S=
(1 − Γ )
The return loss ratio is defined in terms of the ratio of the

reflected power Pr to the incident power Pi,
Pr
return loss ratio =
P
i
and as the reflected and incident wave powers are respectively

proportional to the square of the amplitudes of reflected and
incident wave voltages, we have:
Pr
return loss ratio =
P
i
2
Vr 2
= = Γ
2
V
i
In practice return loss is usually expressed in decibels (dB):
Pr
return loss = 10 log 10
Pi
2
= 10 log 10 Γ = 20 log 10 Γ
For further information see Section 4.2 in Chapter 4

'Introduction to Microwave Measurements'.
95
Assignment 4
5.4.2
Measurement of Return
Loss using a Directional
Coupler
D
r'=
P c Pr
3 4 Pr Device
1 2 Matched
under
load
test
P
i
Directional
coupler
(a)
D
P i '= c P i
4 Pr
3
=Pi Short or
1 2
open-circuit
P i termination
Directional
coupler
(b)
Fig 5.4.2 Measurement of Return Loss using a Directional Coupler
In this assignment the power Pr reflected from the device

under test is measured using a directional coupler, see fig
5.4.2(a). The coupler couples a fraction of the power reflected
from the device and this is measured at port 4,
Pr' = c Pr
where c = coupling coefficient of the directional coupler.
The reference incident power Pi can be determined by

replacing the device under test by a short-circuit and/or open-
circuit, both of which produce 100% reflection, and measuring
the power at port 4,
Pi' = c Pi
Thus the return loss ratio,

Pr P '
= r can be calculated.
P P'
i i
96
Assignment 4
Furthermore as,
2 Pr (1 + Γ )
Γ = and S =
P (1 − Γ )
i
we can also determine the voltage reflection coefficient and

voltage standing wave ratio.
5.4.3
The Microstrip
Matched Load
• ML
1
Length L ≈ 4 λg of
50Ω chip resistor
open-circuited line
Fig 5.4.3 Microstrip matched load unit, (ML)
The microstrip matched load, unit ML, is shown in fig 5.4.3. It is

designed to present at an input impedance of 50 ohms at the
centre of S-band and act as a matched termination in 50 ohm
impedance level microstrip systems.
The load comprises a 50 ohm chip resistor connected in series

with the 50 ohm microstrip input line and terminated in a length
L of line, approximately one quarter of a guide wavelength, and
open-circuited at its far end. This length produces an effective
RF short-circuit to microwaves immediately to the right of the

resistor and thus avoids the necessity of a physically wired
connection to the ground plate conductor — a real advantage
in microstrip circuit production.
97
Assignment 4
The action of the line L terminating the 50 ohm resistor in a

short-circuit is based on the quarter wavelength transformer
principle, see fig 5.4.4. When L = 1/4 λg, the input impedance
of the line when terminated in a load ZL is,
2
Zo
Z = , see (a)
in Z
L
where Zo = characteristic impedance of the line L.

Thus if ZL is an open circuit, Z L = Z o/c → ,
2
Zo
Z = → 0 , see (b);
in Z
o /c
so the input impedance approaches zero and the open-

circuited line acts as a short-circuit at its input.
The equivalent circuit of the microstrip matched load is shown

in (c). At plane xx' the quarter-wavelength open-circuited line
produces an effective RF short circuit.
98
Assignment 4
99
Assignment 4
PRACTICAL 4.1
Measurement of
return loss
Digital
Circulator (CIR) Short-circuit
voltmeter DVM
Plug-to-plug as Isolator (SC)
connector 50Ω Crystal
(PPC) (MT) D
detector
3 4 Open-circuit
PPC
1 2 X (OC)
VCO
1 2
3
Microwave
source Directional
50Ω (MT) Device
Coupler (DC)
under
test
Fig 5.4.5 Test set-up for measurement of return loss
The measurement of return loss can be undertaken using the

test set-up shown in fig 5.4.5. In the procedure described the
reflected power coupled by the directional coupler is first
measured with short and open-circuit terminations to provide
the reference incident power level or 100% reflection, 0dB
return loss condition. Reflection power measurements are then
made for the microstrip matched load, the 50 ohm coaxial
termination and the low pass filter. Results should be recorded
in a copy of Table 5.4.1, reproduced at the end of this
assignment.
1 Set up the test measurement system as shown in fig 5.4.5

with the short-circuit coaxial termination, SC, denoted by a
white spot on its casing, connected to point X, port 2 of the
directional coupler.
2 Measure the reflected power coupled to the directional

coupler at port 4 at the frequencies 2.5, 2.75, 3.0, 3.25 and
3.5GHz by noting the crystal detector output. The
procedures for setting up the VCO to a given frequency
and using the crystal detector for power measurement are
described in Assignment 1.
3 Disconnect the short-circuit and replace by the open-circuit

coaxial termination, OC, denoted by a blue spot on its
casing and repeat measurements of reflected power.
4 Calculate the average value of short and open-circuit

reflected powers and record them. Each value represents
the reference incident power for the given frequency.
100
Assignment 4
5 Disconnect the open-circuit and connect the microstrip

matched load, unit ML. Measure the reflected power at port
4 for each of the five frequencies. Note you will need a
plug-to-plug connector (PPC) to connect the ML unit to the
directional coupler.
6 Disconnect the microstrip unit ML and connect a 50 ohm
coaxial termination at point X. Measure the reflected power
at each of the five frequencies.
7 Disconnect the 50 ohm coaxial termination and connect the
low pass filter unit LPF at point X using a plug-to-plug
connector (PPC). Ensure the filter output is terminated in a
50 ohm coaxial termination.
Calculation and
Observations From the table of results obtained calculate the voltage
reflection coefficient, return loss and VSWR for the three
components investigated recording the results for each in
copies of Table 5.4.2, reproduced at the end of this
assignment.
Compare the characteristics of the microstrip and 50 ohm
coaxial termination matched loads.
Comment on the results obtained for the low pass filter with
particular reference to reflection in the pass and attenuation
bands, i.e below and above 3GHz.
SUMMARY When a transmission line is terminated in a load other than its
characteristic impedance reflection occurs which gives rise to
troublesome effects: loss in transmission power; interference
with the source and other signals; positions of high voltage in
the standing wave set up, which in high power systems can
even cause breakdown. It is therefore essential to quantify the
degree of mismatch caused by a component and for this
reason return loss and/or VSWR values are required as part of
a component's specification.
In this assignment the return loss and VSWR of three
components have been measured using a directional coupler
method. The reflection characteristics of the microstrip and 50
ohm coaxial terminations have been determined. Ideally these
two components should produce zero reflection.
A good quality matched load should have a VSWR of 1.05 or
less and a corresponding return loss of –32dB or less.
However, in microstrip circuits return losses of the order of
–20dB are usually acceptable. In contrast the low pass filter
investigated relies on reflection of input energy to produce
transmission loss in its attenuation band and high values of
VSWR are present in this band.
101
102
NOTES
103
MATCHING INVESTIGATIONS ASSIGNMENT 5
CONTENT The measurement of the impedance of a resistive load is

determined by measuring its reflection coefficient using a
directional coupler to monitor reflected power.
The methods of matching this load using a quarter wavelength

transformer section and a shunt stub are also described and
their matching characteristics investigated experimentally.
EQUIPMENT

microwave source
1 ZT Unknown load, 1/4 λ transformer

and shunt stub matching unit
1 D Cystal detector
2 MT (red spot) 50 ohm Coaxial terminations

connectors
1 OC (blue spot) Coaxial open-circuit termination

(e.g AX322C)
1 – Digital Voltmeter for diode detector,

(e.g MX545)
104
MATCHING INVESTIGATIONS ASSIGNMENT 5
• Know how to determine the impedance of a resistive load

by measuring its voltage reflection coefficient
• Know how matching may be achieved using a quarter-

wavelength section of line
• Know how matching may be achieved using a suitably

positioned open-circuit (or short-circuit) stub line
• Appreciate the bandwidth limits over which these matching

techniques operate to reduce reflection effects.

assignment.
105
Assignment 5
INTRODUCTION
Background to
matching assignment
Reflection and matching
Incident wave Vi
Load
Zo ZL
impedance
Reflected wave V r
Reflection at load due to mismatch, Z L = Z o
Fig 5.5.1
When a transmission line is terminated in an impedance other

than its characteristic impedance, part of the incident energy at
the load is reflected, see fig 5.5.1. The voltage reflection
coefficient and power reflected from the load are given by
Z − Zo
Vr
Γ= = L
V Z + Zo
i L
2
Pr = Γ P
i
where ZL = load impedance

Zo = characteristic impedance of line
Vr, Vi = amplitudes of reflected, incident waves,
respectively
Pr,Pi = reflected, incident wave powers, respectively
When a line is terminated in a load equal to its characteristic

impedance, the line is said to be matched. No reflection occurs
and the total incident power is transferred to the load, i.e
when ZL = Zo , Γ = 0 and Pr = 0
Reflection effects can seriously degrade system performance.

They give rise to many troublesome, sometimes serious,
difficulties: loss in transmission power; interference with other
system signals; destabilising effects (e.g frequency pulling of
source, possible cause of oscillation); increase in attenuation
and possible high resonant type absorption losses; damage to
sensitive components; the setting up of standing waves, which
106
Assignment 5
in high power systems can even cause arcing at positions of

high voltage and cause breakdown of transmission.
Thus it is of utmost importance to minimise reflections and

ensure components, loads etc are accurately matched to the
input and output lines transferring RF/microwave energy in the
system.
Measurement of
the resistive
load impedance
Fig 5.5.2
The 'unknown' resistive load in the unit ZT consists of a chip

resistance R in series with a broadband fan-shaped quarter-
wavelength of open-circuited line producing an effective RF
short-circuit to the ground plate conductor. A sketch of the load
and its equivalent circuit are shown in fig 5.5.2.
107
Assignment 5
The measurement of R relies on determining the voltage

reflection coefficient Γ. The method used is identical to the
measurement of return loss using a directional coupler
considered in Assignment 4. Since
Z −Z o
Γ= L
Z + Zo
L
1+ Γ
Z = Zo
L 1 −Γ
and for resistive loads, ZL= R > Zo, we have

1+ Γ
R = Zo
1 −Γ
For the case where R is less than Zo,
1− Γ
R = Zo
1+ Γ
where Γ is the magnitude of the reflection coefficient.
Note when R > Zo zero phase change occurs on reflection at

the load, but if R < Zo there is a π or 180° phase shift. The
reflected wave in this case is in anti-phase to the incident and
the reflection coefficient is a negative value.
Matching using the

quarter-wavelength
transformer principle The input impedance of a quarter-wavelength section of line,
L = 1/4 λg', terminated in a resistive load R, see fig 5.5.3(a), is
given by:
2
Z 'o
Z =
in R
where Zo' = characteristic impedance of quarter-wavelength

section
λ'g = guide wavelength in this section
108
Assignment 5
Fig 5.5.3 Quarter wavelength transformer matching
109
Assignment 5
Use of this impedance transformation property may be applied

directly to matching. To match R to the input line of
characteristic impedance Zo, a quarter-wavelength section is
inserted as shown in (b). The condition for matching is that the
input impedance looking into this section terminated in R is
equal to Zo,
2
Z 'o
ie. Z = Zo =
in R
so the required value for the characteristic impedance of the

section is:
Z 'o = (R Z o )
e.g if the load impedance was measured at R = 90Ω and Zo =

50Ω
then Z 'o = 90 × 50 = 67. 1Ω
The characteristic impedance of microstrip line for a substrate

of given dielectric and thickness is dependent on the top
conductor width w, so the width w' corresponding to the
required value of Zo' may be easily determined. The microstrip
quarter-wave matching section in unit ZT is illustrated in (c).
Shunt stub
matching Matching can be also achieved by placing calculated lengths of
open or short-circuited lines, referred to as stubs, in parallel
across the feed line at given distances from the load to be
matched. This technique is known as shunt stub matching.
Stub matching makes use of the fact that the input

impedance/admittance of a terminated line varies in a defined
and cyclic manner with the line length from the termination and
that short and open-circuited lines, the stubs, may be used as
effective inductance L and capacitance C element as indicated
in fig 5.5.4.
110
Assignment 5
Fig 5.5.4
111
Assignment 5
The determination of stub length and its position from the load
to effect matching may be outlined as follows.
The stub position, the distance l1 from the load, is first

determined by finding the length of line from the load where the
real or conductive part of the admittance equals the
characteristic admittance Yo, (Yo = 1/Zo the reciprocal of the
line characteristic impedance) i.e with reference to fig 5.5.5(a)
we find the line length l1, where:
Yin = Yo + jB
jB being the susceptive part of the input admittance at that

point.
For resistive terminations with ZL = R:
λg
l =
−1 R
and B =  R   1 − 1
2π
tan
Zo  Z   Z 
1
o  o R
A stub whose susceptance is of equal magnitude but opposite

in sign is then placed across the line (in shunt) at that point so
as to cancel jB. The resulting input admittance, see fig 5.5.5(b),
becomes
Yin = Yo + jB –jB = Yo
1
so Z in = = 1 = Zo
Y in Y o
and matching is achieved.
The value of the cancelling susceptance –jB is produced by

either a short-circuited or and open-circuited stub line whose
length l2 is adjusted accordingly. For example, the susceptance
of an open-circuited stub is given by
Ys = j Yo tan β l
so if jB is to be cancelled, the stub length is found from
Ys= –jB = jYo tanβ l
−
tan βl = B
Yo
λg
−B  2π
tan 1 
−
l=l = as β =
 Y o 
,
2 2π λg
112
Assignment 5
Fig 5.5.5 Shunt stub matching
113
Assignment 5
PRACTICAL 5.1
Matching investigations:
determination of impedance
of an unknown resistive
load and its matching by
1/ λg transformer
4
and shunt stub
A
'Unknown' resistive load
B
Quarter wavelength matching
C
Shunt-stub matching section
ZT
Unknown resitive load, quarter-wavelength

and shunt-stub matching unit, ZT
Fig 5.5.6
Digital Short-circuit
Circulator (CIR) DVM
voltmeter (SC)
Plug-to-plug as Isolator
Connector 50Ω Crystal
(PPC) (MT) detector D
3 4 Open-circuit
1 2 X (OC)
VCO
1 2
3
Directional
50Ω (MT) Coupler (DC)
Plug-to-plug
Connector
(PPC) Matching unit (ZT)
Fig 5.5.7
Fig 5.5.6 shows the unit ZT comprising three terminated lines:

A is the unknown resistive load, B is the quarter-wavelength
transformer section matching the load to the 50 ohm input line
and C is the shunt stub matching section. The resisitve load
impedance R is determined from measurement of the input
reflection coefficient of line A over a range ±10% of 3GHz, the
mid-band design frequency used for the matching sections.
Similar measurements are made on B and C to investigate the
matching performance.
114
Assignment 5
The experimental procedure is as follows.

1 Set up the equipment as shown in fig 5.5.7. Terminate the
directional coupler at point X with the coaxial short circuit
(SC), denoted by a white spot on its casing. Using the
voltage-frequency calibration data supplied for the
microwave source set the VCO at 2.7GHz. Measure the
coupled reflected power at port 4 of the directional coupler.
Note The setting up of the VCO and use of the crystal
detector as a power meter are explained in Assignment
1.
2 Repeat at the frequencies 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2 and
3.3GHz and record coupled reflected power in a copy of
Table 5.5.1, reproduced at the end of this assignment.
3 Remove short-circuit and replace with coaxial open-circuit
(OC), denoted by a blue spot on its casing. Measure
coupled reflected power over the range 2.7 to 3.3GHz and
record results.
4 Calculate the average value of short and open-circuit
reflected powers at each frequency and record. This
average value represent the incident reference power Pi'
required to determine the reflection coefficient Γ,
P'  P' 
Γ2 = r
, Γ=  '
r
'
Pi  P i
where Pr' = coupled reflected power with load/matching

sections.
5 Disconnect the open-circuit and connect line A, the
unknown resistive load R, of unit ZT. Measure the coupled
reflected power Pr' at port 4 of the directional coupler at
each of the seven frequencies in the band 2.7 to 3.3GHz
and record results.
6 Disconnect line A and connect line B, the quarter
wavelength transformer section. Measure the coupled
reflected power Pr' at the same seven frequencies and
record results.
7 Finally disconnect line B and connect line C, the shunt-stub
matching section and measure the coupled reflected power
over the band 2.7 to 3.3GHz.
115
Assignment 5
Calculations Calculate the reflection coefficient of load R terminating line A

and hence the value of R and its associated voltage standing
wave ratio, VSWR, referenced to the Zo = 50ohm input line.
Record the results in a copy of Table 5.5.2, reproduced at the
end of this assignment.
Calculate also the reflection coefficient and VSWR of the

quarter-wavelength and shunt-stub matching sections over the
band 2.7 to 3.3GHz. Record the results.
Plot graphs of VSWR versus frequency and comment on the

characteristic of the matching sections.
1+Γ
Remember: R = × Zo
1 −Γ
+Γ
VSWR s = 1
1 −Γ
 P 'r 
Γ=  
 P 'i 
SUMMARY When a line is terminated in an impedance other than its

characteristic impedance, reflection of wave energy occurs and
this can give rise to a number of troublesome effects.
Matching of a load to its feed line has been considered using

two important methods widely used in RF and microwave
systems: quarter-wavelength transformer and shunt-stub
techniques.
In this assignment the load impedance of a resistive

termination has been measured and the matching of this load
over a ±10% bandwidth has been investigated.
116
Microwave Systems Trainer MST532
Coupled reflected power measurements

f GHz Short-circuit Open-circuit Average A B C
SC OC SC/OC P'i Load P'r 1/4λ, P'r Shunt stub P'r
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
Table 5.5.1
A Load R B 1/4 λg Transformer C shunt-stub

f GHz Γ R VSWR Γ VSWR Γ VSWR
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
Table 5.5.2
117
PROPERTIES OF A POWER DIVIDER AND

RAT–RACE HYBRID COUPLER ASSIGNMENT 6
CONTENT The characteristics of two important components, a Wilkinson

power divider and rat-race hybrid coupler, which serve to split
microwave power are investigated experimentally. The
structure and action of the two components are also described.
EQUIPMENT

microwave source
1 PD Wilkinson power divider
1 RRH Rat-race hybrid coupler

connectors

(e.g AX322C)

(e.g MX545)
118
PROPERTIES OF A POWER DIVIDER AND

RAT–RACE HYBRID COUPLER ASSIGNMENT 6
• Know how power may be split in microstrip systems using a

Wilkinson power divider and also by means of rat-race
hybrid ring coupler
• Have investigated their power division characteristics over

a band of frequencies
• Know some applications of these components in

microwave systems

assignment.
119
Assignment 6
INTRODUCTION
Wilkinson Power
Divider and Rat-Race
Hybrid Ring\Coupler
Power dividers
Fig 5.6.1 Power dividers
A power divider, as the name suggests, is a component which

divides an input signal power into two parts with a defined ratio
and phase relationship. There are two types of in-line power
dividers which are used in microstrip circuits: the split T or
Wilkinson version and T junction type, examples of which are
shown in fig 5.6.1.
In this assignment we will investigate the characteristics of a

3dB Wilkinson power divider, the 3dB indicating that the input
power is ideally split into two equal output powers. Fig 5.6.2
shows the power divider unit, PD, together with its equivalent
input circuit.
120
Assignment 6
Fig 5.6.2 3dB Wilkinson power divider
The Zo = 50 ohm input line is split into two 2 x 50 = 70.7

ohm lines, each a quarter guide wavelength in length, which
feed the Zo = 50 ohm lines at ports 2 and 3. Through quarter-
wavelength transformer action the Zo = 50 ohm lines at ports 2
and 3 are each transformed to 100 ohm effective loads at
junction xx' so the input line sees two 100 ohm loads in parallel
and therefore a resultant input impedance of 50 ohms, the
required matching condition.
The 100 ohm chip resistor connected between the two output
lines does not enter the above calculation of input impedance
since in the 3dB power divider the voltages induced in the
output lines are equal and in-phase so the voltage across the
resistor is zero. The resistor is included for isolation purposes.
Its function is to provide a match for the output lines, it acts as
an absorptive load for any reflections caused by mismatch in
these lines.
121
Assignment 6
The 3dB Wilkinson power divider unit, PD, is designed for a

nominal centre frequency of 3GHz. Some loss of power
inevitably occurs in the divider network, but the critical
characteristics which ultimately determine the divider's quality
is the degree to which the power splits equally to the two output
lines, i.e how accurately do the output powers track each other.
The input VSWR and isolation between the output lines are
important.
Power dividers find important application both as power

splitters and power combiners in microwave systems and
measurements. Fig 5.6.3 (a) shows a systems application
where power dividers are used to feed energy to the radiating
elements of an antenna array; (b) shows an application for
measurement of inseertion loss.
Fig 5.6.3 Some power divider applications

Rat-race hybrid
ring coupler The hybrid ring or rat-race coupler is a 4-port device consisting
of a closed ring of transmission line of mean circumference
3/2 λ with its 4 ports spaced as shown in fig 5.6.4. The ring
g
has the property that incident power at one port divides equally
to the two adjacent ports but no power emerges at the fourth.
For matching purposes the characteristic impedance of the ring
line is made 2 Zo so for a 50 ohm system, the value should
be 70.7Ω.
122
Assignment 6
Fig 5.6.4 Geometry of hybrid ring coupler
The action of the hybrid ring coupler is illustrated in fig 5.6.5. In

(a) input power at port 1 emerges at ports 2 and 4. The
magnitudes of the output powers, neglecting loss, are 3dB
down on the incident power level but the emergent waves at
these ports differ in phase by 180° due to a half-wavelength
difference in their paths through the ring. Zero power emerges
at port 3 since waves following the path 1∅2∅3 travel 1/2 λg
whilst those travelling 1∅4∅3 cover λg and hence the path
difference is 1/2 λg. The two components are thus in anti-
phase and cancel.
Fig 5.6.5
123
Assignment 6
Hybrid ring couplers find useful application in microwave

systems as signal splitters, combiners and cancellers. Two
applications are shown in fig 5.6.6. (a) illustrates a diplexer
type application, (b) the use of hybrid ring in a balanced mixer.
Fig 5.6.6 Hybrid ring coupler applications
In (a) the transmitter power divides equally between the

antenna and matched load. Received signal power from the
antenna is directed to the receiver with the other half absorbed
in the transmitter. 3dB losses thus occur both in transmission
and reception. However, this disadvantage is offset in certain
systems by simplicity and relative cheapness of using the
hybrid ring circuit over, for example, the use of a circulator.
In (b) the hybrid ring is used in a balanced mixer to reduce

local oscillator noise and improve performance in a
superheterodyne receiver. Two identical mixer diodes,
Schottky barrier devices, are placed respectively in ports 2 and
4 of the ring. The received signal and local oscillator are fed
into the other two ports, 1 and 3. The received signals at the
two diodes will be in-phase whilst the local oscillator signal will
be in anti-phase. The I.F (difference between local and signal
carrier frequencies) produced by mixing action in the crystals
will thus be in anti-phase and I.F signal components will be
summed by push-pull action in the I.F. transformer. However,
any noise signals from the local oscillator will arrive in anti-
phase at the mixer diodes and any I.F noise signals produced
by the noise mixing with the main local oscillator signal, which
124
Assignment 6
is also in anti-phase, will therefore be in-phase. These in-phase

noise components cancel in the I.F transformer primary
producing a considerable reduction in noise.
PRACTICAL 6.1
Power divider, unit PD,

investigations The critical characteristics which determine the quality of a
power divider is the degree to which input power splits equally
to the two output lines when these are matched. Additionally
the input VSWR and isolation between the output lines are also
important.
The power tracking property of the power divider unit PD can

be investigated as follows.
Digital
DVM
voltmeter
Circulator (CIR)
as Isolator Crystal
D
detector
1 2 2 Wilkinson
VCO power divider
(PPC) (PPC) 1
3 (PD)
3
Microwave
source
50Ω matched
terminations (MT)
Fig 5.6.7 Test set-up for power divider measurements
1 Set up the equipment as shown in fig 5.6.7 with port 3 of

the power divider, PD, terminated in a 50.ohm load so this
port is matched.
Using the voltage-frequency calibration data supplied set

the VCO to 2.5GHz. Measure the power, P2, emerging from
port 2 of the divider using the crystal detector.
Note The setting up of the VCO and use of the crystal

detector as a power meter are described in the
Experimental Procedure of Assignment 1.
125
Assignment 6
2 Repeat power measurements at 0.1GHz intervals through

the band up to 3.6GHz and record results in a copy of
3 Interchange positions of the crystal detector and 50 ohm

load so power, P3, at port 3 can now be measured with port
2 matched. Measure the power emerging at port 3 and
record results over the band 2.5 to 3.6GHz.
PRACTICAL 6.2
Rat-race hybrid ring

coupler, unit RRH,
investigations
Circulator (CIR) 50Ω coaxial
as Isolator terminations (MT)
Diode
crystal
detector
1 2 2 3
VCO D DVM
1 4
(PPC) 3 (PPC)
Digital
Microwave voltmeter
source 50Ω Rat-race hybrid
(MT) coupler (RRH)
Fig 5.6.8 Test set-up for rat-race hybrid coupler measurements
1 Set up the equipment as shown in fig 5.6.8 with ports 2 and

3 of the ring hybrid unit RRH terminated in 50 ohm loads.
Set the VCO frequency to 2.5GHz and measure power, P4,
emerging at port 4 using the crystal detector.
2 Repeat measurements at 0.1GHz through the band up to

3.6GHz and record results in a copy of Table 5.6.2,
3 Interchange positions of the crystal detector and matched

50 ohm load at port 3 so power, P3, emerging at port 3 (the
decoupled port in this case) can be investigated. Measure
the power over the band 2.5 to 3.6GHz and record results.
4 Interchange positions of the crystal detector and 50 ohm

load between ports 3 and 2 so power, P2, emerging at port
2 can now be measured.
Measure the power over the band 2.5 to 3.6GHz and

record results.
126
Assignment 6
PRACTICAL 6.3
Processing results
and further
investigations From the results obtained for the power divider PD calculate
the percentage variation in tracking over the 2.5 to 3.6GHz
band:
P2 − P3
% variation = × 100 %
1 P +P
(
2 2 3)
 2(P 2 − P 3) 
dB variation = 10 log 10  
 (P 2 + P 3) 
and plot a graph of these values versus frequency. Comment

on the power tracking performance of the divider.
If time permits refer to Assignment 4 'Measurement of return

loss and VSWR' and measure the input VSWR of the divider at
port 1 with ports 2 and 3 terminated in 50 ohm loads. Plot
VSWR versus frequency.
From the results obtained for the hybrid ring coupler RRH plot
graphs of:
P3  2(P 2 − P 3) 
and 10 log 10 
 (P + P ) 
10 log 10
P 2 3
4
versus frequency over the 2.5 to 3.6GHz band. Use these

curves to draw up a specification of the performance of the
hybrid ring coupler.
SUMMARY Circuits which can split and also combine RF power have
important application in microwave communications and radar
systems. The operation of two such circuits, a 3dB Wilkinson
power divider and a rat-race hybrid ring coupler, and their
realisation in microstrip has been described, together with
examples of their applications.
The power division characteristics of both circuits have been

investigated experimentally.
127
Wilkinson Power Divider
Power input Frequency, f GHz

at port 1
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6
Power P2
Power P3
Table 5.6.1
Rat-race hybrid ring coupler
Power input Frequency, f GHz

at port 1
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6
Power P4
Power P3
Power P2
Table 5.6.2
128
NOTES
129
MEASUREMENT OF EFFECTIVE DIELECTRIC

CONSTANT USING A RING RESONATOR ASSIGNMENT 7
CONTENT Using a simple ring resonator circuit the properties of a

microstrip transmission line are investigated. Measurements of
effective dielectric constant are carried out and an estimate of
attenuation of wave transmission in microstrip line is made.
EQUIPMENT
1 VCO Voltage controlled

microwaveoscillator
1 RR Ring resonator
2 PPC SMA Plug-to-plug coaxial

connectors

(e.g AX322C)

(e.g MX545)
130
MEASUREMENT OF EFFECTIVE DIELECTRIC

CONSTANT USING A RING RESONATOR ASSIGNMENT 7
• Understand the meaning of effective dielectric constant εeff

and know that the guide wavelength in microstrip is related
to free space wavelength by:
λo
λg =
ε
eff
• Have determined εeff by measuring a resonant frequency

of a ring resonator circuit
• Have made an estimate of line attenuation by measuring

the Q-factor of a ring resonator

assignment.
131
Assignment 7
INTRODUCTION
Effective dielectric
constant and guide
wavelength
Fig 5.7.1
The electric and magnetic field components of the waves

propagating in microstrip lines are not solely contained in the
dielectric medium of the substrate but stray into air as indicated
in fig 5.7.1. This results, in the case of the electric fields, in the
effective dielectric constant being somewhat lower than the
dielectric constant of the substrate.
The effective dielectric constant εeff is an important parameter

in wave transmission. It determines the velocity and guide
wavelength, see fig 5.7.2, of the wave propagating in the
microstrip line:
c
phase velocity, v =
ε
eff
λo
guide wavelength, λg =
ε
eff
where c = 3 x 108 m/s is the velocity of electromagnetic

waves
λo = c = free space wavelength

f
f = frequency
132
Assignment 7
Signal
amplitude λg
Line width W
Distance
along line
Height
h
Fig 5.7.2 Guide wavelength, λg
εeff depends on the dielectric constant εr of the microstrip

substrate and on the line width to height, w/h, ratio and
expressions for εeff are given in Section 3.4 of Chapter 3
'Microstrip Technology'. In this assignment εeff is determined
experimentally using a ring resonator circuit.
The Ring Resonator circuit:

resonant frequencies
Ring resonator
mean length L=2 r
Input Output
Pi
P
P r t
r
(a) Geometry of ring resonator

Edge coupling to resonator
Reflected power P r Transmitted power Pt
f1 f2 f3 Frequency f2 f4 Frequency
(b) resonances observed by reflection (c) Resonances observed
by transmission
Ring resonator and resonance effects in reflected and transmitted power
Fig 5.7.3
The ring resonator, see fig 5.7.3, resonates when its mean
circumferential length is equal to a whole number of half guide
wavelengths, i.e when
1
L = 2π r = n λg
2
where n = 1, 2, 3, 4 ....
r = mean radius of ring resonator
133
Assignment 7
Thus by measuring the frequencies at which resonances occur,

we may determine the corresponding guide wavelength and
hence εeff:
λo
as L = 1 n λ g and λ g =
2 ε
eff
 n λo 2
we have ε eff =
2L 
=  n c  as λ o = c , c = 3 × 10 8 m/ s
2
 2 Lf n  fn
When L is in millimetres and the resonant frequency fn is in

giga-hertz,.
2
ε =  150 n 
eff  L f 
n
Resonances can be observed by noting a small dip in reflected

power, see fig 5.7.3(b), and also by small peaks in
transmission power, see fig 5.7.3(c). Loose coupling to the ring
is provided by edge type coupling across a small gap, typically
a millimetre, between the ring and input/output lines. Off
resonance, the ring behaves as a highly reflective load and
transmission via the ring is negligible. At resonance input
power is absorbed in the
ring as exhibited by the reduction in reflected power and for

even order resonances, n = 2, 4, 6 .... power is coupled to the
output line. Odd order resonances corresponding to n = 1, 3, 5
are not observed in the transmission case shown in (c) since a
node exists at the output line position.
An estimate of the attenuation coefficient α of the microstrip

resonator line may be obtained by measuring the Q-factor of
the ring resonator. The unloaded Q of a resonator is related to
α by:
π
Q = αλ
g
π
so α = Nepers per metre , Np/m
Q λg
π
or in decibels, α = 8. 686
Q λg
= 23. 7 dB
Q λg
134
Assignment 7
Since the edge type coupling used in the ring resonator unit,
RR, is relatively weak, loading effects may be neglected to a
first approximation and Q measured at a resonance by
determining the bandwidth between half-power points, i.e
referring to fig 5.7.4 for the case of a transmission resonance,
we have:
fn
Q=
f −f
2 1
Transmitted power
P
t
P max
1
P
2 max
f Frequency
f
1 2
fn
fn
Q-factor: Q =
( f 2 − f1)
Fig 5.7.4
PRACTICAL 7.1
Ring resonator,
unit RR
investigation
RR
Fig 5.7.5 The Ring Resonator Unit RR
The ring resonator unit RR to be investigated, see fig 5.7.5, is

designed to resonate in the n = 2 mode at approximately
3.0GHz; its line width is 1 mm and its mean diameter is
23.3 mm.
135
Assignment 7
+15V
Tuning volts, 2-30V
0V • Circulator (CIR)
Digital
voltmeter
DVM as Isolator Crystal
detector
•
1 2 Ring
D DVM
VCO (PPC) resonator
(PPC)
3
Voltage controlled
oscillator 50 (MT)
Fig 5.7.6 Test set-up for measurement of transmission

resonance of ring resonator.
1 Set up the equipment as shown in fig 5.7.6. If available use

a second digital voltmeter, connected as shown, to
measure the VCO tuning voltage.
Vary the tuning voltage control of the power supply very

slowly through the band until a peak is found in the
transmission response as exhibited by the crystal detector
digital voltmeter.
Note The transmission resonance is relatively sharp so it is

not difficult to miss.
2 Now adjust the VCO tuning voltage very slowly using the
fine voltage control until a maximum of crystal detector
voltage corresponding to peak transmission at resonance
is obtained. Record the VCO volts and crystal detector
voltage in Table 5.7.1, reproduced at the end of this
assignment.
3 Since the Q-factor of the ring resonator is high a swing of

the order of ±0.5 volts in VCO tuning voltage is all that is
required to investigate the transmission power versus
frequency curve about resonance. Bearing this in mind vary
the VCO tuning voltage in small steps of the order of 50mV
both above and below resonance. Record the VCO tuning
voltage and crystal detector output voltage in your table.
4 Convert the crystal detector readings to power using the

calibration curves supplied.
136
Assignment 7
5 Convert the VCO tuning voltage readings to frequencies

using the calibration data supplied. Note data is supplied in
50MHz steps and over a relatively small range of voltage
about a given frequency the voltage-frequency relationship
is almost linear. Construct your own voltage-frequency
graph about the resonant frequency value to aid your
frequency- tuning voltage conversions.
Calculations:
Determination of εeff
and α From your results determine the effective dielectric constant
εeff and guide wavelength of the ring resonator line at the
measured resonant frequency. The mean circumferential
length of the resonator, diameter 23.3 mm, is L = 73.2 mm.
Determine also the resonant frequencies for n = 1, 3, 4 and 5.
Plot a graph of transmission power versus frequency for the

n = 2 resonance measured. Determine the Q-factor of the ring
resonator and deduce the attenuation coefficient α in dB/m.
SUMMARY Since waves propagating in microstrip are not solely contained

in the dielectric of the substrate but spread into the surrounding
air, the effective dielectric constant εeff is lower than that of the
bulk substrate dielectric. εeff is an important parameter since it
determines the wave velocity and wavelength in microstrip
lines:
c
v=
ε
eff
λo
λg =
ε
eff
8
where c = 3 × 10 m/ s = f λ o
In this assignment εeff has been measured by determining a

resonant frequency of a ring resonator circuit. Line loss has
also been investigated and a value of attenuation coefficient α
has been obtained by measuring the Q-factor of the ring
resonator.
137
RESULTS TABLE ASSIGNMENT 7
Max.
Position
¬
VCO
Tuning
Volts
f GHz
Crystal
Detector
Volts
Transmission
Power
Table 5.7.1
138
NOTES
139
DC BIASING AND MMIC AMPLIFIER INVESTIGATIONS ASSIGNMENT 8
CONTENT In the first part of the assignment, the DC biasing of microwave

electronic devices; diodes, transistors, MMICs, is considered
and investigations are carried out on typical biasing networks.
In the second part, the technical specification of a silicon
bipolar monolithic microwave circuit (MMIC) device is
considered and the power gain - frequency characteristics of
an S-band amplifier incorporating the MMIC device as the
amplifying element are investigated experimentally.
EQUIPMENT
REQUIRED
Part 1
DC biasing Qty Designation Description
1 VCO Voltage controlled oscillator
1 BL DC biasing unit
2 PPC SMA Plug-to-plug coaxial connector
1 – Power supply for VCO,
(e.g AX322C)
(e.g MX545)
Part 2
MMIC amplifier Qty Designation Description
1 AMP MMIC amplifier
2 PPC SMA Plug-to-plug coaxial connector
1 ATT 20dB attenuator
1 – Power supply for the VCO and
MMIC amplifier, (e.g AX322C)
(e.g MX545)
140
DC BIASING AND MMIC AMPLIFIER INVESTIGATIONS ASSIGNMENT 8
OBJECTIVES When you have completed this assignments you will:
• Know basic techniques used to bias devices in microwave

circuits
• Have investigated the effect of DC bias networks on main

line transmission
• Appreciate typical characteristics of a MMIC amplifier

element and how it may be incorporated in a practical
amplifier circuit
• Know how to measure the gain-frequency characteristic of

an amplifier and appreciate that the active device should
not be driven into saturation
• Have measured the gain-frequency characteristic of an

S-band amplifier
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL No prior microwave knowledge is required to carry out these

two assignments.
141
Assignment 8
INTRODUCTION
Background to DC
Bias Lines A major advantage of using microstrip for the fabrication of
microwave electronic circuits is the relative ease by which
microwave active devices can be incorporated in this type of
structure. Microwave components such as PIN, Gunn, Impatt
diodes, microwave transistors and microwave monolithic
integrated circuits (MMICs) can be mounted directly onto, or
through, the microwave substrate and DC bias necessary to
set their operation may also be supplied through microstrip
lines.
It is, of course, of utmost importance that the microwave

energy flowing in the circuit should not escape via the bias
lines. Consequently these lines should present a very high
impedance to the microwave frequency band of interest whilst
allowing dc to pass freely.
In addition it is also important to ensure that the dc supplied to

the active devices is isolated from the microwave input and
output circuits where it could affect or even damage other
equipment. DC blocking capacitors are therefore necessary.
Such capacitors must present a low impedance at the
microwave signal frequencies to avoid attenuation of the
signals.
Part 1
DC bias lines
and circuits A simple form of biasing circuit is shown in fig 5.8.1. The bias
lines supplying DC to the active device are narrow in width and
therefore of high impedance. They should feed the circuit at a
point of low RF impedance so that there is maximum mismatch
at the microwave signal frequency, thus ensuring little leakage
of microwave power into these lines. The narrower the lines,
the higher their impedance, although in practice there is little
advantage in constructing microstrip lines with w/h < 0.1 (w =
line width, h = substrate thickness) since below this value of w
little increase in line impedance is obtained.
142
Assignment 8
Fig 5.8.1 DC Bias circuit using high impedance lines
The main problem is to be able to supply adequate DC bias

current down such narrow lines. For example, copper
conductors can support currents in the order of 20 A/mm 2.
Thus for 1oz printed circuit board copper track (the thickness
used in most microstrip circuits) the current carrying capability
versus bias line width may be easily calculated, using for
guidance Table 5.8.1 given below.
Bias line width Track area Allowable bias

w (mm) wt (mm2) current (mA)
1.0 0.035 700
0.5 0.0175 350
0.1 0.0035 70
0.02 0.0007 14
Table 5.8.1
143
Assignment 8
λg
4 Bias
supply
Low impedance
open-circuit stub 1
High impedance
λg bias line
4 2
Microwave Microwave
input Active device output
Chip capacitor
Fig 5.8.2 Quarter wavelength bias-type circuit
A simple but effective means of biasing is shown in fig 5.8.2. It

is based on using quarter-wavelengths of line to present a very
high RF impedance at the point where the bias line connects to
the main microwave circuit. The open-circuited low impedance
1/ λ stub presents through quarter-wave transformer action a
4 g
very low impedance at point 1. This in turn is transformed by a
high impedance 1/4λg line to a high impedance, ideally an
open-circuit, shunting the main line at point 2.
DC bias lines in the

DC Biasing unit, BL
The DC Biasing unit to be investigated comprises the three

configurations shown in fig 5.8.3. The design of all three bias
networks is again based on the quarter wave transformer
principle. The high impedance 1/4λg elements are of width
w = 0.5 mm, corresponding to a characteristic impedance of
about 120 ohms for the Cu217 type substrate used, and have
a current carrying capability of up to 350mA. The low
impedance terminations to these lines are different:
A The 'butterfly' or 'bow-tie' type termination; DC bias is

normally fed at the centre as shown in the diagram.
B A low-impedance 1/4λg open-circuited stub line
C A wired short to the ground plane conductor, C is used for

comparison with A and B in the transmission loss
experimental investigations.
144
Assignment 8
DC short direct wire

to ground plane
V bias
λg
λg λg
4
4
4
A B C
Fig 5.8.3 Bias line networks in unit BL
PRACTICAL 8.1
DC Bias Lines
A B C
BL
Fig 5.8.4 DC Biasing Unit BL
The DC Biasing line unit, BL, is shown in fig 5.8.4. The

investigation is to see the effect of each network on main 50
ohm line transmission by measuring the insertion loss between
input and output of each section. The experimental procedure
is as follows.
145
Assignment 8
Plug-to-plug Circulator (CIR)

Crystal Digital
connector (PPC) as Isolator
detector voltmeter
1 2 X Y
D DVM
VCO
3
50Ω (MT)
line A
line B
line C
Bias Line Unit
Fig 5.8.5 Test set-up for Bias Line investigations
Set up the equipment as shown in fig 5.8.5 with the crystal

detector directly connected to point X. Set the VCO frequency
to 2.5GHz and measure the 'direct-connection' power using the
crystal detector and its calibration curves. Repeat power
measurements at 0.1GHz intervals up to 3.5GHz. Record your
results in a copy of Table 5.8.2, reproduced at the end of this
assignment .
Note The procedure for setting up the VCO is described in

Assignment 1.
Now insert line A of the DC Biasing unit BL between points X

and Y. Measure transmission power recorded by the crystal
detector over the band 2.5 to 3.5GHz. Enter your results in
your table.
Likewise measure transmission power with line B and then with

line C over the same frequency range and record results.
Exercise 8.1 Using your results determine the insertion loss:

Transmission Power
10 log10 ( ) dB
Direct connection power
for the three bias lines and plot graphs of IL versus

frequency. Your graphs should confirm the very low
loading effects of the bias networks on the main-line
transmission path.
146
Assignment 8
Part 2
Background to MMIC
Amplifier investigations
Introduction and technical

specification of MMIC
amplifier chip Relatively inexpensive MMICs are now available for low power
amplification at microwave frequencies. They are packaged so
they may easily be incorporated in microstrip.
In this part of the assignment a silicon bipolar MMIC device

capable of providing gain in excess of 10dB up to 4GHz is
incorporated in a microstrip circuit and its gain versus
frequency characteristic is measured.
Typical specifications
of the MMIC:
Power gain The power gain - frequency characteristic is shown in fig 5.8.6
and this indicates that power gains in excess of 10dB should
be achieveable over the whole of the S-band.
dB
35
30 T a = 25 °C
25
I d = 36 mA
20
15
10
5
0.1 0.3 .5 0 1 2 4 GHz

6
Frequency
Fig 5.8.6 Typical power gain vs. frequency characteristic

of MMIC amplifier chip.
Specified bias voltage Vd: 7.0 (minimum), 7.5 (typical), 8.4 volts (maximum) with a
recommended bias current of 20 to 40mA.
Absolute maximum
ratings Device current, Id 65mA
Power dissipation 500mW
RF input power 100mW (20dBm)
Junction and storage temperature 150°C
147
Assignment 8
Typical s-parameters at 2, 3 and 4GHz for those interested

together with the values of input and output VSWR, forward
power gain, and isolation which can be calculated from the
s-parameters, see fig 5.8.7, are given in Table 5.8.3 below:
f GHz s11 s12 s21 s22

2 0 . 26 ∠ −147 ° 0 . 103 ∠47 ° 6 . 82 ∠56 ° 0 . 15 ∠ −173 °
3 0 . 34 ∠ −175 ° 0 . 130 ∠42 ° 4 . 51 ∠37 ° 0 . 09 ∠165 °
4 0 . 42 ∠161° 0 . 153 ∠33 ° 3 . 12 ∠14 ° 0 . 04 ∠ −139 °
f GHz Input vswr Isolation Power gain Output vswr
2 1.7 –19.7 dB 16.7 dB 1.35
3 2.03 –17.7 dB 13.1 dB 1.20
4 2.45 –16.3 dB 10.01 dB 1.08
Table 5.8.3 s-parameters (TA=25°, Id=36mA)
Fig 5.8.7 Relationship between scattering or s-parameters,

VSWR and gain.
148
Assignment 8
Circuit details of the

MMIC amplifier Circuit details of the amplifier unit AMP are shown in fig 5.8.8.
The chip capacitors (C = 22pF, ceramic palladium silver,

whose reactance = 2.4Ω at 3GHz) act as dc blocking
capacitors. DC bias is supplied using a high impedance λg/4
line terminated in a low-impedance 'butterfly stub' designed to
present a high impedance to microwave signals over the 2-
4GHz range. The dc bias supply - regulator circuit is mounted
on the reverse side of the substrate and hence is not visible.
Two 2mm sockets (red +, black earth) on the side casing of the
unit are available for the
connection of a DC supply. Minimum supply voltage is 15V,

producing a device voltage Vd = 7.6V.
Note The DC bias supply circuit is reverse polarity protected

and will also withstand input voltages of up to 30V.
15-40V
DC supply
+ Vd 150Ω
7812 Voltage
• regulator •
λg
bias line
4 •
0.22µF 0.47µF
Coaxial Coaxial
input output
Chip capacitor C Ground

Chip capacitor C
MMIC amplifier
block RF in RF
out
Ground
MMIC amplifier package
Fig 5.8.8 Circuit details of MMIC amplifier
149
Assignment 8
PRACTICAL 8.2
Amplifier
Investigations Red terminal
Black terminal
0 Volts 15V (min) to
30V (max)
IN OUT
AMP
Fig 5.8.9 MMIC Amplifier Unit AMP
The MMIC amplifier unit, AMP, to be investigated is shown in

fig 5.8.9. The experimental procedure to measure its power
gain versus frequency characteristic is as follows.
Circulator (CIR)
Crystal Digital
as Isolator
detector voltmeter
PPC 1 2 20dB X Y
VCO Attenuator D DVM
(ATT)
3
0V +15V
MMIC
50Ω Amplifier
(MT) (AMP)
Fig 5.8.10 Test set-up for measurement of amplifier

gain-frequency characteristic
Set up the equipment as shown in fig 5.8.10 in the direct

connection but including the 20dB attenuator to limit source
power. Set the VCO to 2.5GHz and measure the 'direct
connection' power to the crystal detector. Repeat at 0.1GHz
intervals up to 3.5GHz and record your results in a copy of
Note The 20dB attenuator is included to reduce the VCO

source power input to the amplifier (when inserted) and
avoid driving it into saturation.
150
Assignment 8
Insert the amplifier between X and Y. Connect power supplies:

black terminal 0 volts, red terminal +15 volts minimum but do
not exceed 30 volts. Measure amplifier output power to the
crystal detector throughout the 2.5 to 3.5GHz range and record
the results in your table.
If time permits, investigate the input VSWR to the amplifier

using Assignment 4 for guidance.
If a variable attenuator is available, e.g a stepped coaxial type

where attenuation can be varied in 1dB steps, the gain linearity
of the amplifier can be checked. Fig 5.8.11 shows a typical plot
of output power versus input power. The 1dB compression
point at which the output power tends to saturate and deviates
from linearity by 1dB is an important parameter in amplifier
work. If the attenuator is available set the VCO at 3GHz and
investigate the amplifier's power gain linearity.
Output power
dB m
1dB
1dB compression
point
Linear
range
Input power
dB m
Fig 5.8.11 1dB compression point for amplifier
Exercise 8.2 Using the results obtained calculate the insertion gain
over the band:
Po
insertion gain = 10 log dB
10 Pi
and plot the gain versus frequency characteristic of the

amplifier. Compare the result obtained at 3GHz to that
predicted by the device specification and comment.
151
Assignment 8
SUMMARY Networks used to carry DC bias to microwave devices have

been described and their effects on the transmission of
microwave signals have been investigated.
Typical characteristics of a MMIC amplifier chip have been

given and the power gain versus frequency characteristics of
an amplifier utilising the chip have been measured.
152
PART 1
Frequency, f 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
GHz
Direct
connection
power
Transmission
power,
Line A
Transmission
power,
Line B
Transmission
power,
Line C
Table 5.8.2
PART 2
Frequency, f 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
GHz
Input
power, Pi
(Direct
connection)
Output
power, Po
Table 5.8.4
153
PIN DIODE MODULATOR INVESTIGATIONS ASSIGNMENT 9
CONTENT The application of PIN diodes as control devices for

attenuating microwave power are considered and the action of
a simple PIN diode modulator is investigated experimentally.
EQUIPMENT
1 PIN PIN diode modulator
2 PPC SMA Plug-to-plug coaxial

connectors
1 ADR SMA plug to BNC jack adaptor

(e.g AX 322C)

(e.g MX 545)
1 – Square wave source (optional) for

modulator
154
PIN DIODE MODULATOR INVESTIGATIONS ASSIGNMENT 9
• Know the simplified equivalent circuits of a PIN diode under

forward and reverse bias conditions and its use in
microwave circuits to control the transmission of power
• Know the action of a PIN diode in basic series and parallel

connections and its operation as a microwave
switch/modulator
• Have investigated experimentally the characteristics of a

series connected PIN diode microwave modulator.

assignment.
155
Assignment 9
INTRODUCTION
PIN Diodes and background
to assignment
PIN diodes, microwave
applications and simplified
equivalent circuits
layer
Intrinsic + -
p+
R C
s Rp j
n+
PIN chip - +
Forward bias Zero and reverse bias
(a) (b) (c)

Fig 5.9.1 PIN diode and simplified equivalent circuits
PIN diodes derive their name from their construction, see

fig 5.9.1(a). The p and n type semiconductor layers are
separated by an intrinsic layer (I layer) of silicon, hence PIN.
At microwave frequencies PIN diodes are extensively used as

the control elements in switches, attenuators, limiters,
modulators and in RF levelling circuits. A DC bias or
modulating signal applied to the PIN diode can control
relatively large amounts of RF power. The free charge
concentration in the intrinsic layer, and hence its effective
resistance, can be varied electronically by a factor of 100s to
1000s by means of current from a simple bias supply.
Simplified equivalent circuits for the PIN diode, excluding
package parasitics and feed wire inductance, for forward and
reverse bias conditions are shown in fig 5.9.1(b) and (c).
Typical manufacturer's values for the type of PIN diode used in

the modulator to be investigated are:
Effective series, resistance Rs = 1.2Ω at 100mA bias current

= 2.5Ω at 1mA
Effective shunt, resistance Rp = 2kΩ at zero bias
= 10kΩ at 5V reverse bias
Junction, capacitance Cj = 0.03 - 0.15pF at –50V bias
Switching time, time ts = 20ns (90% to 10%
transmission)
156
Assignment 9
Series and parallel PIN

switch/attenuator circuits ± bias
DC DC
block block Zo R
• •
Pi PIN Po (PIN)
Zo
RF in RF out
(a) Series switch/attenuator and ideal equivalent circuit
± bias
Zo
• •
Pi Po (PIN) R
PIN Zo
• •
(a) Shunt switch/attenuator and ideal equivalent circuit
Fig 5.9.2 PIN diode circuits for controlling transmission of microwave energy
Fig 5.9.2 shows two basic PIN diode circuits for controlling the
transmission of microwave energy. In the series circuit of (a)
attenuation is reduced by increasing the forward bias current
and thereby reducing R. Maximum insertion loss occurs with
the
PIN diode reversed biased with minimum insertion loss when

the pin diode is forward biased. In the shunt circuit of (b) the
reverse situation applies: maximum attenuation with forward
bias producing a low resistance across the line, minimum
attenuation with reverse bias causing a high resistance across
the line.
The insertion loss ratio, ILR, and the insertion loss, IL (in dB),
for the series pin circuit is given by:
Po 1
ILR = =
P R 2
i (1 + )
2Z
o
Po
IL = 10log 10( ) = −20 log 10 (1 + R ) dB
Pi 2Z o
157
Assignment 9
and for the shunt pin circuit:
1
ILR =
Zo
(1 +
2
)
2R
Zo
IL = −20 log (1 + ) dB
10 2R
Values for the insertion loss for various values of R are given
Table 5.9.1 below for lines of characteristic impedance
Zo = 50Ω:
series circuit shunt circuit

R ohms ILR IL (dB) ILR IL (dB)
1 0.98 –0.09 0.0015 –28.3
50 0.44 –3.52 0.44 –3.52
100 0.25 –6.0 0.64 –1.94
1000 0.0086 –20.8 0.95 –0.21
Table 5.9.1
The attenuation is produced in both circuits primarily by

reflection rather than by dissipation in the pin diodes, i.e in the
series case when the diode is reversed biased the source sees
a high impedance of R + Zo and thus a high input vswr of
1 + R/Zo results; in the parallel case the pin shunts the line with
a low resistance relative to the characteristic impedance Zo of
the line causing a poor match.
158
Assignment 9
Circuit details of PIN

Diode Modulator unit, PIN DC bias supply
Resistor, limiting or modulating signal
bias current
Butterfly
(low impedance stub)
Chip capacitance λg
(DC block) bias line
4
RF in
PIN RF out
λg diode Chip capacitance
bias line
4 (DC block)
Short to
ground
Fig 5.9.3 Circuit details of PIN diode modulator
The PIN diode modulator unit is a series circuit version with the
diode inserted in series with the top strip conductor
as shown in fig 5.9.3. DC bias is applied via a λg/4 high-

impedance line terminated in a low impedance butterfly-type
stub; the DC return to ground is also via a high-impedance λg/4
line. Forward bias current can be supplied via a connector on
the casing and is limited by a resistor to prevent damage to the
PIN diode.
PRACTICAL 9.1
Pin diode investigations
To Bias Supply
Bias Port
Input Output
PIN
Figs 5.9.4 PIN Diode Modulator Unit (PIN)
159
Assignment 9
Fig 5.9.5 Test set-up for PIN diode modulator investigation

The PIN diode unit is shown in fig 5.9.4. DC bias (or the
modulating signal) is applied to the diode via the miniature
coaxial bias port. Connect the SMA miniature plug to BNC
adaptor (ADR) to the bias port. The coaxial cable with black
and red 4mm terminals supplied can then be used to connect
to a DC power supply or modulating signal source. The VCO
power supply may be used to forward bias the PIN diode:
connect the black terminal of the bias cable to 0 volts (black) of
the supply, the red terminal to +15 volts (red) of the DC supply
used to supply the VCO device. (Note NOT the tuning voltage
terminal).
The main part of the investigation is to measure the
transmission power through the modulator under forward bias
conditions (diode presenting low resistance) and compare this
with power transmitted under zero or reverse bias conditions
(diode presenting high resistance).
The experimental procedure is as follows:
1 Set up the equipment as shown in fig 5.9.5 with the PIN
diode forward biased. Set the VCO to 2.5GHz and measure
transmission power using the crystal detector. Repeat at
0.1GHz intervals to 3.5GHz and record your results in a
copy of Table 5.9.2, reproduced at the end of this
assignment.
2 Reset the VCO frequency to 2.5GHz and disconnect the
bias supply, i.e the diode is now under zero bias conditions.
Measure transmission power at 0.1GHz interval over the
range 2.5 to 3.5GHz and record the results.
3 Disconnect the PIN unit and connect the crystal detector
directly to port 2 of the circulator. Measure the 'direct
connection' power over the 2.5 to 3.5GHz range and record
the results in your table.
160
Assignment 9
If time permits investigate the input reflection coefficient to the

unit under forward and zero bias conditions over the range 2.5
to 3.5GHz. Use Assignment 4, 'Measurement of return loss,
reflection coefficient and VSWR', for guidance on the
experimental method.
Optional Test 1 If a second power supply is available the effect of bias voltage
on transmission power of the PIN diode unit may be
investigated. By increasing the bias supply from 0 volts in small
increments the transition from high to low attenuation may be
observed, indicating the application of a PIN diode as a voltage
controlled attenuator. Investigate by setting the VCO to 3GHz.
Measure transmission power starting at 0 volts in 0.1 volt steps
up to 1 volt and then subsequently in 1 volt steps up to 15V.
Record bias volts, bias current and transmission power in a

copy of Table 5.9.3, reproduced at the end of this assignment.
Plot a graph of transmission power versus bias current.
Optional Test 2 If a square wave generator and oscilloscope are available the
action of the PIN diode unit as a simple amplitude modulator
may be investigated.
Oscilloscope
Square wave
generator
Plug-to-plug Y input
Circulator (CIR)
connector (PPC) as Isolator
1 2 PPC
VCO PIN D
3 Crystal
Voltage controlled PIN diode detector
oscillator modulator
50Ω (MT)
Fig 5.9.6 Test set-up for modulator waveform investigations
Set up the equipment as shown in fig 5.9.6. Set the VCO to

3GHz and the amplitude of square wave to the order of 10
volts peak-to-peak. Observe the waveforms detected by the
crystal detector over a modulating frequency range of 1kHz to
1MHz and compare with the modulating signal.
161
Assignment 9
EXERCISE 9.1 From the results obtained in the main part of the
experimental procedure, investigate and calculate the
insertion loss of the PIN diode unit under forward to zero
bias conditions:
Po
insertion loss IL = 10 log dB
10 Pi
where Po = Pfb, Pz output power under forward, zero

bias conditions
Pi = direct connection power
Plot graphs of IL versus frequency over the range 2.5 to

3.5GHz. Comment on the characteristic of the PIN unit as an
ON-OFF keyed modulator. Make an estimate of the effective
resistance R presented by the PIN diode under forward and
zero bias conditions.
If you have made reflection measurements calculate the

VSWR values and plot graphs of the VSWR versus frequency
for forward and zero bias conditions. Comment on these.
SUMMARY PIN diodes find important applications in microwave switches,

modulators, limiters and voltage-controlled attenuators.
Neglecting parasitics, which in practice are largely tuned out, a

PIN diode acts as a low resistant element when fully forward
biased and as a high resistance element in parallel with a small
junction capacitance when zero or reverse biased.
In the assignment the power transmission characteristics of a

PIN diode modulator/switch circuit employing a series diode
element have been investigated.
162
Frequency, f 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
GHz
Forward bias
transmission
power Pfb
Zero bias
transmission
power Pz
Direct
connection
transmission
power Pi
Table 5.9.2
Optional Test 1
Supply volts 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
V
Bias current
mA
Transmission
power
Table 5.9.3
163
MICROWAVE RADIO LINK AND ANTENNA

INVESTIGATIONS ASSIGNMENT 10
CONTENT The microstrip components are used to construct a basic

transmitter and receiver and a line-of-sight microwave radio
link is set up.
The transmission characteristics of the link are investigated

and the gain of the microstrip patch antennas used in the link
are measured.
Optional work is also included to investigate the antenna

radiation diagrams, use the link for data transmission and
demonstrate Doppler radar.
EQUIPMENT
2 ANT Patch antenna
1 AMP S-band MMIC amplifier
2 – Retort stand and clamp
connectors
1 PIN PIN diode modulator (optional)
1 DC Directional coupler (optional)
(optional)
(optional)
1 ADR SMA plug-BNC jack adaptor
(optional)
1 – Signal generator/data source for
modulator (optional)
1 – Power supply, (e.g AX322)
1 – Digital voltmeter, (e.g MX 545)
164
MICROWAVE RADIO LINK AND ANTENNA

INVESTIGATIONS ASSIGNMENT 10
• Know the principal components of a microwave link
• Understand the meaning of antenna gain and beam width
• Appreciate the factors involved in transmission loss/energy

budget calculations for a line-of-sight link
• Have set up a basic microwave radio link and measured its

transmission characteristics
• Know how to measure antenna gain and plot radiation

diagrams and appreciate the reciprocal nature of antennas
as radiators and receivers of radio waves.
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL No prior knowledge is required to carry out this assignment.
165
Assignment 10
INTRODUCTION
Line-of-sight microwave
radio links Line-of-sight radio links utilising microwave carriers and highly
directive antennas concentrating the radiated power into
narrow beams are extensively used for multi-channel
telephony, data transmission and television signal relay.
Typical link distances vary from a few kilometres to 80 km or
more but communication may be readily established over
several thousand kilometres using a series of links. Satellite-
earth station up and down links are also essentially line-of-sight
systems but here the earth-satellite transmission path is of the
order of 36,000 km!
Fig 5.10.1 Line-of-sight microwave radio links
166
Assignment 10
Simplified block diagrams showing the basic transmitter and

receiver components of a microwave radio line-of-sight link are
shown in fig 5.10.1. In (a), the baseband information signal first
modulates an intermediate frequency (I.F) carrier. Frequency
modulation (FM) is used in analogue systems but for digital
signals such as pulse code modulation (PCM), quadrature
phase shift keying (QPSK) is becoming increasingly used. The
modulated IF carrier fI ± ∆, ± ∆ representing the bandwidth
occupied by the modulating signal components, is then up-
converted to the microwave band by mixing with the microwave
oscillator carrier fc.
The up-converter output fc + fI ± ∆ is amplified and fed to the

transmit antenna, usually a parabolic dish of diameter typically
1 to 2 metres. In satellite systems, earth stations use
considerably larger dishes of 11m, 19m and even up to 30m
diameter to produce very narrow beams of 1 ° or less. The
received signal is normally first filtered to remove out of band
signals and then down-converted to IF, amplified and detected
to recover the baseband signal. In the case of satellite
communications the received signal is at a very low level,
typically pico-watts, and a low noise amplifier (LNA) is used
before down-conversion.
Fig 5.1.10(b) shows a simple system which can be constructed

using the MST532 components. Here the VCO source is used
as the microwave carrier and modulation is carried out directly
at RF using the PIN diode modulator. Patch antennas are used
both for transmission and reception. In the receiver, the
circulator is used as an isolator and the received signals are
amplified using the MMIC amplifier before being detected by
the crystal detector. The system can be used to transmit digital
information such as PCM signals over several metres in the
laboratory.
Antenna radiation
diagrams and gain At microwave frequencies, wavelengths are not only
comparable with but normally very much smaller than antenna
dimensions. This feature allows microwaves to be focussed
into narrow beams concentrating the radiation in a given

direction as required in line-of-sight systems, and also to be
shaped to form various types of radiation patterns to suit other
applications such as radar surveillance etc.
167
Assignment 10
Polar plots of radiated power density (in watts per square

metre) or electric field strength (V/m) versus angular direction
are an extremely useful graphical means of illustrating the
directional properties of an antenna. Such plots, known as
radiation
diagrams, should be measured at some distance away from

the antenna in the so-called far-field region. In the far field, the
radiation wave carrying energy is firmly established and all
other fields components are negligible. The far-field criterion is
that distance from the antenna should be greater than

2
2D
metres
λo
where λo = free space wavelength

D = largest antenna dimension
The directional properties of an antenna are usually specified

by giving two radiation diagrams: one in the horizontal plane
and one in the vertical plane. An example of a radiation pattern
typical of the patch antenna used in the assignment is shown in
fig 5.10.2.
An important parameter of antennas is the angular width of its

main beam. This is specified by the angle between half power
points, or I/ 2 points is electric field strength is plotted, and is
known as the 3dB beamwidth. The beamwidth for the radiation
diagram shown in fig 5.10.2 is fairly broad and a little over 80°.
The antenna gain is usually defined with reference to an

isotropic radiator (one which radiates equally in all directions)
and sometimes with reference to a half-wave dipole. With
reference to an isotropic radiator antenna gain G is defined as,
pa
G= p
i
where pa = power density radiated by the antenna in a given

direction, usually the main beam peak direction
pi = power density radiated by an isotropic radiator at

the same distance when both antennas are fed
with the same power
168
Assignment 10
Fig 5.10.2 Example of radiation diagram of an antenna: polar plot of

radiated power density versus angular direction in a given plane.
Thus if the distance is r and the total power radiated by the

antennas is P, then
p = P , 4 π r2 = surface area of sphere, radius r

i 4 π r2
P
so p = G ×
a
= GP
4 π r2 4 π r2
169
Assignment 10
The product of antenna gain and total radiated power, GP, is

known as the effective isotropic radiated power, EIRP.
It is important to note that the principle of reciprocity applies to

antennas in that the directional properties, the radiation
diagram and antenna gain, are identical for reception of radio
waves. When receiving the angular direction in the radiation
diagram refers to the direction of the incoming radio waves and
the power density/field strength amplitude refers to the level of
the received signal from that direction.
Transmission
power/energy
budget calculations
for a link The power received in a line-of-sight link, see fig 5.10.3, is
given by:
 λ 2
P =P G ×  ×G
R T T 4 π r R
where PT = total power radiated by transmitter antenna

GT = antenna gain of transmitter
GR = antenna gain of receiver
r = link distance
λ = free space wavelength
neglecting any attenuation in transmission other than the

inevitable inverse square loss due to spreading of radiation.
The link transmission loss

PR 2
λ 
= G ×  ×G
PT T 4π r  R
consists essentially of three terms:

2
the antenna gain, GT and GR, and the term   λ
4π r 
which is
known as the free space loss.
Expressing the transmission loss in dB, we have
P
transmission loss, TL = 10 log R
PT
λ 
= G dB + G dB + 20 log 
4π r 
dB
T R
170
Assignment 10
Transmitter Receiver
P PR
T
Transmitter Receiver
Fig 5.10.3 Basic line-of-sight link

Thus if identical antennas are used for transmission and
reception, i.e GT = GR = G, we have
TL = 2G + 20 log  λ  dB
10  4 π r 
so we have for the antenna gain,

λ 
G = 1 TL − 20 log 10   dB
2  4 π r 
Hence if the transmission loss is measured for a link employing
identical antennas, antenna gain may be determined.
At S-band with f = 3GHz, λ = 0.1m,
 λ  = − 42dB so:
10  4 π 
20 log
TL=GT + GR – 42 – 20 log10 r
and with GT = GR = G,
1
G= TL + 42 + 20 log 10 r dB
2 
Patch antennas In this assignment we use patch antennas to construct a basic
radio link and by measuring the link transmission loss we can
determine their gain.
Although most microwave links use dish type reflector
antennas, planar antennas and arrays are now finding
increasing use in microwave radar, guidance, navigation and
communication systems. Their ease of volume production by
printed circuit methods, relative cheapness and adaptability for
inclusion in missile, car, aeroplane etc structures make them
an attractive choice for many applications.
171
Assignment 10
A basic planar antenna element is the so-called patch antenna.

It consists of a rectangular metallic patch produced by etching
one side of a microstrip substrate. The simple geometry of a
microstrip patch antenna is shown in fig 5.10.4.
W E field
Coaxial
feed Radiated
wave
Fig 5.10.4 Microstrip patch antenna
The most critical dimension of the patch antenna is its length L,

which is made slightly less than a half wavelength for waves
propagating in the dielectric material of the substrate:
λ
L ≈ 0 . 49 λ = 0. 49
d V εr
where εr = dielectric constant of microstrip substrate

λ = λ = wavelength in dielectric
d V εr
λ = free space wavelength
The patch width should be less than λd to avoid exciting higher

order resonances.
Typical values for antenna gain and 3dB beamwidth for a patch
antenna of dimensions
1
L≈ λ , W ≈ λ are :
2 d d
antenna gain 7 to 8dB

beamwidth ♠ 60°
172
Assignment 10
The transmission loss of the basic microwave link shown in

fig 5.10.5 is to be investigated at the S-band mid-frequency of
3GHz. The VCO acts as the transmitter and feeds directly the
patch antenna. The radiated power PT is assumed to be that
supplied by the VCO and is measured by connecting the
crystal detector directly to the VCO output.
This is a reasonable assumption since at the 3GHz design

frequency the antenna presents a good match to 50 ohms.
This can be checked using the directional coupler, see
Assignment 4.
Fig 5.10.5 Link transmission loss investigations
173
Assignment 10
The receiver consists of an identical patch antenna which

feeds the received power PR via the circulator (acting as an
isolator) to be amplified by the S-band MMIC amplifier prior to
detection by the crystal detector. In determining PR from the
receiver power output from the crystal detector, the effects of
insertion loss of the circulator-isolator and the gain of the
amplifier should be taken into account. Both, of course, can be
measured (see Assignments 2 and 8). The insertion loss of the
circulator-isolator is small, typically 0.5dB or less; the gain of
the amplifier at 3GHz is typically 12 ±1dB.
PRACTICAL10.1
Link transmission loss
investigation and
determination of
antenna gain 1 Set up the transmitter and receiver as indicated in
fig 5.10.5. Set the distance between transmit and receive
antennas at r = 0.8m. Set the VCO to 3GHz.
2 Fine adjust positions (height and orientation) of both

antennas for direct line-of-sight. This can be obtained by
observing the crystal detector output on the digital
voltmeter and adjusting for maximum reading. Record
corresponding receiver output power in a copy of Table
5.10.1, reproduced at the end of this assignment.
Note Reflections causing multi-path reception can affect

transmission considerably.
3 Repeat at link distance r = 1m and in 0.2m steps up to 2m,

fine adjusting antenna positions each time. Record receiver
output powers in your table.
4 Measure and record the transmitter power P T by

connecting the crystal detector directly to the VCO output.
5 In your calculations of transmission loss and antenna gain

you will need to know the insertion loss of the circulator
and, far more important, the amplifier gain. Take the
insertion loss of the circulator at 0.5dB and the gain of the
amplifier as 12dB or use your results of Assignment 8.
174
Assignment 10
Radiation diagrams
of the patch antenna The radiation diagram of the patch antenna in both horizontal
and vertical planes may be obtained using the set-up of fig
5.10.5. You will need a protractor to measure angular direction
as the transmit antenna is rotated, see fig 5.10.6.
10 0° -10
20 -20
30
-30
40
-40
50 Angle -50
60 -60
70 -70
r
PR
Transmit patch antenna Receive patch antenna

rotated through ±90° remains fixed in position
in 10° steps
Fig 5.10.6 Measuring patch antenna radiation diagram
PRACTICAL 10.2
Use of Radiation
diagrams 1 Set link distance at a suitable value, say r = 1m. Set VCO
frequency to 3GHz and adjust transmitter and receiver
patch antennas for direct line-of-sight, 0° angle, position.
Record receiver output power Po in a copy of Table 5.10.2,
2 Rotate transmit antenna +10° in the horizontal plane from

the direct line-of-sight position keeping the receive antenna
fixed. Record receiver output power.
3 Repeat at 10° increments to +90°.
4 From 90° reduce angular rotation in 10° steps and

remeasure receiver output output power and enter results
in your table.
175
Assignment 10
5 Now rotate from the 0° positions in –10° steps to –90° and

record receiver output power. Finally reduce from
–90° in 10° steps to 0° position and record the power
measurements.
6 Calculate the average value of receiver output power for

each angular position 0° to ±90°. These results may be
used to plot the radiation diagram of the patch antenna in
the horizontal plane.
7 For vertical plane polar diagram repeat 1 to 6 above but

rotate the antenna in the vertical plane.
Optional Test 1
Data signal
transmission
on the link Fig 5.10.7 shows a block diagram of the link with the inclusion
of the PIN diode modulator in the transmitter.
The link may be used to transmit digital type information such

as pulse code modulation (PCM) signals. The action of the
modulator is essentially that of a microwave switch: for a series
PIN device a zero or negative level signal applied to the
modulator input cuts off the microwave transmission, a positive
level signal forward biases the diode and the microwave
transmission is passed with low loss.
Set up the link as shown in fig 5.10.7 and use a 10 volt peak-
to-peak signal to modulate the microwave carrier. Investigate
the received waveforms, detected by the crystal detector and
displayed on the oscilloscope over the frequency range 100Hz
to 10MHz. Reduce modulation input signal level and observe
the effects on transmission. Data transmission over short
distances up to about 15m may be investigated. Multi-path
effects, which cause variation in received signal strengths, can

easily be demonstrated by placing a metal plate close to and
roughly parallel to the transmission path. By varying the height
of the plate above the bench the interference between direct
and reflected waves can be observed by fading and
strengthening of the received signal, see fig 5.10.8.
The polarisation of the transmitted wave can also be

demonstrated by rotating the receiver through 90 °. In the
experimental set-up shown the patch antenna radiates
vertically polarised waves with the electric field parallel to the L
dimension. As the receive antenna is rotated the energy
received will drop and in the 90° position be at a minimum, see
fig 5.10.9.
176
Assignment 10
Fig 5.10.9 Demonstration of polarisation
177
Assignment 10
Optional Test 2
Demonstration of
Doppler radar
v
fT fT Moving target
f
R fR
fT fR
fT
Transmit fT fR
signal
Mixer
Doppler frequency shift
d= R− T
f f f
Fig 5.10.10 Basis of Doppler Radar
The Doppler effect whereby a difference between transmitted

and received signal frequencies is generated by a moving
object is extensively applied in measuring velocity and in
distinguishing between stationary and moving objects.
For an object moving directly towards the transmitter, see

fig 5.10.10, at a velocity v metres per second, the Doppler
frequency shift fd is given by,
2v
fd = fR − f T = c f T
where fT = transmitter frequency

fR = received frequency, reflected from target
c = 3 x 108 m/s, velocity of waves in free space
The simple experimental set up shown in fig 5.10.11 provides a

basic Doppler radar system which may be used to detect and
measure the velocity of moving objects.
178
Assignment 10
Patch antenna
fT
fR
f fR
fT T
3 Moving target
PPC eg. fan
VCO Circulator
2
PPC
1
fT f
R
PPC
MMIC
lifi Crystal detector
D (acting as mixer)
To oscilloscope
d = R − fT
f f
Fig 5.10.11 Test set-up for Doppler Radar investigation
The VCO is used as a continuous wave (CW) source and its

output is fed to the patch antenna via the circulator. Any
reflected signals received from a moving target are directed by
the circulator to the MMIC amplifier. Since the circulator is non-
ideal and has an isolation of about 20dB, 1% or so of the VCO
output also enters the MMIC amplifier and is amplified together
with the reflected signal. Both reflected and transmitter leakage
signals mix in the crystal detector with the low frequency,
Doppler shift frequency, appearing at the detector output.
The principle of Doppler measurement may be demonstrated,

for example, by using a small battery operated fan. Attach
copper strips, about 5 cm in length, to its blades to enhance
reflection. The difference signal waveform produced by mixing
action in the crystal detector can be observed on an
oscilloscope. The waveform frequency can be measured and
hence the rotational speed of the fan determined. This can be
checked by observing the voltage waveform across the motor
of the fan.
179
Assignment 10
EXERCISE 10.1 From your results obtained for receiver output power
determine the link transmission loss over the range r = 0.8
to 2.0m.
PR
Transmission Loss , TL = 10 log10
P
T
where PT = transmitter radiated power (measured in

direct connection)
PR = receiver input power
Note The amplifier gain (~ 12dB) and the insertion loss of

the circulator (~ 0.5dB) must be taken into account
when determining PR, i.e PR is ~ 11.5dB down on
the receiver output power Po.
Link Transmission Loss
and determination of
Antenna Gain Plot a graph of transmission loss TL dB versus 20 log r and
deduce the gain G of the patch antenna by calculating the
intercept on the TL axis:
TL = 20 log10 r + (2G – 42)
intercept on TL axis = 26G – 42
slope of graph should be –1
Compare the value determined for G with values calculated

using:
1
G= TL + 42 + 20 log 10 r dB
2 
Comment on the accuracy of your results obtained for antenna

gain.
Radiation diagrams
for Patch Antenna Using your results obtained for average received power versus
angular direction, plot the radiation diagram for the patch
antenna in the horizontal plane. Use the diagram to determine
the 3dB beamwidth of the antenna.
Note The receiver output power at the 0° position should be

taken as reference level for power density. Normalise
all other values by dividing the 0° value.
If you have also obtained results for the vertical plane plot the
radiation diagram for this planed and determine the 3dB
beamwidth.
180
Assignment 10
SUMMARY A basic line-of-sight microwave link has been set up and its
transmission loss characteristics have been investigated.
Using the link with two identical antennas, antenna gain may
be determined and radiation diagrams showing the directional
properties of the antenna may be plotted.
The link may be also used for data transmission by modulating

the microwave carrier directly at RF using a PIN diode
modulator.
The principles of Doppler radar for detection of moving targets

and measurement of velocity can be demonstrated.
181
Link distance, 0.8 10. 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

r = metres
Receiver output
power, Po
Table 5.10.1
Angle 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Receiver output
power
[angle 0° ∅ 90°
increasing]
Receiver output
power
[angle 90° ∅ 0°
decreasing]
Average value of
power
Angle –0° –10° –20° –30° –40° –50° –60° –70° –80° –90°
Receiver output
power [0° ∅ 90°]
Receiver output
power
[–90° ∅ 0°]
Average value of
power
Table 5.10.2
182

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Microstrip Trainer

THE HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK ACT 1974

CAUTION - CAUTION - CAUTION -

1. Equipment type 2. Component value

DECLARATION CONCERNING ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY

IBM, IBM - PC are registered trademarks of International Business Machines.

CHAPTER 1 DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT 1

CHAPTER 2 INSTALLATION CHECKS 10

CHAPTER 3 MICROSTRIP TECHNOLOGY 13

CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE

Assignment 1 Introduction to the microwave VCO source and

Assignment 2 Measurement of Insertion Loss: insertion loss

Assignment 3 Properties of Directional Coupler 80

Assignment 4 Measurement of Return Loss, Reflection

Assignment 5 Matching investigations 104

Assignment 6 Properties of a Power Divider and Rat-Race Hybrid

Assignment 7 Measurement of effective dielectric constant

Assignment 8 DC biasing and MMIC amplifier investigations 140

Assignment 9 PIN diode modulator investigations 154

Assignment 10 Microwave radio link and patch antenna

INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION The Feedback MST532 is a completely new system which

The properties and characteristics of the components can

Qty Ident. Description/Function

1 VCO Microwave source voltage controlled oscillator tuneable over the

1 DC Directional coupler microstrip component with directional

1 LPF Low pass filter microstrip component designed to pass lower

1 ML Matched load microstrip component designed to act as a

1 PD Wilkinson power microstrip component designed to split

1 RRH Rate race hybrid microstrip component designed to couple

1 RR Ring resonator microstrip resonator circuit used to

1 ZT Unknown load, 1/4λ microstrip circuits to illustrate quarter-

1 CIR Three-port circulator ferrite circulator mounted in microstrip used

1 PIN PIN diode modulator unit in which PIN diode is mounted in

System Components (continued)

Qty Ident. Description/Function

1 AMP MMIC amplifier microwave amplifier utilising a silicon bipolar

1 BL DC biasing unit microstrip unit illustrating bias line circuits

2 ANT Patch antenna microstrip planar antenna for radiation and

1 D Crystal detector coaxial crystal detector employing Schottky

8 PPC SMA plug-to-plug coaxial used for interconnection of microstrip units.

3 MT 50 ohm coaxial termination miniature coaxial load for terminating 50 ohm

1 SC Coaxial short-circuit miniature coaxial short-circuit (identified by

1 OC Coaxial open-circuit miniature coaxial open-circuit (identified by

1 ATT 20dB attenuator miniature coaxial attenuator producing a

3 – Power leads for microwave source (VCO).

2 – Coaxial BNC to 4mm leads for PIN modulator.and crystal detector

2 – Leads for MMIC amplifier.

1 – Spanner DE/OJ 2BA - 4BA

– – Calibration curves VCO and Detector

DESCRIPTION The MST532 trainer comprises a set of high quality MIC

The MIC components are designed for operation in the S band,

A detailed list of the system components is given in the

System Components (continued)

Rat-race hybrid Ring Resonator

Load termination and 4λ

transformer and shunt stub Three-port Circulator

PIN Diode Modulator MMIC Amplifier

System Components (continued)

50 Coaxial Termination 20dB Attenuator

Short-circuit Termination SMA plug - BNC jack adap tor

Qty Ident. Description/Function

1 – Dual power supply 0 to 30V DC for supply of VCO, MMIC and

1 – Bench multimeter used as voltmeter to measure crystal