Modulation Principles

Almost all communication systems transmit digital

data using a sinusoidal carrier waveform.
Electromagnetic signals propagate well
Choice of carrier frequency allows placement of signal in
arbitrary part of spectrum
Physical system implements modulation by:
Processing digital information at baseband
Pulse shaping and filtering of digital waveform
Baseband signal is mixed with signal from oscillator
RF signal is filtered, amplified and coupled with antenna
Representation of Modulation Signals
We can modify amplitude, phase or frequency.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) or On/Off Keying
(OOK):
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
( )
1 2 0 0 A f t
c
cos ,
( ) ( )
1 2 0 2
1 0
A f t A f t cos , cos
( )
( ) ( )
1 2
0 2 2

+ =
A f t
A f t A f t
c
c c
cos
cos cos

Representation of Bandpass Signals
Bandpass signals (signals with small bandwidth
compared to carrier frequency) can be represented in
any of three standard formats:
Quadrature Notation
where x(t) and y(t) are real-valued baseband signals
called the in-phase and quadrature components of s(t)
( ) ( )
s t x t f t y t f t
c c
( ) ( ) cos ( ) sin = 2 2
Representation of Bandpass Signals (continued)
Complex Envelope Notation
where is the complex envelope of s(t).
Magnitude and Phase
where is the magnitude of s(t),
and is the phase of s(t).
( )
| |
( )
| |
s t x t jy t e s t e
j f t
l
j f t
c c
( ) Re ( ) ( ) Re = + =
2 2
( ) s t
l
( ) ( )
s t a t f t t
c
( ) ( ) cos = + 2
a t x t y t ( ) ( ) ( ) = +
2 2
( ) tan
( )
( )
t
y t
x t
=

(
1
Key Ideas from I/Q Representation of Signals
We can represent bandpass signals independent of
carrier frequency.
The idea of quadrature sets up a coordinate system
for looking at common modulation types.
The coordinate system is sometimes called a signal
constellation diagram.
Example of Signal Constellation Diagram: BPSK

x t ( )
y t ( )
X X
{ }
x t y t ( ) , ( ) = 1 0
Example of Signal Constellation Diagram: QPSK

{ } { }
x t y t ( ) , ( ) 1 1
x t ( )
y t ( )
X
X
X
X
Example of Signal Constellation Diagram: QAM

{ } { }
x t y t ( ) , , , , ( ) , , , + + + + 3 1 1 3 3 1 1 3
y t ( )
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X
Interpretation of Signal Constellation Diagram
Axis are labeled with x(t) and y(t)
Possible signals are plotted as points
Signal power is proportional to distance from origin
Probability of mistaking one signal for another is
related to the distance between signal points
Decisions are made on the received signal based on
the distance to signal points in constellation
New Way of Viewing Modulation
The I/Q representation of modulation is very
convenient for some modulation types.
We will examine an even more general way of
looking at modulation using signal spaces.
By choosing an appropriate set of axis for our signal
constellation, we will be able to:
Design modulation types which have desirable properties
Construct optimal receivers for a given type of modulation
Analyze the performance of modulation types using very
general techniques.
Vector Spaces
An n-dimensional vector consists
of n scalar components
The norm (length) of a vector is given by:
The inner product of two vectors
and is given by:
| |
v = v v v
n 1 2
, , ,
{ }
v v v
n 1 2
, , ,
v
v =

=
v
i
i
n
2
1
| |
v
1 11 12 1
= v v v
n
, , ,
| |
v
2 21 22 2
= v v v
n
, , ,
v v
1 2 1 2
1
=

=
v v
i i
i
n
Basis Vectors
A vector may be expressed as a linear
combination of its basis vectors :
where
Think of the basis vectors as a coordinate system (x-
y-z... axis) for describing the vector
What makes a good choice of coordinate system?
v
{ }
e e e
1 2
, , ,
n
v e =

=
v
i i
i
n
1
v
i i
= e v
v
A Complete Orthornomal Basis
The set of basis vectors should be
complete or span the vector space . Any vector
can be expressed as for some
Each basis vector should be orthogonal to all others:
Each basis vector should be normalized:
A set of basis vectors which satisfies these three
properties is said to be a complete orthonormal basis.
{ }
e e e
1 2
, , ,
n

n
v e =

=
v
i i
i
n
1
{ }
v
i
e e
i j
i j = 0,
e
i
i = 1,
Signal Spaces
Signals can be treated in much the same way as vectors.
The norm of a signal is given by:
The inner product of signals and is:
Signals can be represented as the sum of basis
functions:
| |
x t t a b ( ), ,
( ) ( ) x t x t dt E
a
b
x
=

|
\

|
.
| =
2
1 2 /
x t x t x t x t dt
a
b
1 2 1 2
( ), ( ) ( ) ( ) =


x t
1
( )
x t
2
( )
x t x f t
k k
i
n
( ) ( ), =

=1
x x t f t
k k
= ( ), ( )
Basis Functions for a Signal Set
One of M signals is transmitted:
The functions ( ) form a
complete orthonormal basis for the signal set if
Any signal can be described by a linear combination:
The basis functions are orthogonal to each other:
The basis functions are normalized:
{ }
s t s t
M 1
( ), , ( )
{ }
f t f t
K 1
( ), , ( )
K M
s t s f t i M
i i k k
k
K
( ) ( ), , ,
,
=

=
=1
1
f t f t dt i j
i j
a
b
( ) ( ) ,

= 0
( ) f t dt k
k
a
b
2
1

= ,
Example of Signal Space
Consider the following signal signal set:
-1
+1
t
s t
1
( )
-1
+1
t
s t
3
( )
-1
+1
t
s t
2
( )
-1
+1
t
s t
4
( )
1 2
1
2
1 2
1 2
Example of Signal Space (continued)
We can express each of the signals in terms of the
following basis functions:
Therefore the basis is complete
-1
+1
t
f t
1
( )
1 2
-1
+1
t
f t
2
( )
1 2
s t f t f t
1 1 2
1 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) = + s t f t f t
2 1 2
1 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) =
s t f t f t
3 1 2
1 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) = +
s t f t f t
4 1 2
1 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) =
Example of Signal Space (continued)
The basis is orthogonal:
The basis is normalized:
f t f t dt
1 2
0 ( ) ( )

=
f t dt f t dt
1
2
2
2
1 ( ) ( )

=

=
Signal Constellation for Example
Weve seen this signal constellation before
X
X
X
X
f t
2
( )
f t
1
( )
s t
1
( )
s t
2
( )
s t
3
( )
s t
4
( )
Notes on Signal Spaces
Two entirely different signal sets can have the same
geometric representation.
The underlying geometry will determine the
performance and the receiver structure for a signal
set.
In both of these cases we were fortunate enough to
guess the correct basis functions.
Is there a general method to find a complete
orthonormal basis for an arbitrary signal set?
Gram-Schmidt Procedure