Bhel Journa Sep 06

BHEL JOURNAL
Volume 27 No. 2 September 2006
CONTENTS
ADVANCES IN MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED STEAM CYCLE POWER PLANTS SELF-EXCITATION IN 3-PHASE SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION GENERATOR FOR WINDMILL APPLICATION
Page
1
20
Editorial Advisory Committee Ramji Rai K. Ravikumar D. Indran S.K. Goyal
TURBO-GENERATOR INDUCED VOLTAGE WAVEFORM COMPUTATION AND TELEPHONE HARMONIC CAPABILITY PREDICTION EFFECT OF PRELOAD FACTOR AND WORN DEPTH ON THE DYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS AND STABILITY OF A LOADING ARC (WORN) TWO-LOBE BEARING USED IN TURBO-GENERATOR COLLECTION, HANDLING AND TREATMENT OF LIQUID EFFLUENTS IN THERMAL POWER PLANT INNOVATIONS FROM BHEL RECENT MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS OF BHEL (during March'06-August'06)
26
35
Editor : R.K. Bhattacharya Associate Editor : D. Roy
45 58
62
BHEL JOURNAL is published quarterly. All correspondence and enquiries are to be addressed to : Mr. R.K. Bhattacharya Editor, BHEL Journal Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited BHEL House, Siri Fort, New Delhi-110 049
1
4 3
The statements and views expressed in this Journal are entirely those of the authors, and not necessarily that of the Organisation. Contents may be referred to or reproduced partially with due acknowledgements. Copyright reserved.
Cover Photographs
1. 2. 3. 4.
600MW Western Mountain Gas Turbine Power Plant, Libya. Srisailam Hydro-electric Plant (7x110 MW). NALCO Captive Power Plant (960 MW). Advanced Control Room at 2x500 MW (Stage-II) Rihand STPS.
ADVANCES IN MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED STEAM CYCLE POWER PLANTS

Kulvir Singh
SYNOPSIS
The efficiency of conventional boiler or steam turbine fossil fuel fired power plants is strongly based on steam temperature and pressure. Since the energy crisis of the 1970s, there have been efforts worldwide to increase both : extensive research has been pursued worldwide. The need to reduce carbon dioxide emissions has provided further impetus to improve efficiency. Development of stronger high-temperature materials is the prime requirement. EPRI and many other organizations have extensively reviewed the materials technology for ultra supercritical power plants. This article reviews the potential benefits, operational experiences, the present trend and the advances in materials that require special attention, in respect of power plants with supercritical steam conditions. This will serve as a basis for defining material
issues for both the boilers and the turbines in nextgeneration ultra supercritical power plants.
Key Words:
Power Plants; Creep-Resistant Steels; Rotors; Casings; Boiler; Superheater.
1.
INTRODUCTION
An enhanced ecological awareness in the industrialised countries prompted increased initiatives world over to reduce CO2 emission levels in the power plants. This is essentially achieved by improving the efficiency of the plants. Figure-1 shows some possibilities of increasing power plant efficiency [1]. In conventional
FIG. 1 : EFFICIENCY IMPROVING MEASURES FOR STEAM POWER PLANTS [1]
BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006
power plants, a marked improvement of efficiency can be achieved by advancing steam parameters. The resulting developments of unit sizes and steam parameters are illustrated in Fig.2 [1]. The power plant efficiencies achieved and planned for new
plants in Japan are shown in Fig.3. Steam conditions were raised very rapidly during the 1950s and a number of sets with supercritical steam conditions were installed in 1950s and 60s. Subsequently, the trend was reversed in respect of the steam conditions
FIG. 2 : DEVELOPMENT OF UNIT SIZES AND STEAM PARAMETERS IN JAPAN [1]
FIG. 3 : POWER PLANT EFFICIENCIES IN JAPAN [1]
but the capacity of individual sets, however, continued to increase till a limit with the existing fabrication and handling technologies has been reached. The reversal in steam conditions is primarily the result of experience in 1960s and 70s when several newly commissioned plants with advanced steam conditions did not live up to expectation in respect of availability of sets caused by operational problems. Initially, the performance of the supercritical plants was so poor that many utilities experienced considerable downtime and significant financial loss [2]. Consequently, it created misconception that improved efficiency sacrifices reliability and there was rapid retrenchment to subcritical units on the assumption that they would be more reliable. Therefore, plants with operating temperature of 538C received a wide favour in late 1960s and 70s. However, the concerted efforts of designers in liaison with metallurgists and material scientists in understanding of initial problems and taking corrective steps led to a great deal of improvement in plant performance. Analysis of the historical
records and the stock of accomplishments of supercritical plants show that their reliability is comparable to the conventional units [3-5]. The two oil crises in 1973 and 1978 which caused a drastic increase in fuel cost and the encouraging operational results now available from earlier supercritical units prompted a renewed interest in supercritical conditions to make the best use of the heat rate advantage provided by these advancements [6-9].
1.1
Potential Benefits
Material development work over the past two decades has paved the way for large thermal power plants to be built today with live steam temperatures of 610C, reheat temperatures of 625C and supercritical steam pressures. The likely potential for reducing the heat rate by increasing the pressure and temperature of the steam admitted to the turbine on the basis of single and double reheating is shown in Fig.4 [10]. At live steam conditions of 600C and 300 bar with double reheating, for example, the heat
FIG. 4 : NET HEAT RATE IMPROVEMENT FOR SINGLE AND DOUBLE REHEAT CYCLES [10]
rate can be reduced by 8% compared with the heat rate of today's standard power stations featuring steam parameters of 540C/180 bar and single reheat. This improvement in thermal efficiency helps considerably to conserve fuel resources and reduce CO2 emission by 20%. This is a substantial contribution on the part of power generating industries towards achieving the Germany's target of lowering CO2 emission by 25-30% by 2005 [10]. This objective requires an ambitious development programme for advanced materials, which can withstand such steam conditions. The research programme has been undertaken simultaneously by USA, Japan and European nations. It has focused on developing further the existing high-temperatureresistant ferritic martensitic 12% CrMoV Steels for the production of rotors, casings and chests, pipes and headers capable of operating at 593C, as well as further development of the existing hightemperature austenitic steels suitable for inlet steam temperatures up to 649C. For smaller highly stressed components such as first stage moving
blades and bolts, the objective was to employ and further develop existing high-temperature-resistant superalloys eg. Nim 80A and 90 etc. Further development of ferritic steels geared to inlet steam temperatures up to approximately 625C in the context of COST 501 European research programme was spurred by research activities in USA and Japan. Figure-5 gives an overview of the international research programmes aimed at developing power plant materials[10]. Today, 65 partners from 13 countries are involved in the European programme backed by a research budget of some DM31 million. In the case of pulverized-coal-fired boilers, even a marginal improvement in plant efficiency, say from 34 to 37%, is reported to bring a savings of at least $5 million a year for each 1000 MW of capacity [2]. However, in estimating the actual gains, the plant net heat rate gain should be weighed against the increase in total plant cost. Increase in steam parameters requires more expensive materials of construction as these advancements increase the severity of the service conditions the components must undergo.
FIG. 5 : INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH PROGRAMMES FOR DEVELOPING ADVANCED STEAM CYCLE PLANTS [10]
A study funded by Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), USA, suggested 750 MW unit as optimal size for the advanced steam conditions offering a 10% improvement in thermal efficiency, compared with present commercial designs [2]. The technology promises a drop in heat rate of as much as 865 Btu/ kWh. Assuming a first year fuel cost of $1.38/865 BTU/kWh, the study concluded that cost savings in operation could go as high as $160 million (1978 value) over the plant's life time. Capital costs, on the other hand, are estimated to be 3 to 5% more than those for conventional capacity ($800/kW versus $775/kW). Keeping in view the current high and escalating level of fuel and capital costs, the potential fuel savings, increasing environmental consciousness, the supercritical steam conditions with advanced materials offer significant benefits that require serious attention in selecting future capacity additions. However, it is necessary to consider local conditions such as grid size, expected annual utilisation period, cycling duty requirements, fuel cost etc. to work out optimal unit capacity and operational conditions including the number of reheats.
Environmental conditions in several cases have proved to be important in the availability of the plant. Operational errors in the water treatment led to stress corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steel tubes in some power stations [5]. Due to wide spread deterioration of the quality of coals in several countries, a number of power stations experienced fire side corrosion of tubes. In such places, new subcritical power units installed in the same period also showed similar reduced availability [2]. Supercritical units under those conditions required a quite uneconomic purification of basic fuels [13]. In case of oil-fired or dual-fired boilers, austenitic stainless steel superheater tubes suffered from excessive corrosion problem.
1.3
Present Trend
1.2
Service Experience
Based on the operating data from supercritical double reheat units in the range from 600-825 MW plant sizes, Westinghouse and GEC reported [2] that they achieved average availability of 80%. This is higher than the average availability of 600-825 MW units as a whole and is comparable to that of small units. A VGB evaluation also shows that the operational availability of their supercritical plants is approximately the same as with sub-critical units [5]. Average forced outage rates for the period 1970-83 for ABB turbine operating with supercritical main steam pressures in several countries in Europe was only about 1% [8]. A 100 MW steam turbine has been operating for several ten thousand hours in USSR, as a test unit under steam conditions of 29.4 MPa and 630-650C and reheat steam conditions of 3 MPa and 565C. This unit was designed with cooling of many elements of HP housing and the operating experience shows that it is highly reliable [9].
Encouraging operational history of the earlier supercritical units, availability of more versatile materials at a reasonable cost, progress in design tools such as computer programmes, experience gained in the designing and manufacture of large steam turbines and the continuously increasing trend of fuel cost, all together prompted several leading power plant suppliers, in the recent past, to revive their interest in units with advanced steam conditions. To avoid any technical risk, the development programmes have been planned in a phased manner. Two such programmes were launched independently on similar lines by the EPRI [9] and Toshiba Corporation, Japan [7]. Since most of the conventional materials readily available are expected to meet at least for the first two phases, the developmental programmes mainly concentrated in rationalizing the designs through computer-aided programmed and in perfecting the manufacturing technologies especially in the case of large-sized components. Having completed such exercises for the units of 700 MW capacity with steam conditions of 566/566/566C and 32.2 MPa, both EPRI and Toshiba are expected to take up their production, while the developmental activities to meet the remaining two phases will continue to progress. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd., Japan,
5
on the other hand, since they have already supplied five out of the ten 450 MW steam turbines now in operation in Japan with steam temperatures of 566C, is already making proof tests of material and turbine elements, using an actual power plant, for steam temperatures of 590-650C. A 50 MW prototype unit manufactured by Mitsubishi with steam temperature of 590-650C was put into operation in the year 1987 [6]. At present, many of the units up to the sizes of 1000MW are operating in Europe, USA and Japan with the steam parameters of 600/610/610C temperature and 300 bar pressure.
6. 7.
Ability to be fabricated with ease, as by machining, forging, casting and welding. Low coefficient of thermal expansion to resist the thermal stresses imposed by differential temperatures and thermal cycling or shocks during heat treatment, welding and operation. Good thermal conductivity for efficient heat transfer and to minimise thermal gradient along the wall thickness of the thick walled components so as to reduce thermal stresses during start-up or quenching due to carry over. Low density to provide a high strength-toweight ratio for applications such as the last stage blading of the large capacity steam turbines.
8.
2.
REQUIREMENTS OF MATERIALS FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS
9.
When a unit has to be designed and built to a high integrity, one of starting points is concerned with the choice of materials. As shown by the experience gained, this assumes additional emphasis with the supercritical sets as the equipment reliability and availability otherwise may nullify the performance benefits expected to accrue from the advancements in technology. Generally speaking, the proper material for use at elevated temperatures is the one that best meets the following requirements at the lowest cost: 1. Adequate strength to resist deformation and rupture when exposed at the design conditions for the designed life, to the operating environment. Adequate fatigue strength at the design conditions and damping capacity when vibratory stresses are involved. Sufficient ductility to accommodate cumulative plastic strain and notch strength to resist stress concentrations during the service life. Good resistance to service environment to withstand oxidation, corrosion and erosion. Structural stability to resist damaging metallurgical changes at operating conditions.
10. Availability in the desired size and shape. 11. Enough long-term test data to allow sufficient high-temperature analysis to validate the design to the satisfaction of the safety regulations and licensing authorities. The power plants have depended mainly on the lowalloy steels for metal temperatures up to about 580C. At temperatures above this level, their resistance to creep is such that the resulting wall thickness becomes uneconomical. Also, their oxidation resistance at higher temperatures is not sufficient. With increased metal temperatures above 580C, austenitic stainless steels were employed for most of the power plant components designed in early 1950s. However, austenitic stainless steels, though they are superior in high-temperature strength, have problems such as steam oxidation, and hightemperature corrosion in oil-fired boilers. Further, they are very expensive, susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and give rise to weld problems. Ferritic steels, on the other hand, offer several technological advantages such as better workability, high thermal conductivity and lower coefficient of thermal expansion as compared to austenitic stainless steels. As a result, to bridge the gap between the low-alloy
2.
3.
4. 5.
ferritic steels and austenitic stainless steels, several high-alloy ferritic steels were developed during the last three to four decades. These include 5CrMo, 6CrMoVWTi, 7CrMoTi, 8CrMoTi, 9CrMo, 9CrMoVNb, 9CrMoWVNb, 12CrMoV and 12CrMoWVNb steels. Among these, 9Cr and 12Cr class of steels were extensively studied and successfully employed in several power stations. In fact, there are over two hundred grades of 12Cr steels with different trade names cited in the literature, of which a number of steels are generally used for different applications in gas turbines, and a few in thermal as well as nuclear power plants [14,15]. A brief list of materials is given in Tables-1 and 2. With the operating temperature around and above
600C, austenitic stainless steels are required to be used for high-temperature strength combined with resistance to environmental attack. Simple austenitic steels of type AISI 304, 316 and 347 have been extensively used for power plant components. But several complex austenitics of the type Essehete 1250, Alloy 800 H, 17-14CuMo, A286 and NF709 have been developed to give improved service performance around 650C. Based on the actual service conditions of a component, several higher alloys including nickel base alloys are also being considered as candidate materials for meeting exacting requirement to improve reliability. In view of the above, the candidate materials for advanced steam cycles are suggested, and the approaches to meet the higher steam cycles are discussed, in the following sections.
TABLE-1 : CANDIDATE MATERIALS FOR BOILER TUBES, PIPES AND HEADERS
Sl. No. Sub Critical 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. C-Mn Steel Mo (T1)
MATERIALS FOR BOILER TUBES AND PIPES Super Critical HCM2S (T23) 7 CrMoV TiB 10 10 (T24) X20 CrMoV 12 1 X10CrMoVNb 91 (T 91) X10CrMoWVNb 911 (E911) X10CrMoWVNb 92 (T 92-NF616) X10CrMoVNb 12 1 (T 122) X10CrNiMoTiB 15 15 X8CrNiMoVNb 16 13 X3CrNiMoNb 16 16 NF 709 Alloy 800 HR 3C HR6W AC66
1CrMoSi (T11) 2Cr1Mo (T22) X20 CrMoV 12 1 X10CrMoVNb 91 (T 91) AISI 304 AISI 310 AISI 316 AISI 321 AISI 347 E1250 17-14CuMo X10CrNiMoTiB 15 15 X8CrNiMoVnb 16 13
TABLE-2 : MATERIALS USED FOR THE ADVANCED STEAM TURBINES AT HIGH TEMPERATURES [47]
Component Casings/shells (Valves; steam chests; nozzle box; cylinders) Bolting
566C Cr MoV (cast) 10Cr MoVNb
620C 9-10%Cr (W) 12CrW (Co)
700C CF8C+ CCA617 Inconel 625 IN 718 Nimonic 263 Nimonic105 Nimonic115 Waspaloy IN 718 CCA617 CCA617 Haynes 230 Inconel 740 Wrought Ni Base CCA617
760C CCA617 Inconel 740
422 9-12% CrMo V Nimonic80A
9-12%CrMo V A286 IN 718
U700 U710 U720 Nimonic 105 Nimonic 115 CCA617 Inconel 740
Rotors/Discs
1 Cr MoV 12 CrMoVNbN 26NiCrMoV11 5 422 10 CrMoVNbN P22, P91
9-12% CrWCo 12CrMoWVNbN
Vanes/Blades Piping
9-12% CrWCo P91, P92
Wrought Ni Base Inconel 740
3. 3.1
BOILER MATERIALS Superheater and Reheater Tubing
superheaters. Table-1 lists candidate materials for superheater and reheater tubing for power plant applications. Figures-6 and 7 show their maximum
Superheater and reheater tubes operate in the creep range since their main function is to provide heat transfer between the hot flue gas and the Pressurised steam carried within them. They are, therefore, designed primarily based on the maximum allowable stress to rupture in 100,000 hours, as specified by the mandatory codes or standards. The other property bases for their selection are a combination of adequate corrosion resistance to both steam and the flue gas and ease of fabrication, particularly in regard to bending and welding. Reheaters receive partially expanded steam from the turbine and serve to raise its operating temperature to the required inlet level of the Intermediate pressure turbine. Consequently, they operate at lower pressure and are made of larger diameter but thinner walled tubes, as compared to
FIG. 6 : MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR VARIOUS BOILER GRADE STEELS [20]
FIG. 7 : 1,00,000H STRESS RUPTURE STRENGTH FOR BOILER MATERIALS [10]
allowable stresses and 100,000h stress rupture strength, respectively [14-20]. Carbon steels are suitable and economical up to about 400 to 450C metal temperature. Low-alloy steels Mo (SA209 T1), 1...Cr MoSi (SA213 T11) and 2...Cr1Mo (SA213 T22) are used widely for metal temperatures up to 480, 550 and 580C respectively [21]. T22 steel which has been extensively used for the final superheater for conventional units operating at a main steam temperature of 540C has too low a creep strength to be accepted as a final stage superheater material for use with a steam temperature of 565C. Though these steels can still be used for the tube banks operating up to their existing allowable temperatures in the boilers of supercritical units, with the increase in steam pressure their required wall thickness increases. There is a strong incentive in using improved carbon steels now available with higher allowable yield strength at lower temperatures up to 450C and in bringing down the temperature range of application of the low-alloy steels such that strong high-alloy ferritic
steels can be used to some extent even at steam temperatures slightly below 540C. This solution permits thickness of tubes less than those needed for the common low-alloy steels for the same operating conditions as shown in Fig. 8. This results in saving of base material and welding filler material, reduces thermal stresses and welding problems and also improves the heat transfer efficiency.
10CrMo9.10 NF616
X20
T91/P91
FIG. 8 : COMPARISON OF THE SIZE OF THE WALL THICKNESS OF P22, X20, P91 AND NF616 STEEL PIPES
As the boiler steam advances, the metal temperature of the last banks of the superheater tubes of the 565C unit exceeds the maximum allowable limit of the low-alloy steels. In these regions, high-alloy ferritic steels are required to be used. 9Cr1MoVNb (SA213T91) steel has improved oxidation resistance. The allowable stresses for 9Cr1MoVNb (SA213T91) are about 100% higher than T22 steel at temperatures above 540C and are even higher than X20 CrMoV 12 1 (DIN17175 - 1.4922) steel in the range of 500 to 650C. The other two high-alloy ferritic steels 9Cr1MoWVNb (SA213 T92) and X12CrMoWVNbN 10 11 (E911) developed in USA and Japan are much superior in their stress rupture strength as compared to all other ferritic steels including the 12Cr steel (X20 CrMoV 12 1) upto about 650C. Their allowable stresses are also higher than TP304H and TP321H at temperatures below 600C. 9Cr1MoVNb steel, due to its low carbon content exhibits good weldability and workability and has been giving satisfactory service as superheaters and reheaters, for over two decades in Japan [22]. X20 CrMoV 12 1 is also supplied with 0.4 to 0.6% tungsten, which is then designated as X20 CrMoWV 12 1 (DIN 17 175-1.4935) [15]. Addition of tungsten is reported to give greater creep strength than the steel without tungsten but, based on some long-time investigations no effect of tungsten has been found for additions up to 1% [14]. It is, however, reported to be beneficial for thick sections. Both X20 CrMoV 12 1 and X20 CrMoWV 12 1 were developed and extensively used in Europe for superheater and reheater tubes. These steels being martensitic grade have a strong self-hardening property. Due to the formation of martensite, the weld metal and the heat affected zone (HAZ) become very brittle on cooling. For better results, both preheat and post weld heat treatments are mandatory. 9Cr1MoVNb steel has been extensively studied for over two decades in USA and its tube samples are currently in service in the USA & UK [18]. Of the two V and Nb bearing 9Cr steels, this offers better rupture strength. Among the various high-alloy ferritic steels, X20 CrMoV 12 1, 9Cr1MoVNb (T/P91) and 9Cr1MoWVNb (T/P92) are the three most promising candidates for tubing.
P92 has an edge over the other two due to its high rupture strength. Austenitic steels would be required for final superheaters of 593C units and for most of the superheater and reheater of the 650C units. The design stress values derived by various boiler codes differ based on the approaches adopted by them. Similarly, ranking of austenitic steels 304, 316, 347, based on their allowable stresses varies depending on the code. However, 304, 316 and 347 type of tubes are widely used for operation at higher steam temperatures. TP347H type of tubes are extensively used in USA, Japan and Germany [5, 22] due to its superior properties such as resistance to fire-side corrosion, steam-side oxidation and higher thermal fatigue strength, as compared to 316 type of steel. Also, ASME Boilers code allows higher design stress for TP 347H as compared to TP316H type [15], whereas in the case of BSI, the reverse is true [26]. Type 347 and 321 steels are prone to strain-induced embrittlement due to the formation of strong carbides like NbC and TiC [26]. As a result, AISI 316 steel is preferred in U.K. For superheaters operating at the highest temperatures of the highpressure units, stronger austenitic steels like Incoloy 800H, 17-14 CuMo, Esshete 1250, NF616 and 1515N, X8CrNiMoNb 16 13 and X3CrNiMoN 17 13 would be required for reliable operation. For most exacting conditions, materials such as Inconel 617 which contains 12.5% Co, though very costly, may also have to be considered.
3.2
Steam Piping and Headers
Ferritic steels are preferred because of their higher thermal conductivities and lower coefficient of thermal expansion coupled with their good fabricability. High-strength high-alloy ferritic steels such as X20CrMoV 12 1, X20CrMoWV 12 1, 9Cr1MoVNb and 9Cr1MoWVNb are, therefore, employed for temperatures up to 625C. These steels are, however, subject to temper embrittlement in the temperature range of 540 to 595C, where advanced supercritical steam power plants operate. Though the temper embrittlement behaviour is not likely to have any
10
effect on their use for piping, it can be controlled by maintaining low levels of manganese and silicon contents [9]. Also low levels of sulphur should be maintained, as the toughness of these steels is very sensitive to sulphur content. At 650C steam condition, it is necessary to use higher-strength austenitic steels. Niobium stabilized austenitic steels of the type 347 are preferred in Germany because of their high fatigue strength and superior steam-side oxidation as compared to niobiumfree steels [27]. Due to temperature-constrained expansion during and after welding, niobium steels should be used in the case of wall thickness up to 30mm, whereas niobium-free austenitic steels X8CrNiMoNb 16 13 and X3 CrNiMoN 17 13 are desirable for thick walled pipes. In case of 316 stainless steel, main steam pipe failure due to sigma phase formation was reported [9]. Extensive database up to about 100,000 hours available on Esshete 1250, NF709, HR6W steels confirm their reliability for steam pipe and header application [19, 46].
3.2.1 FIRE-SIDE CORROSION
most severe. Alkali sulphate corrosion rate decreases with the increase in chromium content and a superior resistance can be obtained with chromium contents of over 25% (Fig.9) [30]. Simulated liquid ash corrosion tests carried out on different superheater tubing alloys show that their resistance vary widely as shown in Fig.10 [31]. Amongst the alloys tested,
In coal-fired boilers, the ash corrosion results from the formation of complex alkali iron sulphates in ash deposits, which become aggressive in molten state. The severity of liquid ash corrosion varies with temperature and follows a bell-shaped curve [29]. Corrosion increases sharply from about 595C to 700C. Below 595C, the corrodents in the ash deposits will be in a fairly dry state and therefore do not aggressively attack the tubes. As the temperature is increased up to about 700C, the corrodents become molten and the corrosion rate increases. With further increase in temperature, the molted sulphates begin to vaporize and become unstable, decreasing the corrosion rate. Superheaters and reheaters of the supercritical plants at 566C operate close to the beginning of the bellshaped curve. 9Cr and 12Cr tubes should be good enough to serve without experiencing any significant fireside corrosion. But the final superheaters and reheaters of the plants at 593C and 649C would operate at the apex of the curve, where corrosion is
FIG. 9 : COMPARISON OF FIRE-SIDE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF VARIOUS ALLOYS [31]
FIG. 10 : HOT-CORROSION WEIGHT-LOSS wrt Cr CONTENT FOR VARIOUS ALLOYS [30]
11
the 17-14CuMo austenitic steel used for superheater tubing in Eddystone unit [9] experienced the highest corrosion rate, while the Inconel 671 (50Cr-50Ni) alloy was practically immune to liquid ash corrosion. It can also be seen that the 17-14 Cu Mo alloy, on chromizing, exhibits liquid ash corrosion resistance almost similar to Inconel 671. There are various potential means of overcoming the coal ash corrosion problem of superheater tubing such as bandage shields of more corrosion-resistant materials, surface coatings, grain refinement and composite tubes. Bandage shielding decreases heat transfer efficiency because of the insulating air gap, and it may also result in significant increase in corrosion rate of nonbandaged tubing [32]. Surface coatings such as chromizing [33], chromating [22], chromium plating [33] and calorizing [32] have been attempted. These methods require further detailed study for their effect on fabrication, ductility and high-temperature creep strength. However, studies carried out on a chromized austenitic steel showed encouraging results [33]. Since both outside surfaces can be chromized at the same time, it appears to be a promising approach to prevent corrosion of both the surfaces. Grain refinement promotes the grain boundary diffusion of chromium to the surface [22]. This results in improved corrosion resistance [20] but it has an adverse effect on the rupture strength of the material. For most advanced supercritical steam conditions and under highly aggressive service conditions generated for combustion of coal with high chlorine contents where a single material cannot provide an economically viable solution, technical advantage provided by two different materials can be utilised by employing composite tubes. Composite tubes are produced by co-extrusion of two different materials comprising a high-strength inner material such as Essehete 1250, alloy 800H, 17-14 Cu Mo to provide the stress-bearing capacity and an outer casing of material of high chromium content like TP310 or Inconel 671 for protection against corrosion. The problems expected from such tubing are thermal fatigue, welding and sigma phase formation in outer casing [28]. The service performance for several years in a number of power stations, however, confirms the integrity and
economics of using composite tubes [19]. For demanding environmental applications, it may sometimes be necessary to select even nickel or cobalt base alloys, provided economics permit.
3.2.2 STEAM-SIDE OXIDATION
General experience indicates that the oxidation resistance of high-temperature steels in dry superheated steam is almost the same as their oxidation resistance to air at the corresponding temperature [26]. The oxide scales formed on the internal surface of superheater tubes, reheater tubes, headers and piping spall off, or exfoliate, when the thermal stresses due to differential thermal expansion between the oxide scale and the base metal exceed the bond strength of oxide scale. 9Cr and 12Cr steels, due to their low coefficient of thermal expansion, offer better resistance to oxide exfoliation as compared to austenitic steels, in the temperature range of their application. The spalled oxides can be severe enough to clog the bends in superheater and reheater tubing, eventually leading to overheat failures. At high steam pressures, these oxides from headers and steam pipes can be carried to the turbine at high velocities and cause turbine erosion. Turbine erosion damage not only causes a loss in efficiency but also is expensive to repair and increases the time of turbine overhaul outages [34]. It was reported that the erosion damage had led to the destruction of a turbine. Since the rate of steam oxidation varies exponentially with temperature [35], exfoliation can be much more of a threat to advanced supercritical steam plants. Amongst the conventional austenitic stainless steels, TP347H provides better resistance to both fire-side corrosion and steam oxidation, presumably due to its high chromium content. Steam oxidation, as in the case of fire-side corrosion, is a function of chromium content in the inner surface of the tube. To overcome steam oxidation problem, several methods such as chromizing, chromating, grain size refinement and cold working of the inner surface through shot peening/blasting, all of which increase the chromium content at the surface, are applicable. Chromizing being a very high-temperature process, is applicable to only new
12
and replacement components. Chromating, on the other hand, can be performed at lower temperatures and even on assembled parts. Both grain refinement and surface shot peening methods aim at enhancing the chromium diffusion rate to the surface, but their effect is lost during the process of welding or when stress relief annealing has to be carried out after bending. Combination of chromizing and chromating techniques seems to be the best choice to overcome the environmental problems.
4.
TURBINE MATERIALS
start-up and shut-down periods, must also be taken into account. Figure-11 shows the temperature range for application of different grades of steels [4]. It is clear that the low-alloy ferritic steels are limited to use at temperatures up to about 550C, and their range of application further decreases for rotating components. Table-2 gives a list of candidate materials of interest, and Fig. 11 depicts their 100,000h rupture strength as a function of temperature [4, 5, 36, 37, 38]. For the sake of comparison and completeness, some of the low-alloy ferritic steels are also included.
In the case of turbine, the advancement in steam conditions mainly affects its high pressure (HP) and intermediate pressure (IP) sections. As a result, the associated rotations as well as stationary parts of these sections experience more severe service conditions than that of conventional sets. Since they operate well within the creep range, their design is based primarily on the long-term creep strength of the material, but the stress levels during steady and non-steady operating conditions, particularly during
4.1
HP/IP Rotors
As can be seen from Fig.11, 12Cr steel can be employed for HP/IP turbine rotors at 566C steam temperatures. X22 CrMoV 121 has been successfully used for rotors of the supercritical units for many years. With rotor cooling, it can also be used up to 595C. Both EPRI [9] and Toshiba [9] have chosen 12Cr steel for HP and IP rotors of turbines for operation at 566C. Their advanced designs at
FIG. 11 : 1,00,000H CREEP STRENGTH FOR STEAM TURBINE APPLICATIONS [10]
13
593C contemplate the use of 12Cr steel rotor with steam cooling to bring the rotor temperature down to 566C, where its creep strength is adequate to meet the design pressure. However, presently several super 12Cr steels with much superior creep resistance are available and they should also be considered before a final decision is taken. Above 593C steam temperature, X12CrMoWVNbN 10 11 and austenitic stainless steel must be considered. Amongst the austenitic steels, A286 and X8CrNiMoBNb 16 16 offer better creep strength for an HP rotor of advanced sets operating at 649C. One of the rotor-related problems is the maximum size that can be produced from the 12Cr and austenitic steels. Due to severe segregation in conventional ingots, the size of the austenitic steel rotors used in earlier supercritical units was limited to small size, as a result of which, it became necessary to divide the HP turbine into two stages [9]. It is estimated that a large advanced plant would require a one-piece super-alloy HP rotor forging weighing 11,300 kg with a barrel diameter of 890mm. Similarly, a double-flow reheat rotor made of 12Cr steel is expected to be about 1150mm in diameter and 31,750 kg in weight, which would require to start with an ingot size of 63,500 kg [9]. Significant progress has been made, in recent years, in increasing the size as well as the quality of the forging by employing modern steel making techniques such as low sulfur silicon deoxidation (low S), vacuum oxygen decarburization (VOD), vacuum carbon deoxidation (VCD), central zone refining (CZR), electro slag hot topping (ESHT) and electro slag remelting (ESR). By employing these techniques, either individually or in combination, production experience with low-alloy ferritic [39], 12Cr as well as austenitic steels [4, 40] demonstrate that the rotors of the candidates materials can be made to the required size and quality without experiencing much problems.
variety of high-temperature blade materials with proven service performance in large gas turbines are available, and they should be considered for more advanced steam conditions. These include super 12Cr steels, austenitic steels, Nimonic 80A, 90, 105, 115, In718 and precision casting alloys such as Udimet 500 and IN 738LC.
4.3
LP Rotor
The principal requirements of material for lowpressure (LP) rotor are high yield strength to withstand the high stress imposed on it by long blades and high fracture toughness to minimize subcritical flaw growth so as to avoid the possibility of fast fracture. 3.5NiCrMoV steel is widely used for LP rotor throughout the power industry. To avoid temper embrittlement, the maximum operating temperature of the LP rotor made of this steel is generally limited to about 350C [9]. The inlet steam temperature to LP turbine of the supercritical units, on the other hand, is dictated by the exhaust steam from the second IP section. The IP-LP crossover temperature from advanced supercritical units at steam temperatures of 593C and above would be 400-455C [9]. To maintain the inlet steam temperature of LP turbine at its present maximum allowable limit, it would be necessary to cool the steam either through cooling of the rotor or by adding an additional stage of expansion to the IP turbine. The latter approach would be a difficult design task, as it requires usage of long blades at high temperature, whereas the former approach has to sacrifice a part of the thermal efficiency. Another approach to the problem would be to render LP rotor material more resistant to temper embrittlement [41]. Efforts are, therefore, being made to improve the fracture toughness of the IP rotor steel by improved steel making technology and closer control of chemical composition. The interaction between Mn, Si, P and Sn was shown to have promoted the degree of temper embrittlement [41]. Resistance to temper embrittlement of 3.5NiCrMoV rotor steel with low Mn and low Si contents was found to have greatly improved as
14
4.2
Blading
Conventional 12CrMoV steel blades are adequate to meet the steam temperature at 566C. But a wide
compared to conventional steel [9]. By utilising the modern steel making technologies, it is now possible to decrease both Mn and Si contents to levels of 0.001 - 0.002%.
rate gain achieved by elevating the steam parameters. In addition, rotor cooling complicates the design of the turbine and its external piping, and calls for an overall economic justification in final selection of the candidate materials. Since the outer casing is subjected to cooler and lowpressure steam as compared to the other casing, this could be still made of the conventional low-alloy ferritic steel.
4.4
Heavy Section Stationary Parts
High-pressure turbine requires a number of heavy section static components such as the inner and outer casings, static components such as the inner and outer casings, the steam valve, the nozzle box, and the inlet pipe. Besides high temperature and pressure, these parts are subject to thermal cycling. If the section sizes are very high, there is a danger of experiencing thermal cracking as a result of the heavy thermal stresses that might develop during start-up or carryover. It is, therefore, desirable to minimize the section size by using high-strength steel so as to reduce thermal stresses. Depending on the stresses and the required wall thicknesses, it might be advisable to employ 12Cr steel at temperatures lower than 566C and austenitic steels at temperatures as low as 566C. This could be advantageous especially in the case of high-pressure units designed for 31 MPa and above. Given the choice, forgings are preferred as they allow thinner sections but it would be economical to use castings. Toshiba [7] will be using a 12Cr cast steel (10CrMoVNbN) for these parts of the units at 566C, whereas EPRI [9] intends to give preference to forgings for the initial advanced units. In order to minimize differential thermal expansion, it is desirable to make the rotor and the stationary parts of the turbine of the same material. However, for 593C units, it is likely that the rotor would be made of 12Cr steel, while the inner casing would be made of austenitic steel. Under such circumstances, shaft seals must be used to accommodate the greater thermal expansion of the casing. Larger clearances are required to be given, when austenitic steels are employed for rotating and stationary parts, for most advanced steam conditions. Both the design requirements, 12Cr rotor cooling at 593C and larger clearance to be provided with austenitic steels at higher temperatures, adversely affect the cycle efficiency. This, in turn, partly reduces the net heat
4.5
Transition Weld Joints
In cases where main steam piping and the outer casing are made of austenitic and low-alloy ferritic steels, respectively, the inlet piping to the turbine will have to utilize transition joints. An approach suggested to this problem is to make the joint in three sections, utilising a material of intermediate thermal expansion coefficient such as Alloy 800H in between the pipe and the casing with nickel-based filler metal for welding. Nickel-based filler metal improves the rupture life as much as five times more than the austenitic filler metals. Due care must also be taken in design to minimize bending stresses, as life of transition joints is greatly reduced if bending stresses are superimposed upon stresses from thermal expansion.
4.6
Bolting
Bolts and studs are used in many joints of the turbine, which need to be separated for maintenance or repairs, as for example, castings and valves. The bolts and studs differ from all other turbine components in that they are notched, subjected to cold as well as hot stressing and a varying pattern to stressing due to practice of tightening and retightening. The strain to which bolts are tightened is based on both the properties of the materials and the design practice. The usual strain applied in UK is 0.15% [44], whilst it is 0.2% in Germany [36]. The elastic strain produced by the initial tightening of the bolts is progressively converted to creep strain, thereby reducing the effective load on the joint. Bolts for turbine parts are required to possess
15
sufficient resistance to stress relaxation to maintain flange toughness against internal steam pressure at least for the period between overhauls and should be re-usable throughout the life of the plant. In addition, bolting materials must have coefficient of thermal expansion close to that of flange material, high proof strength, good notch rupture ductility and resistance to embrittlement. The stress relaxation behaviour of bolting materials that have already demonstrated their successful service performance in power stations is shown in Fig.12 [36, 45]. 1Cr1MoVTiB steel, which is extensively used in the conventional units manufactured in the country, can still be used for outer casing joints of the supercritical units, but it is desirable to use 12Cr steel for inner casing flange bolts. At steam temperature of 566C, the difference in the stress relaxation behaviour of these two steels, as shown in Fig.12, is as a result of the difference in their initial strain. But, at the same initial strain level of 0.15%, 12Cr bolting steels possess better resistance to stress relaxation. In some of the earlier units, 12Cr bolts were also used at higher temperatures through steam cooling [13]. Since the 12Cr bolts undergo extensive stress relaxation at 593C, consideration is being given by EPRI to a number of high-strength nickel-based bolting
materials. For units at 649C steam temperature, nickel-based bolting materials are required to be used, as the austenitic steel bolts are not strong enough to meet the requirement. Based on a critical survey of worldwide experience and stress relaxation tests, Incoloy X750, Nimonic 80A, Nimonic 90, Refractaloy 26 and PER 2B have been identified as the best candidates for use up to 650C.
5.
i)
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The quest for lower-cost power generation led to a rapid progress in the steam conditions, reheat cycles and output capacity of the power plants during 1950s and 60s. Supercritical power plants offer considerable gain in heat rate. During the last two decades, ferriticmartensitic 9 to 12% Cr steels have been developed under international research programmes, which permit (live) inlet steam temperatures for thermal power stations up to approximately 610C, pressures of up to about 300 bar and reheat temperatures up to about 625C. The results have been improvements in efficiency of around 8% versus conventional steam parameters.
ii)
iii) The newly developed 9-12% Cr steels are already being used in 12 European and 34 Japanese power stations with inlet steam temperatures of up to about 610C. The experience with the components made of these steels has been decidedly positive. iv) Advancements in steam parameters increase the severity of the service conditions that materials must undergo. The presently available low and high alloy ferritic steels with proven service experience can meet the requirements of both boiler and steam turbine components of units designed for steam temperature at 600C.
FIG. 12 : COMPARISON OF 30,000H RELAXED STRESS FOR BOLTING MATERIALS [20]
v)
For advanced steam plants of temperatures
16
above 600C, austenitic steels are required to be employed for final stages of super heaters and static components of the steam turbine, such as inner casing, steam valve and nozzle block. 12Cr steel can be used for HP/IP rotors subject to reliable design for cooling them so as to bring the material temperature down to 566C. vi) At steam temperatures of 649C/621C, high-strength martensitic steels are required for HP/IP steam turbine rotors and stationary components. Preventive measures such as application of composite or chromized tubes to withstand fireside corrosion of superheater and reheaters as well as steps to minimize steam-side oxidation should be taken. vii) For steam turbine blading and bolting at temperatures above 593C, materials such as Nimonics and Refractaloy 26 etc. should be considered. viii) To meet the IP-LP crossover temperature for units at steam temperatures of 593C and above, it is necessary to improve the temper embrittlement of the existing 3.5NiCrMoV LP rotors steel, by employing modern steel making techniques to eliminate elements such as Mn, Si, P and Sn. Alternatively, the steam should be cooled in the IP turbine to limit the LP inlet steam temperature to the existing maximum allowable level of about 350C.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Haas, H., et al., Proc. Amer. Power Conf., 44, 1982, 330 Schneider, A., VGB Kraftwerkstechnilk, 58, 1978, 168 Kawai, T., Turbomachinery International, 25, March 1984, 34 Akiba, M. and Aizawa, K., Turbomachinery International, 25, March 1984, 37 Muhlhauser, H., Brown Boveri Review, 71, 1984, 120 Gold, M. and Jaffee, R.I., J. Materials for Energy Systems, 6, 1984, 138
10. Mayer, K.H., et.al., 'New Materials for Improving the Efficiency of Fossil Fired Thermal Power Stations', VGB Power Tech, Jan 1998, 22-27 11. Trojanowskij, B.M., VGB Kraftwerkstechnik, 60 (1980) 525 12. Plastow, B., et al., Int. Conf. on Creep and Fatigue in Elevated Temperature Applications, Instn. Mech. Engrs. Sheffield, 1974, Paper C49/ 74 13. Gemmill, M.G., ASTM Jl. Testing and Evaluation, 2, 1974, 3 14. Briggs, J.Z. and Parker, T.D., 'Super 12% Cr Steels' Climax Molybdenum company, New York, NY, 1965 15. Section I, Power Boilers, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, ASME, New York, 1983 SI Edition, 176-227 16. Characteristics of HCM9M Steel Tubings for Boiler application, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd. (MHI) and Sumitomo Metal Industries Ltd. (SMI). July 1979. 17. Sumitomo, High Strength Boiler Tubes, SMI, 80-F-No.1081 18. Canonico, D.A., The factors that Influence the Selection of High Temperature Materials, presented at the National Symposium on Creep
17
References
1. Husemann, R.U., et.al., 'Processing and Practical Application of New Materials in Power Plant Constructions', VGB Kraftwerkstechnik, 75(3), 1995, 241-255 EPRI Journal, September 1981, 22 Spencer, R.C., Proc. Amer. Power Conf. 42, 1980, 225
2. 3.
Resistant Steels for Power Plants, BHEL R&D, Hyderabad (India), January 1983 19. Orr, J. and Nileswar, V.B., Stainless Steels-84, The Institute of Metals, London 1985, 533 20. Viswanathan, R., 'Damage Mechanisms and Life Assessment of High Temperature Components,' ASM Intl., 1989 21. Ranganathan, S., et al., National Symposium on Creep Resistant Steels for Power Plants, BHEL R&D, Hyderabad (India), January 1983, Paper No. 1.03 22. Inoue, M., et al., The Sumitomo Search no. 29 Nov 1984, 64 23. Fricker, H. and Walser, B., Ferritic Steels for Fast Reactor Steam Generators, BNES, London, 1978,35 24. Properties of 9Cr steel tubes and pipes, SIM, 804-f-No. 1194, February 1984 25. Caubo, M., Improved ferritic steels for super heater tubing, ASME paper No. 63-WA-246, 1963 26. Gemmill, M.G., The technology and properties and ferrous alloys for high temperature use, George Newnes Ltd., London, 1966 27. Wyatt, L.M., Materials of construction for steam power plants, applied science publisher Ltd., London, 1976 28. Wyatt, L.M., Mat. Sci. and Engg., 1, 1971, 273 29. Koopman, J.G., et al., Proc. American Power Conf., 21, 1959, 236 30. Sumitomo, High alloy composite tubes for pulverized coal fired boiler application, SMI, 803-F-No. 1006 31. Ohtomo, A., et al., 'High temperature corrosion characteristicsof superheater tubes', IHI Engg. Rev., 16(4), October 1983 32. Flatly, T., and Lathom, E., Materials in power plants, spring residential course Instn. of Metallurgists, Chamelon press, London, 1975, 63
33. Sumitomo, Chromized stainless steel tubes, SMI 803-F-No. 1079, Jun 1983 34. Haberman, J.A., and Keyton, H., Proc. Amer. Power conf., 44, 1982, 1970 35. Rehn, I.M., et al., NACE corrosion 80, Chicago, IL, March 1980, Paper No. 192 36. Warmfeste Hochwarmfeste Werkstoffe Fur Schrauben and Mattern, Gutevorschriften, DIN 17240, July 1976 37. Wegst, G.W., Stahlschlussel, Verlag Stahlschlussel Wegst GmbH, 1983 38. Warmfester Ferritischer Stahlgu?, Tecchnische Lieferbedingungen, DIN17245, October, 1977 39. Swaminathan, V.P. and Jaffee, R.I., Metal Progress, 128, December 1985, 52 40. Manufacturing of Trial A 286 Rotor Forging, Kobe Steel, TKE 83-57, January 1984 41. Todeu, H., et al., Mitsubishi Power Systems Bulletin MBB-82113E, November 1982 42. Watanabe, J. and Murakami, Y., Proc. Amer. Petroleum Inst., 1981, 216 43. Viswanathan, R., et al., 'Dissimilar Metal Welds in Power Plants', Presented at AWSEPRI Conf. on Joining Dissimilar Metals, Pittsburgh, PA, August 1982 44. Branch, G.D., et al., Int. Conf. on Creep and fracture in Elevated Temperature Applications, Sheffield, 1974, Paper C192/73 45. British Steel Corporation's Data Sheets on Durehete 900 and Durehete 1055 Steels 46. Oakey, J.E., Pinder, L.W., Vanstone, R., Henderson, M. and Osgerby S, 'Review of status of advanced materials for power generation', Report no. COAL R224, DTI/ URN 02/1509, 2003 47. Wright, I.G., Maziasz, P.J., Ellis, F.V., Gibbons, T.B. and Woodford, D.A., 'Materials issues for turbines for operation in ultra supercritical steam', ORNL report, USA.
18
Mr. Kulvir Singh graduated in Metallurgical Engineering from University of Roorkee, (now IIT, Roorkee) in the year 1981. He completed M.Tech. (Metallurgy) from IIT, Kanpur, in 1983. Thereafter, Mr. Singh joined Metallurgy Department of Corporate R&D, BHEL, Hyderabad. Since the beginning, he was involved in indigenization of creep-resistant steels for steam turbine and boiler applications. Subsequently, he also studied structure property correlation and
creep crack growth behaviour of power plant steels. He has also carried out extensive studies on the creep-rupture behaviour of P91 and X20 steels, their weldments and simulated heat-affected zones. He is actively involved in residual life assessment of steam and gas turbine components. He is also working in the area of indigenous development of gas turbine buckets and heat treatment of steels by microwaves. His other activities include many important failure investigations of boiler, steam and gas turbine components and process industry equipment. He is currently working as Dy. General Manager and heading Creep Lab of the Metallurgy Department. Mr. Singh has published/presented over 50 technical papers in various national and international journals and conferences. He has also received BHEL Excel Award in the best Technical Paper category for the year 2003.
19
SELF-EXCITATION IN 3-PHASE SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION GENERATOR FOR WINDMILL APPLICATION

P.K. Khanna
SYNOPSIS
In India, there are certain areas where plenty of energy is available but it remains untapped. Wind energy is one such area. Also, it is well known that Induction Generators are best suited for power generation through windmill due to their simple construction. In this paper, an attempt has been made to describe how an Induction Generator can be made to get self-excitation and thus be used in any stand-alone situation, especially for windmill application.
functioning as a generator. In this type, it is always necessary that the machine runs above its synchronous speed and it should remain connected to power supply for excitation. (ii) In the second type, when a squirrel cage motor running near to its synchronous speed is switched off and simultaneously a capacitor bank is connected across the motor terminals, it starts functioning as a generator. This type is characterised by self-excitation. In this article, the second type of generator only (self-excitation type) has been discussed in detail.
Key Words:
Induction Generator; Self-Excitation; Stand-Alone.
1.
INTRODUCTION
3.
PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF THE SELF-EXCITATION TYPE
With the advancement of technology, a need is always felt to have as much simplification as is possible but with high reliability of operation. Induction Generator is one such category of machine, which is most simple in its construction, as well as in operation. As the name implies, the Induction Generator has a squirrel cage rotor. This obviates brush gear assembly, brushless excitation system or permanent magnet etc. as is necessary for other kind of generators. For excitation of the induction generator, a capacitor bank is used across the stator terminals. The main advantage of such generators is simple construction, low cost and high reliability.
When an Induction motor is running under steady state condition, an e.m.f. (E) exists across its stator winding. Now, if the speed of motor is maintained through a prime mover and supply to induction motor is switched off, simultaneously connecting it across a capacitor bank, there is a flow of excitation current in the stator winding as per the load line of capacitor (Fig. 1). This current produces rotating flux, which, in turn, induces e.m.f. in the stator winding. Under steady state conditions, the e.m.f. induced in the winding has a magnitude and direction the same as that of the original e.m.f.(E). Thus, the voltage E continues to be sustained.
2.
TYPES OF SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION GENERATOR

(i) In the first type, when a squirrel cage motor is run above its synchronous speed, it starts
4.
These are of two types:
PHENOMENON EXCITATION
OF
SELF-
The most important condition for self-excitation to take place is that there should be presence of residual
20
load line of capacitance is tangent to the critical slope and, thus, self-excitation does not take place. This phenomenon can be observed in a laboratory also by connecting three-phase supply to an Induction machine driven by a prime mover, At the rated speed, when the supply to the motor is switched off and simultaneously a capacitor bank is connected across it, a steady state voltage is generated at the motor terminals.
FIG. 1 : LOAD LINE OF CAPACITANCE CUTTING THE MAGNETISING CURVE
flux in the rotor. When a capacitor bank is connected across the stator winding after switching off its supply, capacitive current flows in the stator winding. Then the flux produced by this current aids the residual flux. The increase in flux increases the induced e.m.f. in the winding and this cycle continues till there is saturation. Under this condition, the steady state e.m.f. is given by the intersection of the magnetizing curve of motor with the capacitive load line. If the residual flux in the rotor is not sufficient, the self-excitation fails to occur and therefore, the voltage at the terminals does not build up. The slope of the motor magnetizing curve is called the critical slope. The size of the capacitors in the capacitor bank is chosen in such a way that its capacitive reactance is less than the critical slope of the magnetizing curve, otherwise self-excitation will not take place. Figure-2 shows the case in which the
The value of capacitance in the capacitor bank should neither be too low nor too high. If the value of capacitance is too low, self-excitation will not take place. If the value of capacitance is too high, there will be inadequate build-up of steady state voltage due to saturation of flux paths. Hence, there is a need to use optimum size of capacitor for proper build-up of voltage and also for keeping the cost of capacitor bank low.
5.
CONFIGURATIONS OF STATOR WINDING AND CAPACITOR BANK
There are various configurations of stator winding and capacitor bank, which are possible for the purpose of self-excitation, e.g.: (i) Star-connected stator winding and Starconnected capacitor bank (Fig. 3)
(ii) Star-connected stator winding and Deltaconnected capacitor bank.(Fig. 4)
FIG. 2 : LOAD LINE OF CAPACITANCE TANGENT TO THE MAGNETISING CURVE
STAR-CONNECTED STATOR WINDING FIG. 3
STAR-CONNECTED CAPACITOR BANK
21
STAR-CONNECTED STATOR WINDING FIG. 4
DELTA-CONNECTED CAPACITOR BANK
In all the above four cases, whenever the capacitors are connected in Delta, the value of capacitance required in each phase reduces to one third of its corresponding value in Star, but the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of the capacitors required becomes 3 times its corresponding value in Star connected capacitor bank. As far as performance of the Induction Generator is concerned, both Star and Delta connected capacitor banks are equivalent for a given connection of stator winding, and give the same performance.
6.
(iii) Delta-connected stator winding and Starconnected capacitor bank (Fig. 5) (iv) Delta-connected stator winding and Deltaconnected capacitor bank (Fig. 6)
INDUCTION GENERATOR ON LOAD (Fig. 7)
Under no-load condition, since only the magnetizing current is flowing through stator winding, voltage drop in stator winding is very small, and therefore the voltage at the generator terminals is almost equal to the induced e.m.f. in stator winding. When the Induction Generator is connected to a pure resistive load and current flows through stator winding, there is a voltage drop in the stator winding, which is usually less than 5% of the induced e.m.f. Now, if the load current is increased further, then at a certain point, where the critical slope of magnetizing curve coincides with the load line of capacitor, the Induction Generator stops
DELTA-CONNECTED STATOR WINDING FIG. 5
STAR-CONNECTED CAPACITOR BANK
DELTA-CONNECTED STATOR WINDING FIG. 6
DELTA-CONNECTED CAPACITOR BANK FIG. 7 : GENERATOR WITH LOAD
22
generating any voltage. Thus, in an Induction Generator with a resistive load, there is no possibility of overheating of the Induction Generator due to over-load / over-current. When there is an inductive load put across the generator, a part of the capacitive current due to capacitor bank will get neutralized by the inductive load current. Thus, the magnetizing current available to the generator will get reduced. Therefore, more capacitance will be required to be added in the capacitor bank for maintaining the terminal voltage of the Induction Generator.
To calculate the capacitance under full-load condition, the following procedure may be adopted: There will be a voltage drop of approx. 5% in terminal voltage due to resistive load. Inductive load current will have to be provided by capacitance. Hence, load line of capacitance with inductive load is drawn accordingly, as shown in Fig. 8. From this, back calculate the value of capacitance required under full-load condition. Generators of this type are best suited for resistive loads.
7.
DETERMINATION OF CAPACITANCE VALUE
8.
CIRCUIT TO EXCITATION
ENSURE
SELF-
The following procedure can be adopted for determining the value of capacitance required in the capacitor bank under no-load condition Draw the no-load characteristic of Induction Motor. Calculate the critical slope of the magnetizing current (Fig. 8). Draw a load line of capacitors having a slope less than the critical slope of magnetizing current. From this, back calculate the value of capacitance required under no-load condition.
Due to any reason, if there is no residual flux in the motor, the process of self-excitation can be initiated by connecting a battery momentarily across one of the capacitors of the capacitor bank (Fig. 9). With this, the capacitor bank gets charged and when it discharges through the stator winding, a flux is produced in the rotor of Induction Machine.
FIG. 9 : SELF-EXCITATION WITH THE AID OF BATTERY
9.
VOLTAGE REGULATION
FIG. 8 : DETERMINATION OF CAPACITANCE VALUE
Though in the above paragraphs, it has been presumed that at rated voltage the rotor core gets fully saturated, but practically the core is never saturated fully and thus, it would always result in large variation of the terminal voltage with respect to load current. This problem of drop in voltage
23
with load can be overcome in the following two ways: (i) Manual Voltage Regulator In this case, the variable capacitors are used in the capacitor bank in place of fixed capacitors. By manually varying the capacitance with respect to load, the terminal voltage can be maintained. While selecting the range for the variable capacitor, it should be ensured that the lower value of capacitance corresponds to load line of generator under no-load condition, and that the higher value of capacitance in the range corresponds to
load line of generator under fully-loaded condition. In this case, while starting, the generator operation must be started with lower value of capacitance across the terminals. (ii) Automatic Voltage Regulator In this case, there is a main capacitor bank, which is used for no-load operation of the generator. Then, a provision is kept for adding another capacitor bank in parallel to the first one when there is a dip in voltage at the terminals. Connection of another capacitor bank in parallel is achieved through an electronic circuit (Fig.10).
FIG. 10 : AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION OF INDUCTION GENERATOR
24
10.
CONCLUSION
Bibliography
1. S.S. Murthy, C.S. Jha and P.S. Nagendrarao, "Analysis of grid connected induction generators driven by hydro/wind turbine under realistic system constraints," in IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion, vol. 5, pp. 1-7, Mar. 1990. L. Shridhar, B. Singh, C.S. Jha and B.P. Singh, "Analysis of self-excited induction generator feeding induction motor," in IEEE Power Eng. Soc., Summer Meetings, 1994, pp. 1-7. L. Shridhar, B.Singh, C.S. Jha, B.P. Singh and S.S. Murthy, "Selection of capacitors for the self regulated short shunt self-excited induction generator," in IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion, vol. 10, pp. 10-17, Mar. 1995. S.P. Singh, Sanjay K. Jain and J. Sharma, "Voltage regulation optimization of compensated self-excited induction generator with dynamic load," in IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion, vol. 19, pp. 724-732, Dec. 2004.
The Induction Machine when operated as a Generator always requires its excitation from outside. Either it remains connected to the supply if it is to feed power to grid or its excitation can be provided through a capacitor bank if it is feeding power to a stand-alone system. In stand-alone system like wind mill installed in a remote area having no grid power supply, there are various options available for providing the necessary excitation to Induction Generator and also for maintaining a constant terminal voltage at different loads.
2.
3.
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to Sh S.K. Goyal, GGM, Corp. R & D, BHEL, Hyderabad, for his continuous encouragement and guidance in writing this paper. Thanks are also due to Sh M.S. Dhami, AGM (EME) & Sh S.C. Goel, SDGM (MM) for their support and help in completing this paper.
4.
Mr. P.K. Khanna graduated in Electrical Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, in the year 1979. Mr. Khanna joined BHEL, Haridwar, as an Engineer Trainee in 1979 and was posted in AC Machines Engineering Department. For more than 24 years,
he has been involved in the electrical & mechanical design of various capacities of tailor-made AC motors for Thermal Power Station, Irrigation, Cement, Petrochemical and other Industries. He has also undertaken retrofit jobs to develop complete design of AC motors to replace non-BHEL-make AC motors for various customers. At present, he is working as Deputy General Manager in Electrical Machines Engineering at Haridwar and is involved in design and development of 300 MVA TARI Air Cooled Generator. Prior to this paper, Mr. Khanna has contributed one technical paper in an International Conference held at IIT, Roorkee, recently.
25
TURBOGENERATOR INDUCED VOLTAGE WAVEFORM COMPUTATION AND TELEPHONE HARMONIC CAPABILITY PREDICTION
C. Prem Kumar
SYNOPSIS
The Finite Element method has enabled accurate estimation of the magnetic field in electrical machines and devices. The approach has therefore made possible the accurate estimation of the various flux-related parameters the induced voltage magnitude being one among them. Though the machine characteristic curve or the open-circuit characteristic is readily deducible, the induced voltage waveform, however, is not. This paper presents details of a method for the computation of turbogenerator induced voltage waveform, its harmonic content and machine Telephone Harmonic Factor or the Telephone Interference Factor all at design stage.
the air gap. Therefore, only a sinusoidal wave of the airgap flux density can result in a sine-wave induced voltage. Several factors such as rotor saturation, shape of the rotor core and the style of field coil disposition render realisation of a sinusoidal airgap flux wave impossible. This article details an approach to the evaluation of induced voltage waveform in a turbogenerator, quantification of harmonic voltage magnitudes and computation of Telephone Harmonic capability of the machine all at design stage.
2.
FE ANALYSIS
Key Words:
Voltage Waveform; Harmonics; Synchronous Machines; Telephone Harmonic Capability.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Accurate evaluation of the magnetic field distributions in electrical machines has been made possible by the Finite Element method. Magnetic field-related machine parameters such as inductances, induced voltage magnitudes & waveforms, useful & stray fluxes, leakage co-efficients, induction-related losses, saturation effects etc, in turn, stand accurately evaluated. Though the open-circuit characteristic is readily deducible from the magnetic field mapping, the induced voltage waveform, however, is not. The time variation of the induced e.m.f in a conductor of the stator in a synchronous machine has the same form as the space distribution of the flux density in
Of the several approaches propagated, the FE method has found increasing acceptance from industry. The formulation of the FEM and its application to magnetic field analysis has been adequately detailed elsewhere[1 to 8]. The FE approach is the cheapest, fastest and certainly the surest way to the prediction of machine parameters at design stage. The field solution is only the first step in the analysis process. More important and relevant in industry are the machine parameters derivable from the field solutions. The availability of affordable desk-top computing power and the arrival of powerful menu-driven software have largely contributed to the acceptance of such methods in design offices[1,2].
2.1
Turbogenerator Magnetic Field at Noload
Prediction of the induced voltage waveform in a turbogenerator necessitates estimation of the no-load magnetic field distribution in the machine. At no26
load, the singly excited magnetic circuit of the turbogenerator presents a picture of symmetry both along the direct and quadrature axis. A symmetric quarter region of the machine cross-section extending from the direct axis to the adjacent quadrature axis is sufficient to evaluate the no-load parameters of a twopole turbogenerator. However, in the case of hydrogenerators, the region for analysis must also ensure symmetry of the stator slots. Figure-1 shows the flux distribution in a symmetric quarter section of a two-pole turbogenerator. The corresponding flux density distribution is shown in Fig. 2.
3.
AIR-GAP INDUCTION PROFILE
The airgap flux density profile can be extracted from the flux density plot by mapping the flux density on to an arc at the mean radius of the machine airgap. Figure-3 shows the radial component and the flux density magnitude mapped along a mean airgap line of the machine. As can be seen from the graph, the normal component of the flux density is equal to the magnitude of the flux density for a large portion of the curve except at the quadrature axis where the tangential component contributes significantly to the flux density magnitude. Of the two components of the airgap flux density, only the radial component contributes to the induced stator voltage while the peripheral component does not. In reality, the radial component of the airgap induction is very nearly equal to the total induction at every point in the airgap of the machine.
FIG. 1 : FLUX DISTRIBUTION AT NO-LOAD
FIG. 3 : AIRGAP FLUX DENSITY PROFILE AT NO-LOAD
3.1
Evaluating the Voltage Inducing Flux
FIG. 2 : FLUX DENSITY DISTRIBUTION AT NO-LOAD
The useful flux is defined as the flux linking the stator winding and causing the induced voltage. This flux is lesser than the total flux by the amount of leakage flux. The useful flux in a turbogenerator can be arrived at by integrating the radial component of the airgap induction along the afore-mentioned airgap line.
27
The expression for the useful flux per pole is given by u = {.dl}*LI*Sf*Mf (wb) where u B LI Sf Mf is the useful flux per pole in webers is the radial component of the airgap induction in Tesla is the nett length of iron in meters is the stacking factor(typically around 0.94) is the model factor (1)
Non-sinusoidal airgap inductions such as the one shown in Fig.3 can be resolved into a fundamental and higher-order components using Fourier Analysis. The symmetric airgap flux density wave results in the cancellation of even harmonics, leaving a space distribution comprising a fundamental and harmonics which are odd multiples of the fundamental [9,10,11]B = B1sin() + B3sin(3) + B5sin(5) + . . + Bnsin(n) (3) where B1 is the fundamental component of the airgap flux density and B3, B5 etc. are the third harmonic and fifth harmonic components respectively. Typical harmonic spectrum of the airgap induction for a turbogenerator is shown in Fig. 4. The decomposed representation of the airgap flux density distribution enables consideration of the machine as having 2p pairs of fundamental poles(fictitious), 6p pairs of poles contributing to third harmonic, 10p pairs of poles contributing to fifth harmonic component and, in general, 2np poles contributing to the nth harmonic component of the field form. The fundamental as well as the harmonic pole fluxes generate e.m.fs of corresponding frequency in the conductors, but the proportion of harmonics in the phase and line e.m.f waveform is reduced due to grouping and factors related to the stator winding disposition.
4.
INDUCED E.M.F COMPUTATION
The induced phase voltage in a 3-phase synchronous machine can readily be arrived at from the useful flux per pole computed earlier, together with certain stator winding details. The induced e.m.f per phase is given by [9,13,14]Eph = 4.44*kd*kp*f*Tph*[u] (Volts) where kd kp f Tph u is the stator winding distribution factor is the stator winding pitch factor is the frequency in Hertz is the number of series turns per phase of the stator winding is the useful flux per pole in webers. (2)
5.
HARMONIC ANALYSIS
The time variation of the induced e.m.f in a conductor of the stator winding in a turbogenerator has the same form as the space distribution of the flux density in the airgap. Therefore, only a sinusoidal wave of the airgap flux density can result in a sinewave induced voltage. Several factors such as rotor saturation, shape of the rotor core and the style of field coil disposition render realisation of a sinusoidal airgap flux wave impossible.
FIG. 4 : AIRGAP INDUCTION HARMONIC SPECTRUM
28
6.
INDUCED VOLTAGE WAVEFORM
The r.m.s induced voltage per phase due to the nth harmonic component of the flux density is given by [9,11,13,14,15] Eph n = 4.44 kdn kpn fn n Tph (Volts) (4)
where Eph n = r.m.s induced phase voltage due to the nth harmonic kdn = sin(n/2) / (n/2) is the distribution factor for nth harmonic kpn = sin(n/2) is the pitch factor for nth harmonic = nth harmonic frequency fn n = (Bn r.m.s*Li* /n) is the nth harmonic flux n = harmonic number = number of series turns per phase Tph
and = phase-belt angular width in elec. radian = coil-pitch in elec. radian Bn r.m.s = r.m.s value of the nth harmonic flux density = active length of iron Li = pole-pitch in air-gap The magnitude of the induced r.m.s voltage due to each of the harmonics can be evaluated using the above expression. The variation in time of the fundamental, harmonic and cumulative voltage computed using the procedure described above is shown in Fig. 5 for a synchronous generator whose line-to-line voltage is 11kV. And finally, the r.m.s value of the resultant phase voltage is given by [11,12,13] -
FIG. 5 : TYPICAL COMPUTED HARMONIC VOLTAGE PROFILES FOR A 11kV GENERATOR
29
Eph = [(Eph 1)2 + (Eph 3)2 + (Eph 5)2 + +(Eph n)2] (Volts) (Volts) (5) (5.a) Eph = Eph 1*[1 + (Eph 3 / Eph 1)2 + +(Eph n/Eph 1)2]
The value in the radical is very nearly unity, leading to the phase voltage being equal to fundamental alone since the harmonic magnitudes are small in comparison to the fundamental.
where En is the r.m.s value of the nth harmonic of the line-to-line terminal voltage U is the r.m.s value of the line-to-line terminal voltage of the machine is the weighting factor for frequency corresponding to nth harmonic
8.
"WAVE"THE CODE
SPREAD-SHEET
7.
TELEPHONE HARMONIC FACTOR
Telephone/Communication lines running parallel to power grid lines can experience severe interference by induction, resulting in hum and high pitch noise because of the presence of harmful frequencies in the grid. It is, therefore, necessary to limit the harmonic content in the output voltage waveform of every generator likely to be connected to the grid. The IEC test procedure and recommendations on the tolerable limits of telephone harmonic factor (THF) for synchronous machines is reproduced below 8.9.2 Limits : When tested on open circuit and at rated speed and voltage, the telephone harmonic factor(THF) of the line-to-line terminal voltage as measured according to the methods laid down in 8.9.3 shall not exceed the following values: Rated output of the machine 300kW(orKVA)< PN < 1000kW(orkVA) 1000kW(orKVA)< PN < 5000kW(orkVA) 5000kW(orKVA)< PN % THF 5.0% 3.0% 1.5%
The procedures detailed in the article have been coded into a design office utility package by name "WAVE". Exclusively developed for synchronous machines, the Microsoft Excel spread-sheet utility code computes and displays graphically the information on harmonic voltage magnitudes/ waveforms, cumulative voltage waveform and machine Telephone Harmonic Factor (THF) for each harmonic and cumulative value up to the 100th harmonic. The program has built-in logic to account for triplen harmonics and even harmonics from the computed values for line and phase quantities. The code is structured in two levels and spread over 12 sheets and can be tailored to suit individual design office requirements. An overview of the code follows : The Machine ID Section of the utility is an identifier section for design office documentation/ records and contains information on customer name, order number and machine nominal rating particulars. The program uses colour coding to distinguish unlocked input cells from locked coded cells. The Inputs Section seeks machine dimensional information such as gross length, number of radial ventilating ducts & their width, rotor diameter, stator inner diameter, coil-throw, bars per slot etc. These input details are made use of in the computation through formulae embedded in the cells (Fig. 6). The Computation Section uses the input data to compute harmonic winding factors, pole-pitch value for each harmonic, harmonic flux magnitudes,
30
The section 8.9.3 of IEC details the tests and the approach to be adopted for the measurement of synchronous machine THF. The THF capability of a machine is given by THF(%) = 100.(E12.2+E22.2+E32.2+ En2.2) U
FIG. 6 : THE INPUTS SHEET IN "WAVE"SPREAD-SHEET UTILITY
31
induced phase e.m.f due to each harmonic etc for the fundamental and harmonics up to the 100th. The program can detect and display the type of winding employed. The program can tackle both integral-slot and fractional-slot chorded winding which are very common with practical synchronous machines with two-pole cylindrical rotor constructions and multiple salient-pole low-speed hydrogenerators. The THF Section uses the embedded harmonic weighting factors to compute the individual and cumulative THF due to each harmonic up to predefined significant harmonic. This section also generates a plot of the %THF versus harmonic number, as shown in Fig. 7. Other Features : Graphical comparison of the relative magnitudes of fundamental and significant harmonics (up to13th) and its variation in time are
provided together with a zoom of significant harmonics. The IEC:1996 recommendations on the weighting factor for various frequencies to be used for the computation of Telephone Harmonic Factor (THF) have been built into the program. The airgap flux density harmonic magnitudes are used to reconstruct and compare with the original airgap induction curve.
9.
CONCLUSION
The Finite Element approach has been used for the accurate estimation of the magnetic field in a turbogenerator at no-load. Harmonic components of the airgap induction computed from the airgap induction profile have been used to arrive at the harmonic voltage magnitudes and the cumulative induced voltage waveform using a code specifically
FIG. 7 : THF CONTRIBUTION FROM INDIVIDUAL HARMONICS AND CUMULATIVE VARIATION WITH INCREASING HARMONIC NUMBER
32
developed. The analysis indicates that for a "n" slot machine, the (n-1)th harmonic and the (n+1)th harmonic are predominant[11]. The Telephone Harmonic Factor or the Telephone Interference Factor have been computed for the machine analysed. The harmonic levels of the airgap induction are dictated by the airgap induction profile which, in turn, reflects the radial airgap permeance presented by the magnetic boundaries constituted by the stator and rotor iron. A separate study investigating the dependance of THF on saturation in the machine is under way.
Electromagnetic Devices", IEEE Trans. on Magnetics, Vol. MAG-12, No.5, Sept1976, pp.575 to 578. (7) Mulukutla S.Sarma, "Magnetostatic Field Computation by Finite Element Formulation", IEEE. Trans. on Magnetics, Vol.MAG-12, No.6, Nov1976, pp1050 to 1052. (8) J.R. Brauer, E.A. Aronson et al,"Three Dimensional Finite Element Calculation of Saturable Magnetic Fluxes and Torques of an Actuator", IEEE. Trans. on Magnetics, Vol.MAG-24, No.1, January 1988, pp455 to 458. (9) M.G. Say, "The Performance and Design of Alternating Current Machines", Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, London. (10) Ralph R.Lawrence & Henry E. Richards, "Principles of Alternating Current Machinery", McGraw-Hill Book Company, USA. (11) Alexander S. Langsdorf, "Theory of AlternatingCurrent Machinery", McGraw-Hill Book Company, USA. (12) Robert L.Ames, "A.C. Generators: Design and Application",John Wiley & Sons, USA. (13) Mulukutla S. Sarma, "Synchronous Machines - Their Theory, Stability and Excitation Systems", Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, New York. (14) Essam S. Hamdi, "Design of Small Electrical Machines", John Wiley & Sons, USA. (15) Brian Chalmers & Alan Williamson, "A.C. Machines - Electromagnetics and Design", John Wiley & Sons Inc, USA.
References
(1) M.V.K. Chari, P.Silvester, "Analysis of Turboalternator Magnetic Fields by Finite Elements", IEEE Trans. on PAS, Vol-PAS-90, No:2, March-April 1971, pp.454 to 464. (2) M.V.K. Chari "Finite Element Analysis of Electrical Machinery and Devices", IEEE Trans. on Magnetics, Vol.MAG-16, No.5, Sept.1980, pp. 1014 to 1019. (3) M.V.K. Chari, "Nonlinear Finite Element Solution of Electrical Machines Under No-load and Full-Load Conditions", pp.686 to 689. (4) P.Silvester and M.V.K. Chari, "Finite Element solution of Saturable Magnetic Field Problems", IEEE. Trans. on PAS, Vol.PAS-89, No.7, SeptOct 1970, pp.1642 to 1651. (5) P. Silvester, H.S. Cabayan and B.T. Browne, "Efficient Techniques for Finite Element analysis of Electric Machines", IEEE Trans. on PAS, Vol.PAS-92 1971,pp.1274 to 1281. (6) Parviz Rafinejad et al,"Finite Element Computer Programs in Design of
33
R&D Division, Hyderabad, after a brief stint with M/s Oblum Electrical Industries, Hyderabad. Currently, he is working at the Electrical Machines Lab in the R&D Complex, as Senior Deputy General Manager. He specializes in the modelling and analysis of large rotating electrical machines using the Finite Element approach. Mr. C. Prem Kumar obtained his Engineering degree from Bangalore University in the year 1975. Mr. Prem Kumar joined BHEL at the Corporate Mr. Prem Kumar has several papers to his credit, published & presented in national & international forums.
34
EFFECT OF PRELOAD FACTOR AND WORN DEPTH ON THE DYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS AND STABILITY OF A LOADING ARC (WORN) TWO-LOBE BEARING USED IN TURBO-GENERATOR
K. Dargaiah and P. Kamalam
SYNOPSIS
This paper is the extension of an earlier paper published in BHEL Journal, (Vol. 26 No.1 February 2005), wherein it was concluded that the load capacity of a loading arc (worn) two-lobe bearing used in turbogenerator is found higher and that the stability zone is limited when compared to a normal two-lobe bearing without loading arc (o=0.0) used in steam turbine. In the present paper, the stability (whirl onset/threshold speed) of a worn two-lobe bearing L/D=0.82 of Siemens design used in turbo-generator was studied at different preload factors and worn depths. Bearing performance data was obtained at preload factors (delta) = 0.5, 0.6 and 0.75 and non-dimensional worn
depths (Ao) = 0.0, 0.1 and 0.2, which are of practical importance in the design of turbo-generator bearing. The results presented in this paper helps the designer in selecting a suitable combination of preload factor and worn depth in order to obtain the desired bearing performance in terms of Sommerfeld number (1/load capacity), dynamic coefficients and stability. The bearing dynamic coefficients are useful for rotor dynamic analysis.
Key Words:
Two-lobe Bearing; Loading Arc (worn region); Wear Depth (wear dent); Whirl Onset (Threshold) Speed.
NOMENCLATURE
Ch Cv D Delta e g h L N R W punit
= = = = = = = = = = = = =
side clearance (m) or Cp = pad radial clearance top clearance/2 (m) or Cb = bearing radial clearance bearing diameter (m) Pre load factor = (Ch-Cv)/Ch eccentricity (m) gravitational constant (m/sec2) film thickness (m) bearing length (m) rotating speed (rps) D/2 (m) load on the bearing (N) W/LD, unit pressure on the bearing (Mpa) Angular speed of journal (rad/sec)
35
= = o = = Kij, where i=x,y & j=x,y = Cij, where i=x,y & j=x,y = Non-dimensional quantities: S Ao AKij, ACij, = = = = =
eccentricity ratio (e/Ch) wear depth (mm) maximum wear depth (mm) lubricant viscosity (N sec/m2) stiffness coefficients (N/m) damping coefficients (N sec/m)
Sommerfeld number = non-dimensional maximum wear depth = non-dimensional whirl onset (threshold) speed = non-dimensional stiffness coefficients = non-dimensional damping coefficients =
(NLD/W)(R/Ch)2 o/Ch (Ch/g)1/2 Kij (Ch/W) Cij (Ch/W)
1.
INTRODUCTION
Loading arc (worn) two-lobe journal bearings are used in supporting the heavy rotors of turbogenerators. These bearings are originally designed by Siemens. Load per unit area on this type of bearing is high (around 2.5 MPa) when compared to a normal two-lobe bearing without loading arc
used in steam turbine. The loading arc of a twolobe bearing is similar to lemon type bearing with a cylindrical surface 60 deg. arc machined at the bottom half of the bearing (Fig.1). The maximum depth (wear depth) of a loading arc is also a critical parameter in addition to preload factor, which affects the bearing performance considerably.
FIG. 1 : NOMENCLATURE OF A LOADING ARC (WORN) TWO-LOBE BEARING
36
Dufrane et al [1] have established wear profile models from actual measured data and modified the film thickness equation as a function of wear depth (Fig.1). Hashimoto et al [2,3] studied the steady state and dynamic characteristics of worn cylindrical journal bearing (L/D=1) in both laminar and turbulent regimes. They concluded that the threshold speed (whirl onset) for worn journal bearing ofAo < 0.3 is lower, and that forAo > 0.3 is higher, than that of non-worn bearing. Tanaka and Hori [4] and Tanaka and Suzuki [5] made theoretical and experimental studies respectively on a lightly loaded high-speed two-lobe journal bearing with wear dent, and concluded that the linear stability is found to worsen drastically due to wear dent. The authors of this paper earlier presented [6] the analysis and performance data of a heavily loaded worn two-lobe bearing (L/D=0.82, preload factor = 0.673) at different non-dimensional wear depths from 0.0 to 0.2. In the present paper, the bearing non-dimensional data, which include steady state, dynamic coefficients and whirl onset (threshold) speed of a rigid rotor, is presented in graphical form at different wear depths from 0 to 0.2. Effect of preload factor and wear depth on the bearing performance is discussed. This paper is the extension of an earlier work [6] and it helps the designer in selecting a suitable combination of preload factor and worn depth in order to obtain the desired bearing performance in terms of Sommerfeld number (1/load capacity), dynamic coefficients and stability.
where the worn profile [1] is governed by: A() = Ao - (1 + cos )A > 0 = 0, otherwise (4)
Equation (1) is solved for p (pressure) by finite element method (FEM) with Reynolds boundary conditions for non-worn and worn region [7]. Two components of oil film force, Fx and Fy, are obtained by integrating the calculated pressure distribution. The equilibrium position of the journal centre is obtained by making Fx = 0 by changing the attitude angle. The load capacity of the bearing is Fy at the equilibrium position. S, Sommerfeld number, is 1/Fy. The steady state performance characteristics, like oil flow rate, power loss, temperature-rise and minimum oil film thickness, is obtained at equilibrium position for different eccentricity ratios. Stiffness and damping coefficients are obtained using the method given by Shang and Dien [6]. This method helps to obtain eight dynamic coefficients by solving Reynolds equation only once. In the present paper, the finite element method used is the same as in [7]. Four stiffness and four damping coefficients are used for computing the whirl onset (threshold) speed. Routh-Hurwitz criterion was used for stability analysis assuming a rigid rotor supported on two identical symmetrically aligned bearing [3]. In the present paper, the non-dimensional results of four stiffness and four damping coefficients and threshold speed are presented as a function of Sommerfeld number at different preload factors and worn depths.
2.
HYDRODYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The non-dimensional hydrodynamic equation for bearing lubrication [7] is given by: / (AhAp/) + r"/z (AhAp/z) = -3 sin + 6 (Au sin 1 +Av cos 1) Film thickness equation is given by: Ah() = 1+ cos, for non-worn region Ah() =1+cos +A(), for worn region
(1)
(2) (3)
Figures 2-4 show the variation of oil film stiffness coefficients (AKii) at worn depths (Ao=0.0-0.2) and preload factors (delta) 0.5, 0.6 and 0,75 with Sommerfeld number (S). It can be seen from the graph thatAKyy i.e. vertical stiffness is increasing with increase in delta at all S. However, these coefficients are non-linear w.r.t S. AKxx, i.e. horizontal stiffness, is decreasing with increase in delta at all S for non-worn bearing (Ao=0.0), whereas for other worn bearings (o=0.1 and 0.2), it is slightly
37
FIG. 2 : VARIATION OF STIFFNESS COEFFICIENT (Kii) WITH SOMMERFELD NUMBER(S) AT DIFFERENT PRELOAD FACTORS (DELTA) FOR L/D = 0.82,Ao=0.0
38
increasing. Figures 5-7 show the variation of the cross stiffness coefficients (AKij) at worn depths (Ao=0.0-0.2) and preload factors (delta) 0.5, 0.6 and 0.75 with Sommerfeld number (S). It is observed that these coefficients are non-linear. AKxy is negative for all values of S for worn bearings and some values of S for non-worn bearing. Figures 810 show the variation of damping coefficients (ACij) with Sommerfeld number (S), at worn depths (Ao=0.0-0.2) and preload factors (delta) 0.5, 0,6 and 0.75. It can be seen from the graphs that ACxx and ACyy are increasing with increase in delta, and cross damping coefficients (ACxy=ACyx) are found to be negative after certain value of S, and damping coefficients are also higly non-linear. Figures 1113 show the whirl onset (threshold) speed () with S at preload factors (0.5, 0.6 and 0.75) and worn depths (0.0-0.2). For non-worn bearing (Fig. 11), the bearing is always stable at delta=0.5 from S=0.0217 to 0.3586, at delta=0.6 from S=0.05309 to 0.2556, and at delta=0.75 from S=0.0345 to 0.1369. It can be observed from results that stability parameter is decreasing with increase in preload factor for non-worn bearing (Ao=0.0). Similar trends can be seen for worn bearings (Figs. 12-13) with different stable regions of operation.
Siemens design, and the following conclusions are drawn. I. Preload Factor:
Stiffness coefficients: Vertical oil film stiffness (AKyy) is increasing and horizontal oil film stiffness (AKxx) is decreasing with increase in preload factor for nonworn bearing (Ao=0.0), whereas vertical stiffness is increasing at higher rate than horizontal stiffness for worn bearings (Ao=0.1and 0.2) at all Sommerfeld numbers. Cross stiffness coefficients (AKyx) is increasing and (AKxy) is decreasing with increase in delta at all values of S. These coefficients are nonlinear. Damping coefficients: Vertical (ACyy) and horizontal (ACxx) damping coefficients are increasing and cross damping coefficients (ACxy=ACyx) are decreasing with increase in delta at all values of S and they are non-linear. Whirl onset (threshold) speed (): Stability parameter is decreasing with increase in preload factor for nonworn and worn bearings (Ao=0.0 to 0.2), Similar trends can be seen for worn bearings (Figs. 12-13) with different stable regions of operation. II. Worn Depth: Stability range of Sommerfeld numbers for different preload factors and worn depths is given in Table-1.
4.
CONCLUSIONS
A theoretical study has been carried out at different preload factors (0.5,0.6 and 0.75) and worn depths (0.0, 0.1, and 0.2) on the loading arc (worn) twolobe bearing (L/D =0.82)used in turbo generator of
The above Table is very useful for checking the stability of existing bearing and for designing a new bearing of L/D = 0.82, heavily loaded TG bearings.
TABLE-I : STABILITY RANGE OF SOMMERFELD NUMBERS
Preload Factors (delta) Worn Depth (Ao) 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.5 0.0217 - 0.3586 0.0215 - 0.1526 0.0663 - 0.1494 0.6 0.0531 - 0.2556 0.0181 - 0.1291 0.0452 - 0.1204 0.75 0.0345 - 0.1369 0.0173 - 0.0373 0.0199 - 0.0798
39
FIG. 5 : VARIATION OF CROSS STIFFNESS COEFFICIENT (Kij) WITH SOMMERFELD NUMBER(S) AT DIFFERENT PRELOAD FACTORS (DELTA) FOR L/D = 0.82,Ao=0.0
40
FIG. 8 : VARIATION OF DAMPING COEFFICIENT (Cij) WITH SOMMERFELD NUMBER(S) AT DIFFERENT PRELOAD FACTORS (DELTA) FOR L/D = 0.82,Ao=0.0
41
FIG. 11 : VARIATION OF THRESHOLD SPEED (WHIRL ONSET) WITH SOMMERFELD NUMBER(S) AT DIFFERENT PRELOAD FACTORS (DELTA) FOR L/D = 0.82,Ao=0.00
42
The designer should select an optimum wear depth and preload factor which should satisfy both loadcarrying capacity (1/S) and stability limit speed while designing a loading arc two-lobe journal bearing. The results i.e., steady state, dynamic coefficients and threshold speed data, presented in this paper, can be used for performance evaluation of loading arc two-lobe bearing for different load, speeds and lubricant conditions. Also, the bearing dynamic coefficients data can be used for rotor dynamic analysis.
Regimes. Part II: Dynamic Characteristics", ASLE Vol. 29,1986, 4, 572-577. 4. Tanaka, M., and Hori, Y., "Stability Characteristics of Worn Journal Bearings", Proc. 3rd IFTOMM Rotor dynamic conference, Lyon,1996,93-97. Tanaka, M., and Suzuki, K., "Experimental Verification of Stability Characteristics of TwoLobe Journal Bearings with Surface Wear Dent", ImechE, 1996, pp. 143-150. Dargaiah,K., and Kamalam,P., "Analysis and Performance Data of a Loading Arc(worn) two-lobe bearing used in Turbo-Generator", BHEL journal, vol. 25 No.2, February 2005. Shang, L., and Dien, I.K., " A matrix Method for Computing the Stiffness and Damping Coefficients of Multi-Arc Journal Bearings", STLE Tribology Trans., Vol.32, 1989,pp.397-404 Dargaiah, K., Kamalam, P., and Prabhu, B.S., "A Finite Element Method for Computing Dynamic Coefficients of Multi-Lobe Journal Bearings", STLE, Tribology Transactions, Vol. 36,1993, No.1., pp. 73-83.
5.
References
1. Dufrane, K.F., Kannel, J.W., and McCloskey, T.H., "Wear of Steam Turbine Journal Bearings at Low Operating Speeds", ASME Trans., Journal of Lubrication Technology, Vol. 105, July 1983, pp. 313-317. Hashimoto , H., Wada , S.,and Nojima, K., "Performance Characteristics of Worn Journal Bearings in Both Laminar and Turbulent Regimes". Part I: Steady State characteristics", ASLE Trans. Vol. 29,1986, 4, 565-571. Hashimoto , H, Wada , S., and Nojima, K., "Performance characteristics of Worn Journal Bearings in Both Laminar and Turbulent
6.
7.
2.
8.
3.
43
Mr. K. Dargaiah graduated in Mechanical Engineering from the Osmania Engineering College, Hyderabad, in 1976, and completed M.S. from the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, in 1984. He obtained his Ph.D. degree from IIT-Madras in 1994. Dr. Dargaiah joined the Corporate R&D Division
of BHEL, Hyderabad, in 1977. He was actively involved in setting up the Tribology Laboratory in this R&D Complex. He has developed a journal bearing test rig and carried out a number of experimental and analytical investigations on cylindrical, ring-lubricated, multi-lobe and tilting pad hydrodynamic journal bearings. At present, he is working as Deputy General Manager in the Machine Dynamics Laboratory of the R&D Complex. Dr. Dargaiah has presented & published a number of papers in the area of hydrodynamic journal bearings, in national as well as international conferences and journals on Tribology.
Ms. P. Kamalam did her Post-graduation in Mathematics from the Madras University and completed her doctorate from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in 1975. Dr. Kamalam joined Corporate R&D Division of
BHEL, Hyderabad, in 1977. Here, she has been actively involved in research in the fields of Heat Transfer, Electro Magnetism and Tribology. She developed FEM program in the areas of cylindrical, multi-lobe and tilting pad bearings. She also developed FEM program in the field of electromagnetics for transformer. At present, she is working as Senior Deputy General Manager in Electrical Machines Laboratory of the R&D Complex. Dr. Kamalam has presented & published a number of papers in the area of bearings, in international conferences and journals on Tribology.
44
COLLECTION, HANDLING AND TREATMENT OF LIQUID EFFLUENTS IN THERMAL POWER PLANT

P. Shandilya, S.S. Phogat, G.S. Mahal, S. Balaji and Sudhir Bhartiya
SYNOPSIS
Power plants use fuel, air and water inputs and generate electric power. Liquid, solid and gaseous effluents are also generated in the process of power generation. Ash is the major solid waste. It is generally pumped to ash pond, as ash slurry. As per the current pollution norms, ash is to be 100% utilized and hence disposed of as dry ash. Gaseous emissions are SOX, NOX, CO2, and particulate matter in the flue gases. These are currently controlled by ESP and provision of tall chimneys to meet pollution norms. The liquid effluents may contain one or more of the contaminants like high suspended solids, oil, high dissolved solids, high residual chlorine, pH value outside the permitted range etc. The acceptable limits of these pollutants are specified by the pollution control authorities. Generation of effluents depends on the input quantities, process used and nature of plant operation, which may be continuous, intermittent or very infrequent. The provisions for collection, treatment and disposal of liquid effluents needs to be viewed in the context of practical aspects of liquid handling, including equipment selection for rated flow and frequency / duration of equipment / system operation. This paper deals with the nature and frequency of liquid effluents generated in coal-fired / combined-cycle projects, and their handling & treatment, giving due consideration to the operating practices, installation cost and code requirements.
Key Words:
Effluents; Pollution; Emissions; pH Value; Blowdown; Combined-cycle; Turbidity; Dissolved Solids; Alkaline; COC; Sludge; Make-up; Thickener; Centrifuge; HVAC; Back-wash; Zero-discharge; CCPP; ppm.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Thermal power plants can be broadly classified in two groups viz. Coal-fired power plants and Combined-cycle power plants. Both these types of Power plants use fuel (coal, oil and gas), air and water inputs, and generate electric power. Lubricating oil and chemicals are also used in the power plants. Solid, gaseous and liquid effluents are generated along with power generation. Ash, produced from coal combustion, is the major solid waste. It is handled and disposed of in the Ash handling system. The other solid effluent can be sludge from centrifuge. ESP, APH and chimney design are major provisions for handling flue gas (gaseous effluent). This paper deals with the liquid effluents only. Liquid effluents, from power plants, can be classified in the following three categories:

High-turbidity effluents. High-dissolved-solids effluents, including acidic / alkaline effluents. Oily effluents.
The distribution of water supply, in the plant, is shown in Schematic-1 "Plant water system". This scheme also shows the effluents generated from various processes.
45
46
Schematic-2 "Waste water management system based on zero-discharge philosophy" shows only the effluents generated from different processes, and their handling / disposal systems.
3.
HIGH-TURBIDITY EFFLUENTS
LIQUID
2.
GENERATION OF LIQUID EFFLUENTS DUE TO NATURE OF PLANT OPERATION
There is no well-accepted borderline of high turbidity. We can consider high turbidity referring to those effluent streams which have suspended solids of approximately 100 ppm or greater, since the effluent turbidity above 100 ppm is not permitted. This category will typically include the following effluents:
The major liquid effluents generated due to nature of plant operation, are given below:
Seasonal changes in raw water quality affect the following: Pre-treatment plant sludge flow rate, Cooling water system blow-down flow rate, Cooling water system blow-own quality.
Sludge from raw water Pre-Treatment Plant (PTP) and from Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) equipment such as lamella clarifiers and thickeners. CW blow-down generally falls in this category, depending on the make-up water suspended solids content and the operating Cycles of Concentration (COC). Filter backwashes (from gravity / pressure / side stream filters). Wastewater from routine floor washing. Ash slurry water. Coal pile run-off.
Storm water drain is also of seasonal nature. Its flow rate is very large with short duration. Intermittent operations produce intermittent effluents. Following are the common examples of such effluents: DM plant regeneration leads to intermittent flow rate from the neutralizing pit. Service water from floor washing operation is generated in a short span of 2 to 3 hours.
3.1
Pre-Treatment Plant (PTP) and ETP Sludge
Plant mal-operation or failure may result in effluents with flow rates of variable nature. Time span for such flows is failure-specific. Alarm system, with or without auto operation, is generally provided for such effluents. Maintenance effluents can be handled in a planned way since their quantities and qualities are fairly well known in advance. Sewage effluent is mostly discharged during daytime. It is treated and disposed of independent of the other process effluents.
Sludge is produced from clarifiers, from the turbidity of raw water supply to the plant. The raw water supply to the plant is primarily for meeting the requirements of clarified water and direct raw-water make-up to consumers like fire water system, ash handling plant, service water system etc. Raw water requirement generally does not vary much during plant operation. In the event of ash water recovery from the ash pond, which may take 2-3 years after initial plant commissioning, there may be a need to cut down on raw water requirement. Reduced raw water requirement leads to reduction in sludge generation also. Raw water turbidity is a major variable (in addition to raw water flow rate), which decides the quantum of sludge generation. Turbidity in the source of raw water supply is likely to have the variations as given in Table-I.
47
48
TABLE-I : TURBIDITY VARIATIONS IN THE RIVER WATER SUPPLY TO PLANTS
Source of Raw Water Supply Raw water supply from sea. Raw water supply from bore-well. Raw water supply from reservoir.
Typical Turbidity Levels Turbidity is low (typically 10-50 ppm). Turbidity is low (typically 5-10 ppm). Turbidity is generally low (typically 10-100 ppm). Depending on site location and reservoir size, it can however rise to about 200 ppm in monsoon months. Generally lower than supply from reservoirs, but variations during monsoon months can be 200-500 ppm.
Raw water supply from rivers/canals.
The variations in turbidity from reservoir and river/ canal source, is site-specific and depends on the size of reservoir, source of river, time / period related to rainy season etc. PTP sludge up to approximately 60 m3/h can be effectively discharged from the plant through ash disposal system, and this practice is prevalent in the existing plants. It is recommended to adopt this practice, as a first preference, for PTP sludge disposal. It may be appreciated that the normal ash consistency, as discharged from ash slurry sump, is about 20-30%. The PTP sludge, with 2-3 % consistency, practically behaves like make-up water to ash slurry sump, where ash slurry disposal system is envisaged. In certain plants, where slurry disposal system is not envisaged and only dry disposal system is specified, separate sludge disposal / treatment would have to be considered. The turbidity levels are not uniform throughout the year. In the event of the sludge generation rate exceeding the maximum limit acceptable to ash handling system, the following methods can be used for its disposal. i) Disposal of sludge (during high-turbidity period) through plant drainage system. This may be acceptable to pollution control
authorities as the water streams which receive this effluent also have very high suspended solids in monsoon, and since the suspended solids generally consist of clay, they are not a health hazard. ii) Processing of the total sludge in thickener and centrifuge. This alternative has the advantages of water recovery (and reuse) from the sludge. However, it is an expensive provision, if intended to be used in monsoon season only.
3.2
Cooling Water (CW) System Blow-Down
CW system temperature rises by 8-10C. It is cooled by the same extent in cooling tower. The cooling effect is achieved by loss of CW, by evaporation. About 1.8% of CW flow rate is lost by evaporation, for every 100 C cooling effect. Cooling water system blow-down is practised to maintain concentration of suspended / dissolved solids in the circulating water, so that the scaling / corrosion of the wetted surfaces is minimized. The blow-down quantity is a function of circulating flow rate and the cycles of concentration (COC) adopted. Acid dosing and side stream filtration can be judiciously used for the selected COC and make-up
49
water quality, to maintain the permitted limits of scale and corrosion. The quality of cooling tower blow-down water depends on the water chemistry in the CW system, CW treatment provided, COC and rate of blowdown. Typical details are given in Table-II.
TABLE-II: TYPICAL COOLING TOWER BLOW DOWN QUALITY
shall install cooling towers irrespective of location and capacity. For thermal power plants which will use seawater for cooling purposes, the condition below will apply.
Constituent Total dissolved solids pH Suspended solids Oil and grease Free available Chlorine
Quantity 350-800 mg/l 7.8-8.8 100 mg/l 5 mg/l 0.3 mg/l
New projects in coastal areas using sea water: The thermal power plants using sea water should adopt suitable system to reduce water temperature at the final discharge point so that the resultant rise in the temperature of receiving water does not exceed 7C over and above the ambient temperature of the receiving water bodies. Existing thermal power plants: Rise in temperature of condenser cooling water from inlet to the outlet of condenser shall not be more than 10C. Discharge point guidelines: The discharge point shall preferably be located at the bottom of the water body at midstream for proper dispersion of thermal discharge. In case of discharge of cooling water into sea, proper marine outfall shall be designed to achieve the prescribed standards. The point of discharge may be selected in consultation with the concerned State Authorities. No cooling water discharge shall be permitted in estuaries or near ecologically sensitive areas such as mangroves, coral reefs/ spanning and breeding grounds of aquatic flora and fauna.
Permissible limits of Cooling tower blow-down effluents, if disposed of separately, are given in Table-III.
TABLE-III: PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF COOLING TOWER BLOW-DOWN AS PER CPCB NORMS
Constituent Total Chromium Zinc Phosphate Free available Chlorine Other corrosion inhibiting materials
Quantity 0.2 mg/l 1 mg/l 5.0 mg/l 0.5 mg/l Limits to be established on case-to-case basis
3.2.2
DISPOSAL OF COOLING WATER
3.2.1
PERMISSIBLE LIMITS FOR TEMPERATURERISE (OF COOLING WATER IN THE CONDENSER) AS PER CPCB NORMS
CW blow-down should preferably be used for ash disposal in coal-fired plants. Its use for ash disposal will lead to reduced makeup water requirement for AHP and consequently lower demand of raw water. Cooling tower blow-down is normally contaminated with treatment chemicals. It generally has high hardness / dissolved solids.
50
New thermal power plants commissioned after June 1, 1999: New thermal power plants, which will be using water from rivers / lakes / reservoirs,
The flow quantities being very high, it can be effectively used to dilute other contaminants like oil and pH, in Central Monitoring Basin (CMB).
3.3
Wash Water Effluents
In case wet ash disposal is not practised (and also in case of combined-cycle plants, where ash disposal is not applicable), the CW blowdown, being of huge quantity, cannot be fully utilized without treatment. In such a situation, CW blow-down needs to be disposed of directly from the plant. Alternatively (if zero-discharge is envisaged in the strict sense), CW blow-down water (after mixing with other effluents in the CMB) needs to be treated for recycle. The following treatment is required: Clarification and subsequent use of clarified water for the following applications: For dust suppression in coal handling plant. Service water applications. Boiler blow-down cooling. Supply to other consumers of the clarified water (except DM Plant, Potable water). Fire protection system make-up. Treatment of clarified water in RO system and further use of the permeate in the following systems: Supply to DM Plant CW make-up HVAC system make-up Since the CW blow-down flow rate is very high, its treatment by RO is a very costly proposal, and should be avoided as far as possible, unless the additional cost can be justified. The RO concentrate, in this option of zerodischarge, requires to be evaporated in evaporation pond, to be specifically provided for this purpose.
Some of the utilities have a practice of using service water for washing dust from boiler area and TG hall to improve house keeping. The following areas of the plants are generally provided with washing facilities: i) Boiler area The wash water discharge is likely to be applicable for a period of 2-3 hours in the general shift. This wash water is contaminated with ash. Wash water is collected in local sump and subsequently pumped to ETP sump for further treatment in Lamella / Tube type clarifiers. The clarifier supernatant is discharged to the CMB. ii) Turbine hall ground floor The wash water discharge is likely to be applicable for a period of 2-3 hours in the general shift. This wash water is contaminated with suspended matter. Oil content in the wash water is minor depending on the area to be washed. It is reduced to negligible value after dilution effect of other effluents. Wash water is collected in local sumps and subsequently pumped to Lamella / Tube type clarifiers. The clarifier supernatant is discharged to the CMB. The sludge generated in the lamella, provided to remove suspended matter from wash water effluent, is very little. Layout permitting, it is recommended to drain it to the pretreatment plant sludge sump, to simplify its disposal. Alternatively, the sludge quantity being little, it can be disposed of manually in an acceptable way. iii) Wash water from buildings It is of minor nature. It drains to respective building drain system and does not join the Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) for the processes described in this paper.
51
3.4
Filter Back-Wash
4.
Back-wash water from the gravity or pressure filters has up to 1500 ppm suspended solids. The backwash water may be recirculated back to the clarifier to minimize wastage of water.
LIQUID-EFFLUENTS HAVING HIGH-DISSOLVED-SOLIDS
High-dissolved-solids-content liquid effluents refer to effluent streams having high ionic loads. In power plants, this category of effluents will typically include the following:

3.5
Ash Slurry Water
Waste from DM / CPU neutralization pit. Boiler / HRSG blow-down CW blow-down.
Ash slurry water is generally disposed of from the ash pond. About 80% of water supply to ash slurry sump may also be recovered from ash pond, for reuse in the plant Ash disposal system. Ash water recovery is generally delayed, after plant commissioning. The delay period can be from 6 months to 2 years. The recovered water has significant quantity of suspended and dissolved solids. It can be, however, used for make-up to the ash water sump for ash disposal If cooling water blow-down has been used for makeup to the ash handling system, the situation changes after AHP recovery starts. CW treatment system capability permitting, the COC can be further increased, leading to reduced raw water demand for the plant. The discharge standards of ash pond effluents are given in Table-IV.
TABLE-IV: DISCHARGE STANDARDS OF ASH POND EFFLUENT AS PER CPCB NORMS
4.1
Recommendations for DM Plant / CPU neutralization waste / chemical waste
DM Plant regeneration waste (as well as CPU regeneration wastes if CPU has been provided) is collected in the neutralization pit (NP). It is normally self-neutralized. Dosing system is also provided for NP, to neutralize the regeneration waste, in case it is not self-neutralized. The NP effluent is pumped to CMB. Typical analysis of DM-regeneration waste is given in Table-V.
TABLE-V: TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF REGENERATION WASTE DM-
Constituent Total Dissolved Solids pH Suspended solids
Quantity 4400-6000 ppm 6.5-7.5 100 ppm
Parameter pH Valve Suspended Solids Oil & Greases
Limit 6.5-8.5, preferably > 7 100 mg/l 20 mg/l
5. 3.6 Coal Pile Run-off
OILY EFFLUENTS
Coal pile run-off quantity is site-specific, primarily depending on the rainfall and the coal yard topography. If site conditions suggest significant coal pile run-off, it needs to be collected in a below-grade pond. Coal pile run-off may have significant quantity of suspended matter. After a reasonable period for settlement of the suspended matter, the effluent (consequent to the rain) will be discharged to the plant drain system.
In normal operations, oily effluents are not expected from areas of the power plant other than the fuel oil handling area. Oily water effluents with oil content greater than 20 ppm may arise from transformer areas during abnormal conditions such as fires / accidents etc. The major sources of oily effluents are: i) Oily Effluent from fuel oil storage area. This effluent should be collected in local
52
sump. Oil is separated (up to 10 ppm ) in the oil/water separator. The treated water can be pumped to CMB for further disposal. ii) Floor wash water effluent from fuel oil unloading, storage and pumping areas.
rate of boiler blow-down. Typical details are given in Table-VI.

TABLE-VI: TYPICAL DETAILS OF BOILER BLOWDOWN FOR 250 MW UNIT
Constituent Suspended solids TDS pH Oil and grease Silica
Quantity 166 ppm 100 ppm 8.9 0.2 ppm 0.2 ppm as SiO2
iii) Oil leakage / spillage from the turbine / BFP lube oil system and workshop. This effluent, if any, is insignificant and requires to be collected in local trays / wiped with cotton waste. iv) Generator Transformer area effluent. The effluent from the generator transformer area originates either from rain or consequent to the operation of fire protection system. A sump is provided to collect this water from transformer area. Experience shows that normally there is no oil leakage from the transformers. In case of fire, water is sprayed in the transformer area. This water drains to the sump. In the event of oil leakage during fire, both oil and water drain to the sump. The following is recommended for disposal of the effluents from the generator transformer sump: a) b) If there is no oil leakage, pump the sump water to plant drain system. In case of oil discharge consequent to the failure of the oil system of the transformer, the water is first discharged to the plant drain system. When the oil starts coming, oil being above water, it should be collected in the drums.
Permissible limits of boiler blow-down effluents, if disposed of separately, are given in Table-VII.
TABLE-VII: PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF BOILER BLOW-DOWN EFFLUENTS IF DISPOSED OF SEPARATELY
Constituent Suspended solids Oil and grease Copper total Iron total Free available chlorine
Quantity 100 mg/l 20 mg/l 1.0 mg/l 1.0 mg/l 0.5 mg/l
Boiler blow-down does not require any treatment, and it can be directly pumped to CMB.
7.
SEWAGE / CANTEEN WASTE
6.
BOILER BLOW-DOWN
The sewage from the plant buildings and canteen is generally led to sewage treatment plant. The treated water can be used for horticulture. It is recommended that this effluent not be mixed with process effluents.
Boiler blow-down rate is a function of boiler feed water system water chemistry program. Blow-down rates of 1-3% (of main steam flow rate) have been used. A value of % for modern high-pressure boilers is not unusual these days. The quality of boiler blow-down water depends on the water chemistry of power cycle system and the
8.
EFFLUENTS GENERATED DURING COMMISSIONING AND MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
Cleaning effluents from boiler auxiliaries are likely during commissioning and maintenance stages. This
53
is a planned commissioning/maintenance activity, and it is done only when the plant is under shutdown. The maximum frequency of washing for Air-preheater and Electrostatic precipitator could be once a year. The acid cleaning activity and alkali-boil-out operation are commissioning activities. It is not advisable to provide permanent installations for collection of these effluents. The effluent characteristics for the above operations being uncertain, predefined treatment, if provided, may not work efficiently. Temporary arrangement for effluent collection and disposal is considered appropriate and justifiable. It is recommended that temporary arrangements be provided for disposal of these effluents.
The suspended solids, oil / grease and residual chlorine parameters of the CMB effluents, are generally stable, whereas pH may have marginal fluctuation, thereby requiring its correction. To take care of this aspect, on-line pH indicator is provided in the CMB discharge piping. Other parameters viz. suspended solids, conductivity, oil / grease and residual chlorine, are tested in the laboratory.
10.
EFFLUENTS FROM COMBINEDCYCLE POWER PLANTS (CCPP)
The pollution control requirement for CCPP is similar to that for coal-fired plant except for the following: i) Since coal handling and ash handling packages are not applicable, the following effluents are not generated in CCPPs: Coal pile run-off. Ash-pond effluent. Boiler-area floor washing effluent (since the washing requirement is insignificant). In the absence of Ash Handling plant, the sludge from clarifiers cannot be disposed of with the ash slurry. Thickener and centrifuge will be required if the sludge quantity is significant.
9.
COLLECTION AND FINAL DISPOSAL OF LIQUID EFFLUENTS
Each category of effluents is generally treated individually for removing oil, suspended solids and pH correction, if these parameters cannot be managed to meet the final disposal limits. All effluents are collected in the Central Monitoring Basin (CMB) before disposal from the plant. The CMB is generally in two compartments. While effluents of one compartment are under disposal, after final pH correction, the other compartment is under filling. Each compartment is generally sized for 2 hours inflow capacity. Discharge pumps are provided in the common compartment. Acceptable limiting parameters of specific effluents have been specified above for CW blow-down, boiler blow-down and ash-pond effluents. However for the effluents collected in the CMB, no specific effluent limits have been given for power plants. The following limits are generally specified by plant owners for coal-fired power plants: Parameter Suspended solids Oil and grease Residual chlorine pH : : : : Limit 100 ppm 10 ppm 0.5 ppm 6.5 to 8.5
ii)
iii) The permissible limits for effluents: The following limits have been specified by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for Gas / Naphtha based power plants: Parameter pH Temperature Limit
= 6.5-8.5 = As applicable to coal-fired plants Copper total = 1 ppm Iron total = 1 ppm Zinc = 1 ppm Chromium total = 0.2 ppm Phosphate = 5 ppm Total suspended solids = 100 ppm max Free chlorine = 0.5 ppm max
54
Oil and grease
= For discharge to inland surface water: not exceeding 10 ppm. For discharge to marine coastal areas: not exceeding 20 ppm
12.
CONCLUSION
The provision of ETP for power plants is a relatively new requirement. For earlier plants, the general requirement was plant design to meet limiting parameters of the liquid effluents from the plant. Recent statutory changes include revised limitations on the condenser cooling water return temperature. Permanent provisions for handling and treatment of effluents, which are maintenance / commissioning related, is not economically justified. It is our view that such facilities should be of temporary nature and activity-specific. Also if the quantity of some effluent is insignificant, permanent installations for treatment and disposal of such effluents will only increase the initial cost of the plant, and may not be available for use (due to inadequate maintenance) when really needed. For such cases, mobile tankers could be provided to collect the wastewater and treat in the ETP located elsewhere. The supply of raw water to power plants, is becoming more and more restricted. In view of this, some of the projects are being cleared based on provision of zero liquid discharge from the plant. This requirement needs a re-look in view of the need for consequential provisions, if it is to be followed literally.
11.
ZERO-DISCHARGE ETP
11.1 Classification of Effluents

The effluents from the plant can be classified in the following two broad categories: i) Process effluents, as from CW system, boiler blow-down, water treatment systems, floor washing, building effluents etc. These effluents have bearing on the size and operating conditions of the systems concerned. Effluents such as storm water drain. This type of effluent is site-specific. It is generated in large flow volumes in a short time.
ii)
11.2 Considerations for Applying ZeroDischarge Concept

The following aspect of practical nature needs to be considered when applying this concept to the power plants: In case of CCPPs and coal-fired plants with dry ash disposal (and also in case of coal-fired plants with a low value of condenser cooling water COC), the liquid effluents from the plant become surplus even after all justifiable reuse in the plant. In such a situation, the zero discharge can be attempted only at a very high cost. In view of the above, it is the considered view of the authors that the need for zero discharge should be specified with the considerations in respect of return on investment.
Bibliography
1. 2. 3. 4. htpp://www.cpcb.nic.in/standard63.htm http://envfor.nic.in/legis/legis.html Minimal National Standards (MINAS). P. Shandilya and S S Phogat, "Environment management in power plants", 3rd International Conference, World Council of Power Utilities, New Delhi, 21-24 Nov. 2001.
55
Mr. Prabhakar Shandilya obtained his B.Tech (Chemical Engg.) degree in 1966 from I.I.T Kanpur. Mr. Shandilya worked with BIRD & Co. Ltd in their sales, design, installation departments for water treatment equipment for 8 years before joining JK Synthetics Kota in their Acrylic Fibre
Plant as a process engineer for 1 year. He joined BHEL in 1976 and has been responsible for design & execution of BOP (Balance of Plants) for various thermal power stations. His core competence is in the area of water & wastewater treatment for power stations. He was trained abroad with KWU Germany for one year. He retired as General Manager & Head (MAX) from PEM, New Delhi, in May 2005. Mr. Shandilya is currently working as Vice President (Engg) with LMZEIL, Delhi, and is responsible for the execution of BOP for NTPC Sipat / Barh 3 X 660 MW Power Stations, and contract closing of HIL Dahej 60 MW Captive Power Station.
PEM) in 1974. He underwent on-the-job training with M/s Siemens, Germany, for one year. Presently, he is working as Addl. General Manager and Department Head of Mechanical Auxiliary Department in PEM, and is responsible for Project Engineering of Balance of Plants. Mr. Phogat has been actively involved in the Project Engineering of Power Cycle Systems, Plant Layout and BOPs. He has authored several technical papers on Air-Cooled Condesers, Thermal Insulation, Tube-Cleaning and Debris Systems, Cathode Protection, Piping and Pumping Systems, Effluent Treatment Plants, Water Treatment etc.
Mr. S.S. Phogat obtained his B.Sc. (Engg) degree with Honours in Mechanical Engg., from the Punjab University. Mr. Phogat joined BHEL-Bhopal, in Power Station Engg Dept., in the year 1970 and was transferred to erstwhile Consultancy Services Division (now
56
Mr. Mahal joined BHEL in 1975 as E.T in the erstwhile Consultancy Services Division (now PEM). He has been responsible for Design & Engineering of Material Handling Systems of Thermal Power Stations and has more than three decades of experience in the related fields of Material Handling Systems. He is presently working as Addl. General Manager in PEM. Mr. G.S. Mahal obtained his B.Sc. (Engg.) degree with Ist Class Honours in Mechanical Engg from the Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh in 1972. Thereafter he obtained his M.E degree from the Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani in the year 1974. Mr. Mahal is a member of the national level BIS subcommittee ME 7 on Material Handling Systems.
(Chemsitry) from the Univ. of Madras in 1980. He was trained abroad under the Colombo plan to acquire a P. G. Diploma in Management of Envrionment from the Maastricht School of Management, The Netherlands in the year 2000. Mr. Balaji joined BHEL as E.T in 1983 at Trichy. Since then he has been working in various functions such as Lab, QC, Quality Management, Health, Safety & Environment. At present, he is working as Dy. General Manager in the Engg function in Water Chemistry section of PEM.
Mr. S. Balaji obtained his Engineering degree in Metallurgy from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in 1983, winning the Prof. Brahm Prakash Medal. Earlier he had graduated in B.Sc.
Mr. Sudhir Bhartiya Engineering from MM in the year 1995, and Diploma in Thermal NTPI Delhi.
graduated in Mechanical Engg College, Gorakhpur, went on to obtain a P.G. Power Plant Engg from
Before joining BHEL in 1998 as E.T, Mr. Bhartiya worked in the field of power plant operations in Bihar State Electricity Board. Since 1998, he has been working in the field of water chemistry and has been mainly dealing with pretreatment plant, effluent treatment plant, condensate polishing unit and Demineralization plant for different power plants. He is currently working as Sr. Engineer in Engg function in the Water Chemistry section of PEM.
57
INNOVATIONS FROM BHEL

DESIGN AUTOMATION OF 500 MW CONDENSER USING KNOWLEDGE BASED ENGINEERING AN MOU PROJECT Knowledge Management has been identified as one of the key corporate strategies to automate total process of product design including release of manufacturing drawings and all engineering documents,with a view to meeting the demand for shorter deliveries and tight commissioning schedules of power projects. In order to meet this objective, an MOU project "Design Automation of 500 MW Condenser Using Knowledge-Based Engineering" was taken up by BHEL- HEEP, Haridwar, to begin with. The project has now been successfully completed. Steam surface condenser is one of the major key equipment in a thermal power plant. The design solely depends on the site conditions vis--vis the plant layout, cooling water chemistry and the type of cooling water system. In this project,the total automation of condenser design has been done capturing design inputs right from the tendering stage up to the contract execution stage. A software tool kit has been developed based on custom-made program logics and Knowledge Fusion tools to help design condenser in an automated fashion. A wizard has been developed incorporating developed Graphic User Interfaces (GUIs), integrated legacy software to perform thermo-hydraulic design and for generation of performance curves, detailed design calculations, 3-D parametric models of condenser with 30 manufacturing groups comprising nearly 1000 parts, preparation of engineering documents comprising 2-D manufacturing drawings for the 30 manufacturing groups, 14 erection drawings, 3 customer drawings and 1 tender drawing (equivalent to nearly 3000 A4 drawings). All 2-D drawings are in AutoCAD format. Weight calculations, generation of BOM, generation of
3-D Model of 500MW Condenser Assembly
Datasheets and Cost Estimations have also been covered. With the completion of this project, the knowledge of design codes, handbooks, knowledge assimilated through collaborators, in-house R&D developments, design improvements, competitor's practices including rich experience of work-force in condenser areaall these have been integrated using proper logistics so as to avoid (or to keep at bare minimum) human intervention during total process of design, in order to evolve various design alternatives and select optimum design. The effective use of this project will yield optimized condenser designs with reduction in design cycle time & cost and improvement in quality & delivery by way of use of modern IT tools.
DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRO TURBINE BLADE/RUNNER MODEL THROUGH RAPID PROTOTYPING TECHNIQUE BHEL is the largest manufacturer of hydro turbines in the country. At present, scaled models of each and every new machine is made to demonstrate the
58
hydraulic efficiency and related parameters, prior to the manufacturing process. These models are being made through a lengthy and time-consuming process. Rapid Prototyping technique is widely being adopted internationally by major manufacturers for cycle time reduction in engineering especially when new products are introduced. In line with this trend, the feasibility of adopting the Rapid Prototyping (RP) technique for making metallic models of Hydro Turbines Blades/Runners was takenup in BHEL. The Runner blade being the most critical component, was modeled through the RP technique. Crown & lower ring were made by conventional machining. Section profiles and solid model of the hydro turbine blade were generated from the drawings using IDEAS software. Solid models of the matching crown and the lower ring were also generated for assembly checks. Using the solid model of the Hydro Turbine blade, RP master of the blade was made by the Stereolithography technique. This was inspected by profile checking templates and also by 3D coordinate measurement equipment. A silicone rubber mould was made, using the RP master as the pattern, and wax patterns were made using this mould. Stainless steel blades were made using these wax patterns by investment casting. By adopting Rapid Prototyping technique for making the blades and using conventional method for
making crown and lower ring, savings in time and cost were achieved. A common 3D solid model can be used for manufacturing and CFD analysis, thereby minimizing discrepancy in the theoretical and experimental results. 11kV / 750 MVA (0.25 SECONDS) WITHSTANDING EPOXY TERMINAL BUSHINGS FOR HIGH-VOLTAGE AC MOTORS DEVELOPED Epoxy terminal bushings are one of the critical items of a high-voltage ac motor, as they carry high voltage and high current. Current level withstanding requirements of these high-voltage bushings are increasing day by day from customers. BHEL, a leading supplier of high-voltage ac motors in the country, has been, hitherto, importing these bushings. In order to indigenise these bushings; BHEL has now developed 750 MVA (0.25 seconds) fault level withstanding epoxy terminal bushings for 11kV high-voltage ac motors so as to meet the market demands. A number of designs were made with different variants, and finally two designs, viz. (a) circular collar type and (b) elliptical collar type, were finalized to meet the requirements of existing terminal box manufactured at BHEL. An optimum process cycle was established to process and manufacture sample bushings. Routine and type tests were conducted on these bushings at ERDA, Vadodara ,and Corporate R&D Division of BHEL. The bushings successfully
Circular Collar Type Bushing

59
Elliptical Collar Type Bushing
withstood the following specified tests to meet the requirements of 11 kV insulation systemimpulse, partial discharge, power frequency, breakdown voltage, tan delta, capacitance and short-time current rating (at 44 kA for 0.25 second). With this indigenous development of expoxy-based terminal bushings, BHEL would be able to use these bushings in all the non-flameproof high-voltage ac motors of 11 kV/1200 A rating, and thereby save in foreign exchange. DISCHARGE CURRENT TEST ON HV SERIES CAPACITOR FACILITY ESTABLISHED IN BHEL BHEL has developed HV series capacitors for 400 kV series compensation project, for the first time in the country. IEC 60143 standard calls for some special tests like Discharge Current Test for HV series capacitors used in long transmission lines. This test facility is not available indigenously, and even getting this test conducted at reputed International Testing agencies is beset with problems. In view of this, BHEL undertook and implemented establishing of this test facility in-house for the first time in the country, to meet Discharge Current Test requirement of our esteemed customer, M/s Power Grid Corporation. This test facility was established with internal resources mobilized within BHELBhopal. The testing was completed successfully in the presence of the representative of the Customer. Thus, BHEL has added one more new test facility to the series of new test facilities it has been
Capacitor undergoing Discharge Current Test
developing for conducting special tests in-house, in accordance with International Standards. EVALUATION OF INHIBITORS FOR SS 304 AND ADMIRALTY BRASS CONDENSER TUBE MATERIALS IN CONTACT WITH RIVER WATER Due to increase in industrialization, there is deterioration in the quality of surface water, but there is no alternative except to use the naturally available water for cooling purposes. Natural water contains dissolved solids, gases and sometimes colloidal or suspended matter. All these impurities affect the scaling / corrosion properties of the water in relation to the metals with which it is in contact. This leads to many operational problems like corrosion, erosion, scaling, fouling etc. Where the available source of cooling water is from a river, either SS 304 or copper alloys is used as tube materials in power plant Condenser. However, due to bad quality of water, these materials, though resistant to corrosion, are also prone to corrosion attack. In order to minimize the corrosion, commercially available inhibitors are dosed into the cooling water. Addition of these inhibitors substantially reduces the corrosion rate of the tube materials, thus increasing the life of the condensers. Performance evaluation of various inhibitors for SS 304 and admiralty brass was recently taken up at Corporate R&D Division of BHEL.
60
Three commercial inhibitors were evaluated for admiralty brass and cupro-nickel (90/10) in river medium, in static as well as dynamic conditions. Electrochemical experiments were conducted to assess the corrosion rates of these tube materials with and without the addition of inhibitors. The optimum concentration of the inhibitor was found to be 0.1%. In order to carry out the corrosion experiments under dynamic conditions, special probes were used in the dynamic corrosion test rig to evaluate the performance of the inhibitors through linear polarization technique. The corrosion current was continuously measured and recorded in the data acquisition system. Results : All the inhibitors performed well under dynamic condition and reduced the corrosion current largely, exhibiting an efficiency of nearly 99% on Copper alloys. In river water medium, SS 304 has high corrosion resistance compared to copper alloys, and hence addition of inhibitors is not required. For copper alloys, any one of the three inhibitors tested can be used, based on the economic considerations. The studies conducted and the data collected, shall be useful to diagnose, analyse and interpret various cooling water chemistry related problems in condensers. Appropriate inhibitor can also be recommended to minimize the corrosion of condenser tube materials.
250 LPD SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM WITH HEAT PIPE COLLECTORS DEVELOPED Based on the successful development of 100 LPD Solar Geyers (as already reported in the December 2004 issue), and also from the market study, there was a need to develop higher-capacity Domestic Solar Water Heating System to cater to the different segments of customers. Hence, development of 250 LPD Solar Water Heating System with heat pipe collectors was taken up. As a result, two prototypes have been developed and installed for long-term testing at the Corporate R&D Division. The system delivers 250 litres of hot water per day at a temperature of 60 to 700C, depending on the solar intensity. The 250 LPD system based on heat pipe collector is much more efficient as compared to a standard thermo-syphon system, as there is no heat loss due to reverse circulation during the night, since the heat pipe acts as a thermal diode,. Further, the system developed does not require interconnecting insulated pipeline between storage tank and the collector array. The 250 LPD System developed will meet the demand of the higher-end domestic customers as well as Large Solar Water Heating Systems. These systems can be connected in series and parallel combination to meet the required capacity of Large Solar Water Heating System, i.e. four systems of 250 LPD can be supplied for a 1000 LPD system. The system can be installed close to the utility point, thereby reducing hot water loss in the pipelines.
Dynamic Corrosion Test Rig

250 LPD Solar Water Heating System
61
RECENT MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS OF BHEL (during March'06-August'06)
ORDERS BAGGED Overseas
Achieved yet another breakthrough in the international market by winning its second consecutive order from Ethiopia for 230 kV substations on EPC basis from Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation (EEPCO). Last year, BHEL won a similar contract, funded by the World Bank, for substations, making inroads in Ethiopia. BHEL has won the contract outbidding Chinese and other multinational companies. The project is funded by the Kuwait Fund. The contract agreement for this project, signed between BHEL and EEPCO, is part of an electrification programme initiated by the Ethiopian Government in the Afar State of Ethiopia. BHEL's scope of work in the project includes design, supply, erection, civil construction and commissioning of 230 kV Semera and Dichoto substations. The substations are to be completed in a schedule of 18 months. Won a prestigious contract for setting up 230 kV substations on EPC basis in Bangladesh. Outbidding Chinese, Malaysian and Indian Companies, BHEL has won the contract for supply and installation of a 230 kV substation at Baghabari Power Plant and extension of a 230 kV substation at Ishurdi. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) funded contract has been placed on BHEL by Power Grid Company of Bangladesh. This is the first order for BHEL for substations in Bangladesh. BHEL's scope of work in the project includes design, supply, erection, civil construction and commissioning of a 230 kV substation at Baghabari and expansion of Ishurdi substation.
Secured two prestigious contracts in Afghanistan as part of the company's aggressive plans for increasing business in South Asia. This also marks BHEL's foray in Afghanistan, which is a potential market. The two turnkey contracts have been secured by BHEL from Power Grid Corporation of India for setting up a 220 kV substation at Kabul, and from Water & Power Consultancy Services (WAPCOS), India, for supply and installation of Electromechanical Packages for 42 MW Salma Hydroelectric Power Plant in Afghanistan. Achieved a breakthrough in the international market for transformers by securing a prestigious export order from Egypt. Won in the face of stiff international competition, the order has been placed on BHEL by the Egyptian Electricity Transmission Co. (EETC). This is the single-largest order for transformers ever received by BHEL and the maiden order for transformers from Egypt. This order is expected to give a fillip to BHEL's efforts at playing a more prominent role in the large Power Projects planned in Egypt one of the largest countries in African continent. A wholly owned Government organization under the Ministry of Electricity and Energy, Egypt, EETC is responsible for Management, Operation and Maintenance of High and Ultra high Voltage Electric Power Transmission grids, all over the country.
Domestic
Secured contract for setting up a 500 MW thermal power plant (2x250 MW) in Uttar Pradesh. Reposing confidence in BHEL's capability and technological excellence, Uttar
62
Pradesh Rajya Vidyut Utpadan Nigam Limited (UPRVUNL) has placed orders for setting up 2 units of 250 MW each (Units 5&6) at Parichha TPS Extn. The project is slated for commissioning in fiscal 2009-10. With this, BHEL has maingtained its track record of bagging most of the orders placed by UPRUVNL for power generating equipment in Uttar Pradesh. So far, BHEL has commissioned over 9,000 MW of power generating sets in the state. These include thermal, gas-based, nuclear and hydro units of various ratings.
Rs.842 Crore, for setting up a 250 MW unit at Suratgarh TPS and a 195 MW unit at Kota TPS. The units are slated for commissioning in fiscal 2008-09, following which power situation in the state will ease considerably. With these contracts, BHEL has maintained its track record of bagging all the orders placed by RVUNL for power generating equipment in Rajasthan. BHEL has so far commissioned over 2400 MW of power generating sets in Rajasthan.
Secured contract from India's largest Power Utility, NTPC, for setting up the first unit of 490MW capacity, at its National Capital Thermal Power Project (NCTPP) Stage-II, at Dadri in Uttar Pradesh. With this, NTPC has once again reposed confidence in BHEL's proven technological excellence and capability in executing projects of this magnitude. The project is slated for commissioning in fiscal 2009-10. Achieved a major success in the form of a prestigious contract for a 250 MW Thermal Power Station (TPS), bagged in the face of stiff competition from Chinese and Korean equipment suppliers. The contract has been won from Tata Power Company (TPC) under competitive bidding. Notably, this is the first order secured by BHEL where the boiler will be designed to suit firing of imported coal. TPC has reposed its confidence in BHEL by placing the order for design, engineering, manufacture, supply, erection, testing and commissioning of main plant package for Unit-8 of Trombay TPS in Maharashtra. Secured contracts for setting up two thermal power projects in Rajasthan. Reposing confidence in BHEL's technological excellence and project execution capabilities, Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Utpadan Limited (RVUNL) has placed orders, cumulatively valued at
Secured contracts for the supply and erection of Electromechanical equipment for two separate Hydro Electric Projects (HEP) in Andhra Pradesh, won in the face of intense competition from European and Chinese multinational companies. The order was bagged by BHEL under International Competitive Bidding (ICB), as its offer was found techno-economically the best. Cumulatively valued at nearly Rs.82 Crore, the orders for Nagarjunasagar Tail Pond Dam (2x25 MW) and Sriramsagar HEP Extn. (1x9 MW), have been placed on BHEL by Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation (APGenco) and are a measure of the customer's confidence in BHEL's proven capabilities in execution of hydel power projects. Secured order for setting up a Lift Irrigation Scheme in Andhra Pradesh. The scheme will benefit thousands of farmers of the state by irrigating 2.75 Lakh hectares of parched land and making it arable. Won against stiff competition, the order for the 5x30 MW Kalwakurthy Lift Irrigation Scheme, has been placed on BHEL by Gammon India, who secured the EPC contract for the project from the AP Govt. BHEL is already executing Stage-I of the Scheme, the order for which was placed on the company by Patel Engineering. BHEL is to set up on turnkey basis, another lignite-based power project in Gujarat for
63
GIPCL. The power plant will be equipped with an eco-friendly, state-of-the-art Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC) Boiler, specifically designed to utilize low-grade fuels like lignite, high ash coal, washery rejects etc. To this effect, GIPCL has once again reposed confidence in BHEL's proven technological excellence and capability by placing an order valued at Rs.1200 Crore for setting up 2 units of 125 MW each (Units 3&4) for Surat Lignite Thermal Power Station Expansion project. The two units will be commissioned in a tight schedule of 33 and 37 months respectively.
Secured order for a captive power plant to be installed in a steel plant in Gujarat. Reposing confidence in BHEL's capabilities, the Essar Group has placed an order for a 110.6 MW Gas Turbine Generator Set for an open-cycle captive power plant for the expansion of the existing captive power plant at Essar Group's Hazira project. The supplies for the project are slated for completion in a very tight schedule of just 14 months. For Essar, BHEL is already executing an order for a captive power plant of similar rating at Hazira. The project is in an advanced stage and is expected to be commissioned shortly. The synchronization of these units will ensure continuous supply of 216 MW of quality power to the steel plant, which will be highly cost-effective for the customer, making the end product economical.
(STPS) Stage-III, in Madhya Pradesh, has been commissioned. With the synchronization of the unit, 12 million units of electricity will be added to the grid of the power-deficit state, every day. Valued at Rs.2125 Crore, NTPC had placed the Main Plant Package contract for the 2x500MW Vindhyachal STPS - Stage III on BHEL, once again reposing confidence in BHEL's technological excellence & capability in executing projects of this magnitude. With the commissioning of this unit, the cumulative generating capacity of the power station has gone up to 2760 MW. The second unit is also targeted for commissioning by BHEL in fiscal 200607. On completion of Stage-III, the generating capacity of Vindhyachal STPS will be enhanced to 3260 MW, making it India's largest power generating station.
AWARDS
COMMISSIONING HIGHLIGHTS
The first 500 MW unit at NTPC's Vindhyachal Super Thermal Power Station
For outstanding export performance, BHEL has won the Engineering Export Promotion Council (EEPC)'s award, for the 16th year in succession. Conferred on BHEL in the category 'Star Performer in 2004-05: Power Generation Equipment and Parts Large Enterprises', the award was presented by the Hon'ble Union Minister for Commerce & Industry, Mr. Kamal Nath, on August 10, 2006. Overseas business has been identified as a major thrust area by the company. In this direction, short-term and long-term plans have been chalked out which are yielding rich dividends. During the last fiscal, BHEL booked the highest-ever physical export orders of Rs.3,348 Crore a six-fold increase over the previous year.
64
Rihand STPSBHEL has supplied 2x500 MW sets.
Kayamkulam CCPP (350 MW).
Registration No. RN-27700/76
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited

BHEL House, Siri Fort, New Delhi-110 049
Visit our Website at : http://www.bhel.com
Published by Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., and printed at VIBA PRESS PVT. LTD., C-66/3, Okhla Indl. Area, Phase-II, New Delhi-110020. Tel. : 41611300, Telefax : 26386500

Bhel Journa Sep 06

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bhel Journa Sep 06

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BHEL JOURNAL

Volume 27 No. 2 September 2006

Editorial Advisory Committee Ramji Rai K. Ravikumar D. Indran S.K. Goyal

Editor : R.K. Bhattacharya Associate Editor : D. Roy

ADVANCES IN MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED STEAM CYCLE POWER PLANTS

FIG. 1 : EFFICIENCY IMPROVING MEASURES FOR STEAM POWER PLANTS [1]

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

FIG. 2 : DEVELOPMENT OF UNIT SIZES AND STEAM PARAMETERS IN JAPAN [1]

FIG. 3 : POWER PLANT EFFICIENCIES IN JAPAN [1]

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

REQUIREMENTS OF MATERIALS FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

TABLE-1 : CANDIDATE MATERIALS FOR BOILER TUBES, PIPES AND HEADERS

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

Component Casings/shells (Valves; steam chests; nozzle box; cylinders) Bolting

566C Cr MoV (cast) 10Cr MoVNb

620C 9-10%Cr (W) 12CrW (Co)

760C CCA617 Inconel 740

422 9-12% CrMo V Nimonic80A

9-12%CrMo V A286 IN 718

1 Cr MoV 12 CrMoVNbN 26NiCrMoV11 5 422 10 CrMoVNbN P22, P91

9-12% CrWCo 12CrMoWVNbN

9-12% CrWCo P91, P92

Wrought Ni Base Inconel 740

BOILER MATERIALS Superheater and Reheater Tubing

FIG. 7 : 1,00,000H STRESS RUPTURE STRENGTH FOR BOILER MATERIALS [10]

Steam Piping and Headers

FIG. 9 : COMPARISON OF FIRE-SIDE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF VARIOUS ALLOYS [31]

FIG. 10 : HOT-CORROSION WEIGHT-LOSS wrt Cr CONTENT FOR VARIOUS ALLOYS [30]

FIG. 11 : 1,00,000H CREEP STRENGTH FOR STEAM TURBINE APPLICATIONS [10]

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

Heavy Section Stationary Parts

Transition Weld Joints

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

For advanced steam plants of temperatures

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

SELF-EXCITATION IN 3-PHASE SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION GENERATOR FOR WINDMILL APPLICATION

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF THE SELF-EXCITATION TYPE

TYPES OF SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION GENERATOR

These are of two types:

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

CONFIGURATIONS OF STATOR WINDING AND CAPACITOR BANK

(ii) Star-connected stator winding and Deltaconnected capacitor bank.(Fig. 4)

FIG. 2 : LOAD LINE OF CAPACITANCE TANGENT TO THE MAGNETISING CURVE

STAR-CONNECTED STATOR WINDING FIG. 3

STAR-CONNECTED CAPACITOR BANK

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

STAR-CONNECTED STATOR WINDING FIG. 4

DELTA-CONNECTED CAPACITOR BANK

INDUCTION GENERATOR ON LOAD (Fig. 7)

DELTA-CONNECTED STATOR WINDING FIG. 5

STAR-CONNECTED CAPACITOR BANK

DELTA-CONNECTED STATOR WINDING FIG. 6

DELTA-CONNECTED CAPACITOR BANK FIG. 7 : GENERATOR WITH LOAD

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

DETERMINATION OF CAPACITANCE VALUE

FIG. 9 : SELF-EXCITATION WITH THE AID OF BATTERY

FIG. 8 : DETERMINATION OF CAPACITANCE VALUE

BHEL JOURNAL, September 2006

FIG. 10 : AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION OF INDUCTION GENERATOR