Basic Thermoelasticity

Biswajit Banerjee
November 15, 2006
Contents
1 Governing Equations 1
1.1 Balance Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 The Clausius-Duhem Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Constitutive Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Other strain and stress measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Stress Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Helmholtz and Gibbs free energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.4 Specic Heats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Appendix 9
1 Governing Equations
The equations that govern the motion of a thermoelastic solid include the balance laws for mass, momentum, and
energy. Kinematic equations and constitutive relations are needed to complete the system of equations. Physical
restrictions on the form of the constitutive relations are imposed by an entropy inequality that expresses the second
law of thermodynamics in mathematical form.
The balance laws express the idea that the rate of change of a quantity (mass, momentum, energy) in a volume must
arise from three causes:
1. the physical quantity itself ows through the surface that bounds the volume,
2. there is a source of the physical quantity on the surface of the volume, or/and,
3. there is a source of the physical quantity inside the volume.
Let be the body (an open subset of Euclidean space) and let be its surface (the boundary of ).
1
Let the motion of material points in the body be described by the map
x = (X) = x(X) (1)
where X is the position of a point in the initial conguration and x is the location of the same point in the deformed
conguration. The deformation gradient (F) is given by
F =
x
X
=
0
x . (2)
1.1 Balance Laws
Let f(x, t) be a physical quantity that is owing through the body. Let g(x, t) be sources on the surface of the body
and let h(x, t) be sources inside the body. Let n(x, t) be the outward unit normal to the surface . Let v(x, t) be
the velocity of the physical particles that carry the physical quantity that is owing. Also, let the speed at which the
bounding surface is moving be u
n
(in the direction n).
Then, balance laws can be expressed in the general form ([1])
d
dt
__

f(x, t) dV
_
=
_

f(x, t)[u
n
(x, t) v(x, t) n(x, t)] dA +
_

g(x, t) dA +
_

h(x, t) dV . (3)
Note that the functions f(x, t), g(x, t), and h(x, t) can be scalar valued, vector valued, or tensor valued -
depending on the physical quantity that the balance equation deals with.
It can be shown that the balance laws of mass, momentum, and energy can be written as (see Appendix):
+ v = 0 Balance of Mass
v b = 0 Balance of Linear Momentum
=
T
Balance of Angular Momentum
e : (v) + q s = 0 Balance of Energy.
(4)
In the above equations (x, t) is the mass density (current), is the material time derivative of , v(x, t) is the
particle velocity, v is the material time derivative of v, (x, t) is the Cauchy stress tensor, b(x, t) is the body force
density, e(x, t) is the internal energy per unit mass, e is the material time derivative of e, q(x, t) is the heat ux
vector, and s(x, t) is an energy source per unit mass.
With respect to the reference conguration, the balance laws can be written as
det(F)
0
= 0 Balance of Mass

0
x
0
P
T

0
b = 0 Balance of Linear Momentum
F P = P
T
F
T
Balance of Angular Momentum

0
e P
T
:

F +
0
q
0
s = 0 Balance of Energy.
(5)
In the above, P is the rst Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, and
0
is the mass density in the reference conguration.
The rst Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is related to the Cauchy stress tensor by
P = det(F) F
1
. (6)
2
We can alternatively dene the nominal stress tensor Nwhich is the transpose of the rst Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor such that
N := P
T
= det(F) (F
1
)
T
= det(F) F
T
. (7)
Then the balance laws become
det(F)
0
= 0 Balance of Mass

0
x
0
N
0
b = 0 Balance of Linear Momentum
F N
T
= N F
T
Balance of Angular Momentum

0
e N :

F +
0
q
0
s = 0 Balance of Energy.
(8)
The gradient and divergence operators are dened such that
v =
3

i,j=1
v
i
x
j
e
i
e
j
= v
i,j
e
i
e
j
; v =
3

i=1
v
i
x
i
= v
i,i
; S =
3

i,j=1
S
ij
x
j
e
i
=
ij,j
e
i
. (9)
where v is a vector eld, BS is a second-order tensor eld, and e
i
are the components of an orthonormal basis in
the current conguration. Also,

0
v =
3

i,j=1
v
i
X
j
E
i
E
j
= v
i,j
E
i
E
j
;
0
v =
3

i=1
v
i
X
i
= v
i,i
;
0
S =
3

i,j=1
S
ij
X
j
E
i
= S
ij,j
E
i
(10)
where v is a vector eld, BS is a second-order tensor eld, and E
i
are the components of an orthonormal basis in
the reference conguration.
The contraction operation is dened as
A : B =
3

i,j=1
A
ij
B
ij
= A
ij
B
ij
. (11)
1.2 The Clausius-Duhem Inequality
The Clausius-Duhem inequality can be used to express the second law of thermodynamics for elastic-plastic
materials. This inequality is a statement concerning the irreversibility of natural processes, especially when energy
dissipation is involved.
Just like in the balance laws in the previous section, we assume that there is a ux of a quantity, a source of the
quantity, and an internal density of the quantity per unit mass. The quantity of interest in this case is the entropy.
Thus, we assume that there is an entropy ux, an entropy source, and an internal entropy density per unit mass ()
in the region of interest.
Let be such a region and let be its boundary. Then the second law of thermodynamics states that the rate of
increase of in this region is greater than or equal to the sum of that supplied to (as a ux or from internal
sources) and the change of the internal entropy density due to material owing in and out of the region.
Let move with a velocity u
n
and let particles inside have velocities v. Let n be the unit outward normal to
the surface . Let be the density of matter in the region, q be the entropy ux at the surface, and r be the
entropy source per unit mass. Then (see [1, 2]), the entropy inequality may be written as
d
dt
__

dV
_

(u
n
v n) dA +
_

q dA +
_

r dV . (12)
3
The scalar entropy ux can be related to the vector ux at the surface by the relation q = (x) n. Under the
assumption of incrementally isothermal conditions (see [3] for a detailed discussion of the assumptions involved),
we have
(x) =
q(x)
T
; r =
s
T
where q is the heat ux vector, s is a energy source per unit mass, and T is the absolute temperature of a material
point at x at time t.
We then have the Clausius-Duhem inequality in integral form:
d
dt
__

dV
_

(u
n
v n) dA
_

q n
T
dA +
_

s
T
dV . (13)
We can show that (see Appendix) the entropy inequality may be written in differential form as

_
q
T
_
+
s
T
. (14)
In terms of the Cauchy stress and the internal energy, the Clausius-Duhem inequality may be written as (see
Appendix)
( e T ) : v
q T
T
. (15)
1.3 Constitutive Relations
A set of constitutive equations is required to close to system of balance laws. For large deformation plasticity, we
have to dene appropriate kinematic quantities and stress measures so that constitutive relations between them may
have a physical meaning.
Let the fundamental kinematic quantity be the deformation gradient (F) which is given by
F =
x
X
=
0
x ; det F > 0 .
A thermoelastic material is one in which the internal energy (e) is a function only of F and the specic entropy (),
that is
e = e(F, ) .
For a thermoelastic material, we can show that the entropy inequality can be written as (see Appendix)

_
e

T
_
+
_

e
F
F
T
_
:

F +
q T
T
0 . (16)
At this stage, we make the following constitutive assumptions:
1. Like the internal energy, we assume that and T are also functions only of F and , i.e.,
= (F, ) ; T = T(F, ) .
4
2. The heat ux q satises the thermal conductivity inequality and if q is independent of and

F, we have
q T 0 = ( T) T 0 = 0
i.e., the thermal conductivity is positive semidenite.
Therefore, the entropy inequality may be written as

_
e

T
_
+
_

e
F
F
T
_
:

F 0 .
Since and

F are arbitrary, the entropy inequality will be satised if and only if
e

T = 0 = T =
e

and
e
F
F
T
= 0 = =
e
F
F
T
.
Therefore,
T =
e

and =
e
F
F
T
. (17)
Given the above relations, the energy equation may expressed in terms of the specic entropy as (see Appendix)
T = q + s . (18)
Effect of a rigid body rotation of the internal energy:
If a thermoelastic body is subjected to a rigid body rotation Q, then its internal energy should not change. After a rotation, the new deformation
gradient (

F) is given by

F = Q F .
Since the internal energy does not change, we must have
e = e(

F, ) = e(F, ) .
Now, from the polar decomposition theorem, F = R U where Ris the orthogonal rotation tensor (i.e., R R
T
= R
T
R= 1) and U is the
symmetric right stretch tensor. Therefore,
e(Q R U, ) = e(F, ) .
Now, we can choose any rotation Q. In particular, if we choose Q= R
T
, we have
e(R
T
R U, ) = e(1 U, ) = e(U, ) .
Therefore,
e(U, ) = e(F, ) .
This means that the internal energy depends only on the stretch U and not on the orientation of the body.
1.3.1 Other strain and stress measures
The internal energy depends on F only through the stretch U. A strain measure that reects this fact and also
vanishes in the reference conguration is the Green strain
E =
1
2
(F
T
F 1) =
1
2
(U
2
1) . (19)
Recall that the Cauchy stress is given by
=
e
F
F
T
.
5
We can show that the Cauchy stress can be expressed in terms of the Green strain as (see Appendix)
= F
e
E
F
T
. (20)
Recall that the nominal stress tensor is dened as
N = det F ( F
T
) .
From the conservation of mass, we have
0
= det F. Hence,
N =

0

F
T
. (21)
The nominal stress is unsymmetric. We can dene a symmetric stress measure with respect to the reference
conguration call the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor (S):
S := F
1
N = P F
T
=

0

F
1
F
T
. (22)
In terms of the derivatives of the internal energy, we have
S =

0

F
1

_
F
e
E
F
T
_
F
T
=
0
e
E
and
N =

0

_
F
e
E
F
T
_
F
T
=
0
F
e
E
.
That is,
S =
0
e
E
and N =
0
F
e
E
. (23)
1.3.2 Stress Power
The stress power per unit volume is given by : v. In terms of the stress measures in the reference
conguration, we have
: v =
_
F
e
E
F
T
_
: (

F F
1
) .
Using the identity A : (B C) = (A C
T
) : B, we have
: v =
__
F
e
E
F
T
_
F
T
_
:

F =
_
F
e
E
_
:

F =

0
N :

F .
We can alternatively express the stress power in terms of S and

E. Taking the material time derivative of E we
have

E =
1
2
(

F
T
F +F
T

F) .
Therefore,
S :

E =
1
2
[S : (

F
T
F) +S : (F
T

F)] .
6
Using the identities A : (B C) = (A C
T
) : B = (B
T
A) : C and A : B = A
T
: B
T
and using the symmetry
of S, we have
S :

E =
1
2
[(S F
T
) :

F
T
+ (F S) :

F] =
1
2
[(F S
T
) :

F + (F S) :

F] = (F S) :

F .
Now, S = F
1
N. Therefore, S :

E = N :

F. Hence, the stress power can be expressed as
: v = N :

F = S :

E . (24)
If we split the velocity gradient into symmetric and skew parts using
v = l = d +w
where d is the rate of deformation tensor and w is the spin tensor, we have
: v = : d + : w = tr(
T
d) + tr(
T
w) = tr( d) + tr( w) .
Since is symmetric and w is skew, we have tr( w) = 0. Therefore, : v = tr( d). Hence, we may also
express the stress power as
tr( d) = tr(N
T

F) = tr(S

E) . (25)
1.3.3 Helmholtz and Gibbs free energy
Recall that
S =
0
e
E
.
Therefore,
e
E
=
1

0
S .
Also recall that
e

= T .
Now, the internal energy e = e(E, ) is a function only of the Green strain and the specic entropy. Let us assume,
that the above relations can be uniquely inverted locally at a material point so that we have
E =

E(S, T) and = (S, T) .
Then the specic internal energy, the specic entropy, and the stress can also be expressed as functions of S and T,
or E and T, i.e.,
e = e(E, ) = e(S, T) = e(E, T) ; = (S, T) = (E, T) ; and S =

S(E, T)
We can show that (see Appendix)
d
dt
(e T ) =

T +
1

0
S :

E or
d
dt
=

T +
1

0
S :

E . (26)
and
d
dt
(e T
1

0
S : E) =

T
1

S : E or
dg
dt
=

T +
1

S : E . (27)
7
We dene the Helmholtz free energy as
=

(E, T) := e T . (28)
We dene the Gibbs free energy as
g = g(S, T) := e + T +
1

0
S : E . (29)
The functions

(E, T) and g(S, T) are unique. Using these denitions it can be showed that (see Appendix)

E
=
1

S(E, T) ;

T
= (E, T) ;
g
S
=
1

E(S, T) ;
g
T
= (S, T) (30)
and

S
T
=
0

E
and


E
T
=
0

S
. (31)
1.3.4 Specic Heats
The specic heat at constant strain (or constant volume) is dened as
C
v
:=
e(E, T)
T
. (32)
The specic heat at constant stress (or constant pressure) is dened as
C
p
:=
e(S, T)
T
. (33)
We can show that (see Appendix)
C
v
= T

T
= T

2

T
2
(34)
and
C
p
= T

T
+
1

0
S :


E
T
= T

2
g
T
2
+S :

2
g
ST
. (35)
Also the equation for the balance of energy can be expressed in terms of the specic heats as (see Appendix)
C
v

T = ( T) + s +

0
T
S
:

E

_
C
p

0
S :
E
_

T = ( T) + s

0
T
E
:

S
(36)
where

S
:=


S
T
and
E
:=


E
T
. (37)
The quantity
S
is called the coefcient of thermal stress and the quantity
E
is called the coefcient of thermal
expansion.
8
The difference between C
p
and C
v
can be expressed as
C
p
C
v
=
1

0
_
S T


S
T
_
:


E
T
. (38)
However, it is more common to express the above relation in terms of the elastic modulus tensor as (see Appendix
for proof)
C
p
C
v
=
1

0
S :
E
+
T

E
: C :
E
(39)
where the fourth-order tensor of elastic moduli is dened as
C :=


S

E
=
0

E

E
. (40)
For isotropic materials with a constant coefcient of thermal expansion that follow the St. Venant-Kirchhoff
material model, we can show that (see Appendix)
C
p
C
v
=
1

0
_
tr(S) + 9
2
K T

.
2 Appendix
1. The integral
F(t) =
Z
b(t)
a(t)
f(x, t) dx
is a function of the parameter t. Show that the derivative of F is given by
dF
dt
=
d
dt

Z
b(t)
a(t)
f(x, t) dx
!
=
Z
b(t)
a(t)
f(x, t)
t
dx + f[b(t), t]
b(t)
t
f[a(t), t]
a(t)
t
.
This relation is also known as the Leibniz rule.
The following proof is taken from [4].
We have,
dF
dt
= lim
t0
F(t + t) F(t)
t
.
Now,
F(t + t) F(t)
t
=
1
t
"
Z
b(t+t)
a(t+t)
f(x, t + t) dx
Z
b(t)
a(t)
f(x, t) dx
#

1
t
Z
b+b
a+a
f(x, t + t) dx
Z
b
a
f(x, t) dx

=
1
t

Z
a+a
a
f(x, t + t) dx +
Z
b+b
a
f(x, t + t) dx
Z
b
a
f(x, t) dx

=
1
t

Z
a+a
a
f(x, t + t) dx +
Z
b
a
f(x, t + t) dx +
Z
b+b
b
f(x, t + t) dx
Z
b
a
f(x, t) dx

=
Z
b
a
f(x, t + t) f(x, t)
t
dx +
1
t
Z
b+b
b
f(x, t + t) dx
1
t
Z
a+a
a
f(x, t + t) dx .
Since f(x, t) is essentially constant over the innitesimal intervals a < x < a + a and b < x < b + b, we may write
F(t + t) F(t)
t

Z
b
a
f(x, t + t) f(x, t)
t
dx + f(b, t + t)
b
t
f(a, t + t)
a
t
.
9
Taking the limit as t 0, we get
lim
t0
"
F(t + t) F(t)
t
#
= lim
t0
"
Z
b
a
f(x, t + t) f(x, t)
t
dx
#
+ lim
t0
"
f(b, t + t)
b
t
#
lim
t0
"
f(a, t + t)
a
t
#
or,
dF(t)
dt
=
Z
b(t)
a(t)
f(x, t)
t
dx + f[b(t), t]
b(t)
t
f[a(t), t]
a(t)
t
.
2. Let (t) be a region in Euclidean space with boundary (t). Let x(t) be the positions of points in the region and let v(x, t) be the velocity eld in
the region. Let n(x, t) be the outward unit normal to the boundary. Let f (x, t) be a vector eld in the region (it may also be a scalar eld). Show that
d
dt

Z
(t)
f dV
!
=
Z
(t)
f
t
dV +
Z
(t)
(v n)f dA .
This relation is also known as the Reynolds Transport Theorem and is a generalization of the Leibniz rule.
This proof is taken from [5] (also see [6]).
Let
0
be reference conguration of the region (t). Let the motion and the deformation gradient be given by
x = (X, t) ; F(X, t) =
0
.
Let J(X, t) = det[F(x, t)]. Then, integrals in the current and the reference congurations are related by
Z
(t)
f (x, t) dV =
Z

0
f [(X, t), t] J(X, t) dV =
Z

f (X, t) J(X, t) dV .
The time derivative of an integral over a volume is dened as
d
dt

Z
(t)
f (x, t) dV
!
= lim
t0
1
t

Z
(t+t)
f (x, t + t) dV
Z
(t)
f (x, t) dV
!
.
Converting into integrals over the reference conguration, we get
d
dt

Z
(t)
f (x, t) dV
!
= lim
t0
1
t
Z

f (X, t + t) J(X, t + t) dV
Z

f (X, t) J(X, t) dV

.
Since
0
is independent of time, we have
d
dt

Z
(t)
f (x, t) dV
!
=
Z

0
"
lim
t0

f (X, t + t) J(X, t + t)

f (X, t) J(X, t)
t
#
dV
=
Z

t
[

f (X, t) J(X, t)] dV

=
Z

t
[

f (X, t)] J(X, t) +

f (X, t)

t
[J(X, t)]

dV
Now, the time derivative of det F is given by (see [6], p. 77)
J(X, t)
t
=

t
(det F) = (det F)( v) = J(X, t) v((X, t), t) = J(X, t) v(x, t) .
Therefore,
d
dt

Z
(t)
f (x, t) dV
!
=
Z

t
[

f (X, t)] J(X, t) +

f (X, t) J(X, t) v(x, t)

dV
=
Z

t
[

f (X, t)] +

f (X, t) v(x, t)

J(X, t) dV
=
Z
(t)

f (x, t) +f (x, t) v(x, t)

dV
where

f is the material time derivative of f . Now, the material derivative is given by

f (x, t) =
f (x, t)
t
+ [f (x, t)] v(x, t) .
10
Therefore,
d
dt

Z
(t)
f (x, t) dV
!
=
Z
(t)

f (x, t)
t
+ [f (x, t)] v(x, t) +f (x, t) v(x, t)

dV
or,
d
dt

Z
(t)
f dV
!
=
Z
(t)

f
t
+f v +f v

dV .
Using the identity
(v w) = v( w) +v w
we then have
d
dt

Z
(t)
f dV
!
=
Z
(t)

f
t
+ (f v)

dV .
Using the divergence theorem and the identity (a b) n = (b n)a we have
d
dt

Z
(t)
f dV
!
=
Z
(t)
f
t
dV +
Z
(t)
(f v) n dV =
Z
(t)
f
t
dV +
Z
(t)
(v n)f dV .
3. Show that the balance of mass can be expressed as:
+ v = 0
where (x, t) is the current mass density, is the material time derivative of , and v(x, t) is the velocity of physical particles in the body
bounded by the surface .
Recall that the general equation for the balance of a physical quantity f(x, t) is given by
d
dt
Z

f(x, t) dV

=
Z

f(x, t)[un(x, t) v(x, t) n(x, t)] dA +

Z

g(x, t) dA +
Z

h(x, t) dV .
To derive the equation for the balance of mass, we assume that the physical quantity of interest is the mass density (x, t). Since mass is neither
created or destroyed, the surface and interior sources are zero, i.e., g(x, t) = h(x, t) = 0. Therefore, we have
d
dt
Z

(x, t) dV

=
Z

(x, t)[un(x, t) v(x, t) n(x, t)] dA .

Let us assume that the volume is a control volume (i.e., it does not change with time). Then the surface has a zero velocity (un = 0) and we get
Z

t
dV =
Z

(v n) dA .
Using the divergence theorem
Z

v dV =
Z

v n dA
we get
Z

t
dV =
Z

( v) dV.
or,
Z

t
+ ( v)

dV = 0 .
Since is arbitrary, we must have

t
+ ( v) = 0 .
Using the identity
( v) = v + v
we have

t
+ v + v = 0 .
Now, the material time derivative of is dened as
=

t
+ v .
Therefore,
+ v = 0 .
11
4. Show that the balance of linear momentum can be expressed as:
v b = 0
where (x, t) is the mass density, v(x, t) is the velocity, (x, t) is the Cauchy stress, and b is the body force density.
Recall the general equation for the balance of a physical quantity
d
dt
Z

f(x, t) dV

=
Z

f(x, t)[un(x, t) v(x, t) n(x, t)] dA +

Z

g(x, t) dA +
Z

h(x, t) dV .
In this case the physical quantity of interest is the momentum density, i.e., f(x, t) = (x, t) v(x, t). The source of momentum ux at the surface is
the surface traction, i.e., g(x, t) = t. The source of momentum inside the body is the body force, i.e., h(x, t) = (x, t) b(x, t). Therefore, we have
d
dt
Z

v dV

=
Z

v[un v n] dA +
Z

t dA +
Z

b dV .
The surface tractions are related to the Cauchy stress by
t = n .
Therefore,
d
dt
Z

v dV

=
Z

v[un v n] dA +
Z

n dA +
Z

b dV .
Let us assume that is an arbitrary xed control volume. Then,
Z

t
( v) dV =
Z

v (v n) dA +
Z

n dA +
Z

b dV .
Now, from the denition of the tensor product we have (for all vectors a)
(u v) a = (a v) u .
Therefore,
Z

t
( v) dV =
Z

(v v) n dA +
Z

n dA +
Z

b dV .
Using the divergence theorem
Z

v dV =
Z

v n dA
we have
Z

t
( v) dV =
Z

[ (v v)] dV +
Z

dV +
Z

b dV
or,
Z

t
( v) + [( v) v] b

dV = 0 .
Since is arbitrary, we have

t
( v) + [( v) v] b = 0 .
Using the identity
(u v) = ( v)u + (u) v
we get

t
v +
v
t
+ ( v)(v) +( v) v b = 0
or,

t
+ v

v +
v
t
+( v) v b = 0
Using the identity
( v) = v +v ()
we get

t
+ v

v +
v
t
+ [ v +v ()] v b = 0
From the denition
(u v) a = (a v) u
12
we have
[v ()] v = [v ()] v .
Hence,

t
+ v

v +
v
t
+ v v + [v ()] v b = 0
or,

t
+ v + v

v +
v
t
+ v v b = 0 .
The material time derivative of is dened as
=

t
+ v .
Therefore,
[ + v] v +
v
t
+ v v b = 0 .
From the balance of mass, we have
+ v = 0 .
Therefore,

v
t
+ v v b = 0 .
The material time derivative of v is dened as
v =
v
t
+v v .
Hence,
v b = 0 .
5. Show that the balance of angular momentum can be expressed as:
=
T
We assume that there are no surface couples on or body couples in . Recall the general balance equation
d
dt
Z

f(x, t) dV

=
Z

f(x, t)[un(x, t) v(x, t) n(x, t)] dA +

Z

g(x, t) dA +
Z

h(x, t) dV .
In this case, the physical quantity to be conserved the angular momentum density, i.e., f = x ( v). The angular momentum source at the surface
is then g = x t and the angular momentum source inside the body is h = x ( b). The angular momentum and moments are calculated with
respect to a xed origin. Hence we have
d
dt
Z

x ( v) dV

=
Z

[x ( v)][un v n] dA +
Z

x t dA +
Z

x ( b) dV .
Assuming that is a control volume, we have
Z

t
( v)

dV =
Z

[x ( v)][v n] dA +
Z

x t dA +
Z

x ( b) dV .
Using the denition of a tensor product we can write
[x ( v)][v n] = [[x ( v)] v] n .
Also, t = n. Therefore we have
Z

t
( v)

dV =
Z

[[x ( v)] v] n dA +
Z

x ( n) dA +
Z

x ( b) dV .
Using the divergence theorem, we get
Z

t
( v)

dV =
Z

[[x ( v)] v] dV +
Z

x ( n) dA +
Z

x ( b) dV .
To convert the surface integral in the above equation into a volume integral, it is convenient to use index notation. Thus,
Z

x ( n) dA

i
=
Z

e
ijk
x
j

kl
n
l
dA =
Z

A
il
n
l
dA =
Z

A n dA
13
where [ ]
i
represents the i-th component of the vector. Using the divergence theorem
Z

A n dA =
Z

AdV =
Z

A
il
x
l
dV =
Z

x
l
(e
ijk
x
j

kl
) dV .
Differentiating,
Z

A n dA =
Z

e
ijk

jl

kl
+ e
ijk
x
j

kl
x
l

dV =
Z

e
ijk

kj
+ e
ijk
x
j

kl
x
l

dV =
Z

e
ijk

kj
+ e
ijk
x
j
[ ]
l

dV .
Expressed in direct tensor notation,
Z

A n dA =
Z

h
[E :
T
]
i
+ [x ( )]
i
i
dV
where E is the third-order permutation tensor. Therefore,
Z

x ( n) dA

i
==
Z

h
[E :
T
]
i
+ [x ( )]
i
i
dV
or,
Z

x ( n) dA ==
Z

h
E :
T
+x ( )
i
dV .
The balance of angular momentum can then be written as
Z

t
( v)

dV =
Z

[[x ( v)] v] dV +
Z

h
E :
T
+x ( )
i
dV +
Z

x ( b) dV .
Since is an arbitrary volume, we have
x

t
( v)

= [[x ( v)] v] +E :
T
+x ( ) +x ( b)
or,
x

t
( v) b

= [[x ( v)] v] +E :
T
.
Using the identity,
(u v) = ( v)u + (u) v
we get
[[x ( v)] v] = ( v)[x ( v)] + ([x ( v)]) v .
The second term on the right can be further simplied using index notation as follows.
[([x ( v)]) v]
i
= [([ (x v)]) v]
i
=

x
l
( e
ijk
x
j
v
k
) v
l
= e
ijk

x
l
x
j
v
k
v
l
+
x
j
x
l
v
k
v
l
+ x
j
v
k
x
l
v
l

= (e
ijk
x
j
v
k
)

x
l
v
l

+ (e
ijk

jl
v
k
v
l
) + e
ijk
x
j

v
k
x
l
v
l

= [(x v)( v) + v v +x ( v v)]

i
= [(x v)( v) +x ( v v)]
i
.
Therefore we can write
[[x ( v)] v] = ( v)(x v) + ( v)(x v) +x ( v v) .
The balance of angular momentum then takes the form
x

t
( v) b

= ( v)(x v) ( v)(x v) x ( v v) +E :
T
or,
x

t
( v) + v v b

= ( v)(x v) ( v)(x v) +E :
T
or,
x

v
t
+

t
v + v v b

= ( v)(x v) ( v)(x v) +E :
T
14
The material time derivative of v is dened as
v =
v
t
+v v .
Therefore,
x [ v b] = x

t
v +( v)(x v) ( v)(x v) +E :
T
.
Also, from the conservation of linear momentum
v b = 0 .
Hence,
0 = x

t
v + ( v)(x v) + ( v)(x v) E :
T
=

t
+ v + v

(x v) E :
T
.
The material time derivative of is dened as
=

t
+ v .
Hence,
( + v)(x v) E :
T
= 0 .
From the balance of mass
+ v = 0 .
Therefore,
E :
T
= 0 .
In index notation,
e
ijk

kj
= 0 .
Expanding out, we get

12

21
= 0 ;
23

32
= 0 ;
31

13
= 0 .
Hence,
=
T
6. Show that the balance of energy can be expressed as:
e : (v) + q s = 0
where (x, t) is the mass density, e(x, t) is the internal energy per unit mass, (x, t) is the Cauchy stress, v(x, t) is the particle velocity, q is the
heat ux vector, and s is the rate at which energy is generated by sources inside the volume (per unit mass).
Recall the general balance equation
d
dt
Z

f(x, t) dV

=
Z

f(x, t)[un(x, t) v(x, t) n(x, t)] dA +

Z

g(x, t) dA +
Z

h(x, t) dV .
In this case, the physical quantity to be conserved the total energy density which is the sum of the internal energy density and the kinetic energy
density, i.e., f = e + 1/2 |v v|. The energy source at the surface is a sum of the rate of work done by the applied tractions and the rate of heat
leaving the volume (per unit area), i.e, g = v t q n where n is the outward unit normal to the surface. The energy source inside the body is the
sum of the rate of work done by the body forces and the rate of energy generated by internal sources, i.e., h = v (b) + s.
Hence we have
d
dt
Z

e +
1
2
v v

dV

=
Z

e +
1
2
v v

(un v n) dA +
Z

(v t q n) dA +
Z

(v b + s) dV .
Let be a control volume that does not change with time. Then we get
Z

e +
1
2
v v

dV =
Z

e +
1
2
v v

(v n) dA +
Z

(v t q n) dA +
Z

(v b + s) dV .
Using the relation t = n, the identity v ( n) = (
T
v) n, and invoking the symmetry of the stress tensor, we get
Z

e +
1
2
v v

dV =
Z

e +
1
2
v v

(v n) dA +
Z

( v q) n dA +
Z

(v b + s) dV .
15
We now apply the divergence theorem to the surface integrals to get
Z

e +
1
2
v v

dV =
Z

e +
1
2
v v

dA +
Z

( v) dA
Z

q dA +
Z

(v b + s) dV .
Since is arbitrary, we have

e +
1
2
v v

e +
1
2
v v

+ ( v) q + (v b + s) .
Expanding out the left hand side, we have

e +
1
2
v v

=

t

e +
1
2
v v

e
t
+
1
2

t
(v v)

=

t

e +
1
2
v v

+
e
t
+
v
t
v .
For the rst term on the right hand side, we use the identity ( v) = v + v to get

e +
1
2
v v

e +
1
2
v v

v +

e +
1
2
v v

v
=

e +
1
2
v v

v +

e +
1
2
v v

v +

e +
1
2
v v

v
=

e +
1
2
v v

v +

e +
1
2
v v

v + e v +
1
2
(v v) v
=

e +
1
2
v v

v +

e +
1
2
v v

v + e v + (v
T
v) v
=

e +
1
2
v v

v +

e +
1
2
v v

v + e v + (v v) v .
For the second term on the right we use the identity (S
T
v) = S : v + ( S) v and the symmetry of the Cauchy stress tensor to get
( v) = : v + ( ) v .
After collecting terms and rearranging, we get

t
+ v + v

e +
1
2
v v

v
t
+ v v b

v+

e
t
+e v

+ : v+ q s = 0 .
Applying the balance of mass to the rst term and the balance of linear momentum to the second term, and using the material time derivative of the
internal energy
e =
e
t
+e v
we get the nal form of the balance of energy:
e : v + q s = 0 .
7. Show that the Clausius-Duhem inequality in integral form:
d
dt
Z

dV

(un v n) dA
Z

q n
T
dA +
Z

s
T
dV .
can be written in differential form as

q
T
!
+
s
T
.
Assume that is an arbitrary xed control volume. Then un = 0 and the derivative can be take inside the integral to give
Z

t
( ) dV
Z

(v n) dA
Z

q n
T
dA +
Z

s
T
dV .
Using the divergence theorem, we get
Z

t
( ) dV
Z

( v) dV
Z

q
T
!
dV +
Z

s
T
dV .
16
Since is arbitrary, we must have

t
( ) ( v)

q
T
!
+
s
T
.
Expanding out

t
+

t
() v ( v)

q
T
!
+
s
T
or,

t
+

t
v v ( v)

q
T
!
+
s
T
or,

t
+ v + v

t
+ v

q
T
!
+
s
T
.
Now, the material time derivatives of and are given by
=

t
+ v ; =

t
+ v .
Therefore,
( + v) +

q
T
!
+
s
T
.
From the conservation of mass + v = 0. Hence,

q
T
!
+
s
T
.
8. Show that the Clausius-Duhem inequality

q
T
!
+
s
T
can be expressed in terms of the internal energy as
( e T ) : v
q T
T
.
Using the identity ( v) = v +v in the Clausius-Duhem inequality, we get

q
T
!
+
s
T
or
1
T
q q

1
T
!
+
s
T
.
Now, using index notation with respect to a Cartesian basis e
j
,

1
T
!
=

x
j
`
T
1

e
j
=
`
T
2
T
x
j
e
j
=
1
T
2
T .
Hence,

1
T
q +
1
T
2
q T +
s
T
or
1
T
( q s) +
1
T
2
q T .
Recall the balance of energy
e : v + q s = 0 = e : v = ( q s) .
Therefore,

1
T
( e : v) +
1
T
2
q T = T e : v +
q T
T
.
Rearranging,
( e T ) : v
q T
T
.
17
9. For thermoelastic materials, the internal energy is a function only of the deformation gradient and the temperature, i.e., e = e(F, T). Show that, for
thermoelastic materials, the Clausius-Duhem inequality
( e T ) : v
q T
T
can be expressed as

e
F
F
T

:

F
q T
T
.
Since e = e(F, T), we have
e =
e
F
:

F +
e

.
Therefore,

e
F
:

F +
e

: v
q T
T
or

+
e
F
:

F : v
q T
T
.
Now, v = l =

F F
1
. Therefore, using the identity A: (B C) = (A C
T
) : B, we have
: v = : (

F F
1
) = ( F
T
) :

F .
Hence,

+
e
F
:

F ( F
T
) :

F
q T
T
or,

e
F
F
T

:

F
q T
T
.
10. Show that, for thermoelastic materials, the balance of energy
e : v + q s = 0 .
can be expressed as
T = q + s .
Since e = e(F, T), we have
e =
e
F
:

F +
e

.
Plug into energy equation to get

e
F
:

F +
e

: v + q s = 0 .
Recall,
e

= T and
e
F
= F
T
.
Hence,
( F
T
) :

F + T : v + q s = 0 .
Now, v = l =

F F
1
. Therefore, using the identity A: (B C) = (A C
T
) : B, we have
: v = : (

F F
1
) = ( F
T
) :

F .
Plugging into the energy equation, we have
: v + T : v + q s = 0
or,
T = q + s .
18
11. Show that, for thermoelastic materials, the Cauchy stress can be expressed in terms of the Green strain as
= F
e
E
F
T
.
Recall that the Cauchy stress is given by
=
e
F
F
T
=
ij
=
e
F
ik
F
T
kj
=
e
F
ik
F
jk
.
The Green strain E = E(F) = E(U) and e = e(F, ) = e(U, ). Hence, using the chain rule,
e
F
=
e
E
:
E
F
=
e
F
ik
=
e
E
lm
E
lm
F
ik
.
Now,
E =
1
2
(F
T
F 1) = E
lm
=
1
2
(F
T
lp
Fpm
lm
) =
1
2
(F
pl
Fpm
lm
) .
Taking the derivative with respect to F, we get
E
F
=
1
2

F
T
F
F +F
T

F
F

=
E
lm
F
ik
=
1
2

F
pl
F
ik
Fpm + F
pl
Fpm
F
ik

.
Therefore,
=
1
2

e
E
:

F
T
F
F +F
T

F
F

F
T
=
ij
=
1
2

e
E
lm

F
pl
F
ik
Fpm + F
pl
Fpm
F
ik

F
jk
.
Recall,
A
A

A
ij
A
kl
=
ik

jl
and
A
T
A

A
ji
A
kl
=
jk

il
.
Therefore,

ij
=
1
2

e
E
lm
`

pi

lk
Fpm + F
pl

pi

mk

F
jk
=
1
2

e
E
lm
(
lk
F
im
+ F
il

mk
)

F
jk
or,

ij
=
1
2

e
E
km
F
im
+
e
E
lk
F
il

F
jk
= =
1
2

"
F

e
E

T
+F
e
E
#
F
T
or,
=
1
2
F
"

e
E

T
+
e
E
#
F
T
.
From the symmetry of the Cauchy stress, we have
= (F A) F
T
and
T
= F (F A)
T
= F A
T
F
T
and =
T
= A= A
T
.
Therefore,
e
E
=

e
E

T
and we get
= F
e
E
F
T
.
12. For thermoelastic materials, the specic internal energy is given by
e = e(E, )
where Eis the Green strain and is the specic entropy. Show that
d
dt
(e T ) =

T +
1

0
S :

E and
d
dt
(e T
1

0
S : E) =

T
1

S : E
where
0
is the initial density, T is the absolute temperature, S is the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stress, and a dot over a quantity indicates the material time
derivative.
19
Taking the material time derivative of the specic internal energy, we get
e =
e
E
:

E+
e

.
Now, for thermoelastic materials,
T =
e

and S =
0
e
E
.
Therefore,
e =
1

0
S :

E+ T . = e T =
1

0
S :

E.
Now,
d
dt
(T ) =

T + T .
Therefore,
e
d
dt
(T ) +

T =
1

0
S :

E =
d
dt
(e T ) =

T +
1

0
S :

E.
Also,
d
dt

0
S : E
!
=
1

0
S :

E+
1

S : E.
Hence,
e
d
dt
(T ) +

T =
d
dt

0
S : E
!

S : E =
d
dt

e T
1

0
S : E
!
=

T
1

S : E.
13. For thermoelastic materials, show that the following relations hold:

E
=
1

S(E, T) ;

T
= (E, T) ;
g
S
=
1

E(S, T) ;
g
T
= (S, T)
where (E, T) is the Helmholtz free energy and g(S, T) is the Gibbs free energy.
Also show that

S
T
=
0

E
and


E
T
=
0

S
.
Recall that
(E, T) = e T = e(E, ) T .
and
g(S, T) = e + T +
1

0
S : E.
(Note that we can choose any functional dependence that we like, because the quantities e, , Eare the actual quantities and not any particular
functional relations).
The derivatives are

E
=
e
E
=
1

0
S ;

T
= .
and
g
S
=
1

0
S
S
: E =
1

0
E;
g
T
= .
Hence,

E
=
1

S(E, T) ;

T
= (E, T) ;
g
S
=
1

E(S, T) ;
g
T
= (S, T)
From the above, we have

TE
=

2

ET
=

E
=
1

S
T
.
20
and

2
g
TS
=

2
g
ST
=

S
=
1

E
T
.
Hence,

S
T
=
0

E
and


E
T
=
0

S
.
14. For thermoelastic materials, show that the following relations hold:
e(E, T)
T
= T

T
= T

2

T
2
and
e(S, T)
T
= T

T
+
1

0
S :


E
T
= T

2
g
T
2
+S :

2
g
ST
.
Recall,

(E, T) = = e T = e(E, T) T (E, T)

and
g(S, T) = g = e + T +
1

0
S : E = e(S, T) + T (S, T) +
1

0
S :

E(S, T) .
Therefore,
e(E, T)
T
=

T
+ (E, T) + T

T
and
e(S, T)
T
=
g
T
+ (S, T) + T

T
+
1

0
S :


E
T
.
Also, recall that
(E, T) =

T
=

T
=

T
2
,
(S, T) =
g
T
=

T
=

2
g
T
2
,
and

E(S, T) =
0
g
S
=


E
T
=
0

2
g
ST
.
Hence,
e(E, T)
T
= T

T
= T

2

T
2
and
e(S, T)
T
= T

T
+
1

0
S :


E
T
= T

2
g
T
2
+S :

2
g
ST
.
15. For thermoelastic materials, show that the balance of energy equation
T = q + s
can be expressed as either
Cv

T = ( T) + s +

0
T


S
T
:

E
or

Cp
1

0
S :


E
T
!

T = ( T) + s

0
T


E
T
:

S
where
Cv =
e(E, T)
T
and Cp =
e(S, T)
T
.
If the independent variables are Eand T, then
= (E, T) = =

E
:

E+

T

T .
21
On the other hand, if we consider S and T to be the independent variables
= (S, T) = =

S
:

S +

T

T .
Since

E
=
1

S
T
;

T
=
Cv
T
;

S
=
1

E
T
; and

T
=
1
T

Cp
1

0
S :


E
T
!
we have, either
=
1

S
T
:

E+
Cv
T

T
or
=
1

E
T
:

S +
1
T

Cp
1

0
S :


E
T
!

T .
The equation for balance of energy in terms of the specic entropy is
T = q + s .
Using the two forms of , we get two forms of the energy equation:

0
T


S
T
:

E+ Cv

T = q + s
and

0
T


E
T
:

S + Cp

T

0
S :


E
T

T = q + s .
From Fouriers law of heat conduction
q = T .
Therefore,

0
T


S
T
:

E+ Cv

T = ( T) + s
and

0
T


E
T
:

S + Cp

T

0
S :


E
T

T = ( T) + s .
Rearranging,
Cv

T = ( T) + s +

0
T


S
T
:

E
or,

Cp
1

0
S :


E
T
!

T = ( T) + s

0
T


E
T
:

S .
16. For thermoelastic materials, show that the specic heats are related by the relation
Cp Cv =
1

S T


S
T
!
:


E
T
.
Recall that
Cv :=
e(E, T)
T
= T

T
and
Cp :=
e(S, T)
T
= T

T
+
1

0
S :


E
T
.
Therefore,
Cp Cv = T

T
+
1

0
S :


E
T
T

T
.
Also recall that
= (E, T) = (S, T) .
22
Therefore, keeping S constant while differentiating, we have

T
=

E
:
E
T
+

T
.
Noting that E =

E(S, T), and plugging back into the equation for the difference between the two specic heats, we have
Cp Cv = T

E
:


E
T
+
1

0
S :


E
T
.
Recalling that

E
=
1

S
T
we get
Cp Cv =
1

S T


S
T
!
:


E
T
.
17. For thermoelastic materials, show that the specic heats can also be related by the equations
Cp Cv =
1

0
S :
E
T
+
E
T
:

EE
:
E
T

=
1

0
S :
E
T
+
T

0
E
T
:

S
E
:
E
T

.
Recall that
S =
0

E
=
0
f(E(S, T), T) .
Recall the chain rule which states that if
g(u, t) = f(x(u, t), y(u, t))
then, if we keep u xed, the partial derivative of g with respect to t is given by
g
t
=
f
x
x
t
+
f
y
y
t
.
In our case,
u = S, t = T, g(S, T) = S, x(S, T) = E(S, T), y(S, T) = T, and f =
0
f.
Hence, we have
S = g(S, T) = f(E(S, T), T) =
0
f(E(S, T), T) .
Taking the derivative with respect to T keeping S constant, we have
g
T
=

7
0
S
T
=
0
2
6
6
4
f
E
:
E
T
+
f
T

7
1
T
T
3
7
7
5
or,
0 =
f
E
:
E
T
+
f
T
.
Now,
f =

E
=
f
E
=

2

EE
and
f
T
=

2

TE
.
Therefore,
0 =

2

EE
:
E
T
+

2

TE
=

E

:
E
T
+

T

.
Again recall that,

E
=
1

0
S .
Plugging into the above, we get
0 =

2

EE
:
E
T
+
1

0
S
T
=
1

0
S
E
:
E
T
+
1

0
S
T
.
23
Therefore, we get the following relation for S/T:
S
T
=
0

EE
:
E
T
=
S
E
:
E
T
.
Recall that
Cp Cv =
1

S T
S
T

:
E
T
.
Plugging in the expressions for S/T we get:
Cp Cv =
1

S + T
0

EE
:
E
T

:
E
T
=
1

S + T
S
E
:
E
T

:
E
T
.
Therefore,
Cp Cv =
1

0
S :
E
T
+ T

EE
:
E
T

:
E
T
=
1

0
S :
E
T
+
T

S
E
:
E
T

:
E
T
.
Using the identity (A : B) : C = C : (A : B), we have
Cp Cv =
1

0
S :
E
T
+ T
E
T
:

EE
:
E
T

=
1

0
S :
E
T
+
T

0
E
T
:

S
E
:
E
T

.
18. Consider an isotropic thermoelastic material that has a constant coefcient of thermal expansion and which follows the St-Venant Kirchhoff model,
i.e,

E
= 1 and C = 1 1 + 2 I
where is the coefcient of thermal expansion and 3 = 3 K 2 where K, are the bulk and shear moduli, respectively.
Show that the specic heats related by the equation
Cp Cv =
1

tr(S) + 9
2
K T

.
Recall that,
Cp Cv =
1

0
S :
E
+
T

E
: C :
E
.
Plugging the expressions of
E
and C into the above equation, we have
Cp Cv =
1

0
S : ( 1) +
T

0
( 1) : ( 1 1 + 2 I) : ( 1)
=

0
tr(S) +

2
T

0
1 : ( 1 1 + 2 I) : 1
=

0
tr(S) +

2
T

0
1 : ( tr(1) 1 + 2 1)
=

0
tr(S) +

2
T

0
(3 tr(1) + 2 tr(1))
=

0
tr(S) +
3
2
T

0
(3 + 2)
=
tr(S)

0
+
9
2
K T

0
.
Therefore,
Cp Cv =
1

tr(S) + 9
2
K T

.
24
References
[1] T. W. Wright. The Physics and Mathematics of Adiabatic Shear Bands. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, 2002.
[2] R. C. Batra. Elements of Continuum Mechanics. AIAA, Reston, VA., 2006.
[3] G. A. Maugin. The Thermomechanics of Nonlinear Irreversible Behaviors: An Introduction. World Scientic,
Singapore, 1999.
[4] M. D. Greenberg. Foundations of Applied Mathematics. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
1978.
[5] T. Belytschko, W. K. Liu, and B. Moran. Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures. John Wiley
and Sons, Ltd., New York, 2000.
[6] M. E. Gurtin. An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics. Academic Press, New York, 1981.
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