Chng 3.

QUANG LNG T

3.1. BC X NHIT - NH LUT KIRCHHOFF

3.1.1. i cng. Bnh thng cc nguyn t (phn t) tn ti trng thi c mc nng lng c bn (E1), nu c cung cp mt nng lng s kch thch n chuyn ln mc nng lng cao hn (E2) v tn ti mc nng lng ny trong thi gian rt ngn (~10-8 s) n s t tr v mc nng lng c bn v pht ra bc x sng in t. C nhiu cch cung cp nng lng kch thch. E2 10-8 s Nu nng lng cung cp di dng nhit th bc h x in t pht ra gi l bc x nhit. h S pht x bao gi cng km theo s gii phng nng lng do s bin i ni nng ca chnh bn thn E1 ngun sng hoc l do hp th bn ngoi. Chng hn s pht sng ca cc n kh phng Hnh 3.1 in xy ra c nh in nng ca dng in cung cp. Cc cht pht quang hp th nng lng ti n v sau n t pht sng. Cc vt c nung nng cng c th pht sng. Bc x do cc vt nung nng pht sng gi l bc x nhit. c im quan trng ca bc x nhit l bc x cn bng: Nng lng m vt pht ra di dng bc x ng bng nng lng nhit m vt thu vo bng hp th bc x. 3.1.2. Cc i lng c trng. Cc ngun sng khc nhau v nhit v thnh phn ha hc th bc x s c thnh phn quang ph khc nhau v s phn b nng lng theo cc bc sng khc nhau. 3.1.2.1. trng nng lng ReT v nng sut pht x n sc rT. Cc vt t nng pht ra nng lng di dng bc x in t c bc sng khc nhau. Xt mt din tch dS mt ngoi pht x. Gi dE l nng lng bc x pht ra t dS trong mt n v thi gian v mang i bi bc x c bc sng trong khong t n + d , ta vit: dE = rT dSd (3.1) rT : nng sut pht x n sc. ReT = rT d : gi l trng nng lng.
0

(3.2)

3.1.2.2. Nng sut hp th ton phn aT v nng sut hp th n sc a T . Gi s nng lng ti trn vt l dE v vt hp th mt phn nng lng l
, dE , phn cn li b phn x v tn x, i lng:

aT =

, dE dE

(3.3)

35

c gi l h s hp th hay nng sut hp th ca vt. Nh vy a T < 1, ph thuc vo tn s v nhit . i vi bc x n sc th aT gi l nng sut hp th n sc. Vy nng sut hp th ca vt i vi mi bc sng nhit cho trc s l: aT = a T d
0

(3.4)

c bit, nu vt hp th tt c cc bc x ti n mi nhit th gi l vt en tuyt i (vt en l tng) lc : a T = 1. 3.1.3. nh lut Kirchhoff. Gia nng sut pht x v nng sut hp th c mi lin h nht nh. Ta kho st qua th nghim sau: Gi s trong bnh kn c gi nhit T, t 3 vt A, B, C. Bnh c ht ht khng kh cho cc vt ch c th trao i nng lng vi nhau v vi bnh bng con ng pht x v hp th sng in t. A C Hnh 3.2 C B A

Th nghim chng t sau mt thi gian h s t n trng thi cn bng nhit. Mi vt u c cng nhit v bng nhit T ca bnh. Nh vy r rng vt no c nng sut pht x ln th cng c nng sut hp th ln. Kirchhoff a ra nh lut: T s gia nng sut pht x rT v h s hp th aT khng ph thuc g vo bn cht ca vt, i vi mi vt n l mt hm s ca v T. rA rB rC T T T = B = C = f ( , T ) (3.5) A a T a T a T f(,T) hm Kirchhoff. Gi s mt trong nhng vt ny l vt en tuyt i v k hiu nng sut pht x n sc l UT v aT ca vt en tuyt i bng 1, nn nh lut Kirchhoff c vit: rT U T = = f ( , T ) a T 1 Vy hm Kirchhoff l nng sut pht x ca vt en tuyt i , tc l: f ( , T ) = U T (3.6) Vy: T s gia nng sut pht x n sc v nng sut hp th ca mt vt bt k bng nng sut pht x n sc ca vt en tuyt i cng bc sng v cng nhit . 3.2. NH LUT STEFAN - BOLZMANN - NH LUT WIEN THUYT LNG T CA PLANCK CNG THC PLANCK 3.2.1. nh lut Stefan Boltzmann. 36

Nm 1879 Stefan phn tch cc kt qu thc nghim v tm c s lin h gia trng nng lng ca vt v nhit ca n, tuy nhin nhng php o chnh xc hn sau chng t rng kt qu Stefan khng hon ng. Nm nm sau Boltzmann da vo hai nguyn l nhit ng lc hc nghin cu bc x ca vt en l tng v thit lp nh lut Stefan - Boltzmann: trng nng lng ca vt en tuyt i t l vi ly tha bc 4 ca nhit tuyt i ca n. (3.7) : Hng s Stefan-Boltzmann. Nng lng do mt din tch S ca vt en tuyt i pht ra trong thi gian t nhit T s bng: E = T4 St = ReTS.t (3.8) Nu nhit thay i theo thi gian T = T(t), th:
0

RT = f ( , T )d = T 4

E = T 4 (t ) Sdt
0

(3.9)

nh lut cho thy khi nhit tng, nng sut bc x ca vt en tuyt i tng rt nhanh. nh lut ny khng p dng c cho vt thc; v rng khi RT ph thuc rt phc tp vo T cng nh hnh dng trng thi b mt vt. 3.2.2. nh lut Wien (Wilheim Wien 1864 -1928). Nm 1893 Wien bng nghin cu l thuyt tm ra h thc quan trng gia v tr ca cc cc i nng sut pht x n sc ca vt en tuyt i v nhit tuyt i ca n. Bc sng ng vi cc i ca nng sut pht x bin thin t l nghch vi nhit tuyt i ca vt en. m = b/T Hay mT = 2,8978.10-3mK (3.10) Nh vy khi tng nhit khng nhng nng lng ton phn m c phn b nng lng theo bc sng cng thay i. Chng hn nhit thp vt ch yu pht ra bc x hng ngoi, nhit cng tng bc x cng chuyn v mu , ri vng, cui cng mu trng. 3.2.3. Cng thc Rayliegh Jeans. Sau khi thit lp nh lut Kirchhoff vn t ra l tm dng gii tch hm U T = f(,T) ca vt en tuyt i. Vn da trn quan im ca vt l c in v tnh cht lin tc ca s pht x hay hp th bc x in t v nh lut phn b u nng lng theo s bc t do Rayliegh v Jeans tm ra cng thc i vi nng lng pht x ca vt en tuyt i:

37

U T = (3.11) k: hng s Boltzmann.

2 kT 2

Cng thc ny ph hp vi s ph thuc ca UT vo bc sng cho bi thc nghim trong min bc sng ln. Vi bc sng nh tng ng min t ngoi ca ph cng thc Rayliegh Jeans khc r rt so vi thc nghim v xc nh s tng UT n v cng. O

UT

Hnh 3.3.

Tht bi ny ca Rayliegh - Jeans chng t da vo quan im vt l c in nghin cu bc x l khng ng. B tc ny tn ti trong mt thi gian di cui th k XIX c gi l s khng hong min t ngoi. 3.2.4. Thuyt Planck. Cng thc Planck. 3.2.4.1. Thuyt lng t ca Planck. Mi c gng tm dng ca hm s UT theo quan im lin tc ca nng lng u tht bi. Planck nu ln gi thuyt v tnh cht lng t ca bc x, theo : Nng lng ca bc x in t b hp thu hay pht x bi cc nguyn t v phn t khng phi c gi tr bt k m bao gi cng l bi s nguyn ca mt lng nng lng nguyn t W c gi l lng t nng lng. c W = h = h ln ca W l: (3.12) 3.2.4.2. Cng thc Planck. Trn c s l thuyt ca mnh, Planck tm c cng thc biu din hm s U T ca vt en tuyt i nhit T cho trc.
U T = C1 3 1 e
C2 kT

Vi C1 = hc 2 v C 2 = hc / ng cong biu din hm s U T c v bng ng lin nt - hnh 3.3, hnh v cho thy n trng vi ng cong thc nghim (ng ). 3.3. THUYT PHOTON CA EINSTIEN

(3.13)

38

Thuyt Planck t nn tng cho thuyt photon. Tuy nhin Planck mi ch cp n tnh gin on ca nng lng bc x ca vt en tuyt i. Trn c s ny Einstein (1905) pht trin thuyt Planck a ra mt gi thuyt mi: nh sng khng ch bc x v hp th m c lan truyn cng thnh tng lng nng lng gin on, ngha l bc x in t thnh nhng ht ring r - lng t nh sng - gi l photon. Mi photon c nng lng: W = h (3.14) -34 Vi h = 6,625.10 Js: hng s Planck. Ngoi nng lng photon cn c khi lng v ng lng nh nhng ht c bn khc. Theo thuyt tng i W = mc2 , do phi coi photon c khi lng bng: W h m= 2 = 2 (3.15) c c Mt khc khi lng ph thuc vo vn tc, theo h thc: m0 m= v 2 , m0 : khi lng ngh. 1 2 c v2 = 0 , do m = iu khng c ngha vt l. c2 khi lng m khng ln v hn th m0 phi bng khng. iu ni ln rng photon khng c khi lng ngh, ngha l photon ch tn ti khi n chuyn ng, y l iu khc bit gia khi lng photon v khi lng cc ht c bn khc. V photon chuyn ng vi vn tc bng c nn ng lng: h h p = mc = = (3.16) c i vi photon v = c v 1 3.4. HIN TNG QUANG IN Hin tng cc electron b bc ra khi cc vt di tc dng ca nh sng c gi l hin tng quang in. 3.4.1. Th nghim. Hin tng quang in do Hertz khm ph nm 1887 v c Alekxandr Grigorits Stoletov nghin cu K A chi tit 1888. S th nghim ca Stoletov hnh 3.4. Cc dng c ni vi mt in k nhy G vo li ng A. Cc m ca pin th ni vi bn km K t song song vi A cch nhau khong vi mm. Khi E G cha ri nh sng vo K in k G ch s khng trong mch khng c dng in. Khi ri nh sng K Hnh 3.4. trong mch xut hin dng in, kim in k G b lch. Nu i chiu in trng th trong mch cng khng c dng in mc d ang ri nh sng. Nh vy dng in xut hin trong mch khi ri nh sng vo bn K tch in m l do mt s electron bc ra khi K v b ht v cc dng A ng kn mch. 39

Dng in gi l dng quang in, cn cc electron bc ra khi bn K c gi l quang electron. Stoletov lm li th nghim ny trong chn khng theo s nh hnh 3.5. Hai cc anod v catod c t trong bnh chn khng c ca s thch anh F, hiu in th gia hai cc thay i nh bin tr R (con chy c). 3.4.2. ng c trng V-A (Volt-Ampere). Dng quang in c xc nh bi s quang electron n c anod trong mt n v thi gian. Gi quang thng chiu vo catod khng i; thay i U nh R. o dng quang in tng ng ta dng ng cong biu din i = f(u). Nu thay i quang thng nhng tn s nh sng vn gi khng i ta s c cc ng c trng V A tng ng 1 < 2 T ng c trng V-A ta thy rng khi hiu in th U = 0 vn c dng in v n ch bng khng khi U c gi tr m U h (Uh : hiu in th hm ph thuc vo bn cht kim loi v tn s hay bc sng nh sng ti). S tn ti ca dng quang in y chng t rng cc quang electron bc khi K c mt ng nng ban u khc khng. Nh m electron c th thc hin cng chng in trng hm gia hai in cc n c anod: nu gi vmax l vn tc ban u cc i ca quang electron ta c: 1 2 mv max = eU max (3.17) 2 F K A i 2 1

ibh V c R A

Uh 0 Ubh u E Hnh 3.5 Hnh 3.6 Khi tng U theo chiu dng, dng quang in tng dn v rng s quang electron n anod cng tng. Khi U t Ubh, tt c cc electron bt ra khi catod, nn d tip tc tng U, dng quang in vn khng i. Gi tr ln nht ca dng quang in l ibh ng vi Ubh gi l dng quang in bo ha. ibh = ne (3.18) (n s quang electron bc ra khi catod trong mt giy) 3.4.3. Cc nh lut. a. nh lut v dng bo ha. Khi tn s nh sng ti catod khng i, cng dng quang in bo ha t l thun vi quang thng (cng sng) m catod nhn c. ibh = k (3.19) 40

k: h s t l ph thuc vo cht lm catod. nh lut ny cn pht biu cch khc: k ibh = ne = k n = e k = const : n (3.20) e S quang electron bc ra khi catod trong mt n v thi gian t l vi quang thng m catod nhn c. b. nh lut v ng nng ban u cc i. Vn tc ban u (ng nng ban u / ng nng cc i) ca quang electron t l vi tn s nh sng v khng ph thuc vo quang thng nh sng ti. c. nh lut v gii hn (gii hn quang in). Gi 0 l bc sng ln nht c th gy ra hiu ng quang in, cn gi l bc sng gii hn, ph thuc vo bn cht kim loi dng lm catod. Bc x no c bc sng nh hn 0 mi c th gy ra hiu ng quang in. d. Gii thch. Cc nh lut quang in c th c gii thch bng thuyt photon, da vo cng thc Einstein. 1 2 h = A + mv max (3.21) 2 3.4.3. ng dng. Hin tng quang in ngoi c ng dng ch to t bo quang in, ng nhn quang in. 3.4.3.1. T bo quang in: Bng bng thy tinh hay thch anh ht chn khng. Mt phn mt trong ca n ph mt lp kim loi nhy sng (csi, natri, bc,..) dng lm m cc K (catod). Chnh gia l vng dy kim loi dng lm dng cc A (anod). A v K c mc vo mch ngun in mt chiu. Th hiu ln to c dng quang in bo ha. Khi ri nh sng thch hp electron bt ra khi catod chuyn ng n anod di tc dng ca in trng gia hai cc v xut hin dng quang in bo ha trong mch (c th ln ti 150 A / lm ). C th tng nhy t bo ln nhiu ln bng cch cho kh tr (argon - p sut 0.01 0.1 mmHg) vo bng, gi l t bo quang in cha kh ( nhy c th 1000 A / lm ) l do electron c tng tc trong in trng c ng nng ln ion ha nguyn t argon. Cc electron c gii phng khi argon khi ion ha cng vi electron bt ra khi catod di tc dng ca nh sng to nn dng quang in. 3.4.3.2. ng nhn quang in: Dng quang in c th c khuch i bng chnh dng c chn khng l ng nhn quang in, da vo s pht x electron th cp. ng nhn quang in trong c quang catod K, cc emitt K1, K2, K3, nh sng ri vo K rt electron ra khi n. Chng c tng tc trong in trng ln rt cc electron th cp t K1, cc electron th cp ny c tng tc n p vo K 2 li rt electron th cp t K3, s electron th cp tng theo cp s nhn. nhy c th t ti 5.105 A / lm . 41

K1

K3 A

K 3.5. HIU NG COMPTON 3.5.1. Hiu ng Compton.

K2 Hnh 3.7. ng nhn quang in

Tnh cht lng t nh sng cn c biu hin r rt hin tng m Compton pht hin vo nm 1923 khi quan st s tn x ca tia X n sc trn tinh th graphit. S th nghim c biu din hnh 3.8. Mt chm tia X n sc c bc sng pht ra t ng C pht tia X, i qua hai khe hp F 1,F2 c hai l ch dy t ni tip nhau. Chm tia hp i khi hai khe c coi l song song ri vo cht tn x K (graphit, parafin, ) cha nhng nguyn t nh. Mt phn chm tia X i qua K, phn cn li b tn x bi K. Phn tia b tn x i vo my quang ph gm mt tinh th D v knh nh P. My quang ph dng o bc sng tia X tn x. F1 F2 C

P Hnh 3.8

Th nghim chng t rng, tia X tn x c bc sng ln hn bc sng ca tia X ti, hn na dch chuyn ca bc sng = = 2o sin 2 (3.22) 2 12 Vi o = 2.43.10 m bc sng Compton, o bng thc nghim. 3.5.2. Gii thch. Hin tng Compton khng th gii thch theo thuyt sng nhng c th c gii thch d dng theo thuyt photon. Ngha l nu coi tia X l dng photon c nng lng W = h v ng lng p = h trong trng hp quang in ta gi thit rng c khi photon tng tc vi electron n truyn hon ton nng lng h cho electron v photon bin mt . Hiu ng Compton xy ra khi photon tng tc vi electron t do hay lin kt yu trong nguyn t. Khi tng tc electron ch nhn c mt phn nng lng ca 42

photon v b bn i, ngi ta gi l electron git li, nh vy nng lng photon gim i cho nn bc sng tng ln. Phng chuyn ng ca photon cng thay i do ng thi xy ra hin tng tn x ca photon v bc sng ca n thay i. Gi thit mt photon tia X va chm n hi vo mt electron t do ng yn ti M. P M Q Hnh 3.9 Trc khi va chm, nng lng photon h v ng lng h c nng lng

electron moc2 v ng lng 0 Sau khi va chm photon b tn x theo phng MP, cn electron theo phng MQ vi vn tc v. Do electron c nng lng mc2 , ng lng mv, cn nng lng h photon tn x h v ng lng . Theo nh lut bo ton: c 2 2 Nng lng: h + m o c = h + mc (3.23) h h = + mv ng lng: (3.24) c c Bnh phng hai phng trnh, ly phng trnh (3.23) tr phng trnh (3.24) v m0 m= ch : v2 1 2 c 2 Ta c: mo c ( ) = h (1 cos ) (3.25) 2h 2 = sin (3.26) 2 mo c 2 2h = sin 2 (3.27) mo c 2 > Ngha l sau khi tn x bc sng tia X tng. h = 2,4.10 12 m. Nh vy bc sng Compton o = mo c

43