Giao Trinh Lo Luyen Kim

i hc nng Trng i hc bch khoa
-------------
Hong Minh Cng
Gio trnh
L luyn kim
nng - 2005
Su t m b i: www.daihoc.com.vn
Chng 1 Khi nim v cc c trng c bn 1.1. Khi nim Trong cng nghip ni chung v ngnh luyn kim ni ring, nhiu qu trnh cng ngh, chng hn nh qu trnh nu chy, qu trnh nung nng vt liu hoc sn xut vt liu mi ... i hi phi tin hnh nhit cao hoc rt cao. thc hin cc qu trnh cng ngh ny, ngi ta xy dng cc thit b nhit gi chung l l cng nghip. L l thit b m nhn vic to ra ngun nhit c cng sut ln vi mc tp trung cao, ng thi l ni t chc qu trnh trao i nhit cung cp nhit cho vt liu gia cng. Nhit cung cp cho l c th l nhit sinh ra do t chy nhin liu, do bin i in nng thnh nhit nng hoc nhit t pht sinh nh cc phn ng ha hc pht nhit xy ra trong qu trnh gia cng vt liu. Nhit t ngun nhit c truyn cho vt liu gia cng lm bin i trng thi, tnh cht ca vt liu gia cng, chun b cho cc bc cng ngh tip theo hoc to ra vt liu mi. S trao i nhit trong l c th thc hin bng truyn nhit bc x, i lu, dn nhit hoc phi hp cc dng truyn nhit trn. Cu trc l hp l v ch nhit ph hp vi yu cu cng ngh l nhng yu t nh hng trc tip v c tnh quyt nh n cht lng, gi thnh sn phm cng nh nng sut v cc ch tiu kinh t khc ca l. L cng nghip l mt thit b c s dng rng ri trong nhiu ngnh cng nghip. Trong ngnh luyn kim l c dng thiu kt qung, luyn thp, nu hoc luyn gang, nu hoc luyn cc kim loi v hp kim mu, nung kim loi... Trong ngnh vt liu xy dng s dng cc l nung vt liu nh nung vi, nung gch, nung clinke sn xut xi mng, nu chy men, nu thu tinh. Cc l sy dng sy nguyn vt liu hoc nng lm sn trong ch bin. Hin nay l cng nghip s dng ti 50% lng nhin liu t hng nm v khong 25% lng in sn xut ra. 1.2. Phn loi L cng nghip, cng nh l luyn kim c phn loi theo cc c trng c bn sau: + Ngun nhit s dng. + c im cng ngh. + Ch cng tc nhit. -5-
+ Kt cu ca l. 1.2.1. Phn loi theo ngun nhit s dng Theo ngun nhit s dng, cc l cng nghip c chia lm ba nhm: + L dng nhin liu. + L dng in nng. + L t pht nhit. Mi nhm li c phn ra cc loi tu theo c trng chung ca chng. a) L dng nhin liu: s dng nhit sinh ra do t chy nhin liu. Theo trng thi ca nhin liu, cc l dng nhin liu c chia ra ba loi: + L dng nhin liu rn: than , than cc, than ci ... + L dng nhin liu lng: du mazut, du izen ... + L dng nhin liu kh: kh l cc, kh l cao, kh thin nhin ... b) L dng in: s dng in nng bin i thnh nhit nng. Theo phng php bin i in nng thnh nhit nng ngi ta chia ra cc loi: + L in tr: bin i in nng thnh nhit nng da trn hin tng to nhit khi cho dng in i qua mt in tr hoc vt dn c in tr ln. Th d l in tr nu kim loi mu, l in tr nung kim loi, l in tr sy vt liu ... + L in cm ng: bin i in nng thnh nhit nng da trn c s ca hin tng cm ng in t. Th d l in cm ng nu thp, nu gang ... + L in h quang: bin i in nng thnh nhit nng da trn c s hin tng phng h quang gia cc in cc khi t gn nhau. Th d l in h quang trc tip nu thp, gang, sn xut t n, l in h quang gin tip nu ng ... c) Cc l t pht nhit: s dng nhit do cc phn ng pht nhit sinh ra ngay trong bn thn vt liu trong qu trnh gia cng. Th d trong cc l chuyn luyn thp thi oxy nhit cp cho l ch yu l do phn ng chy ca cc tp cht C, Si, Mn. 1.2.2. Phn loi theo c im cng ngh Theo c im cng ngh, cc l cng nghip c phn ra: a) L nu chy: vt liu gia cng c nung nng v lm nng chy hon ton. Th d: cc l luyn thp, l cao luyn gang, l nu hp kim mu, l nu thu tinh ... b) L nung: vt liu gia cng b nung nng nhng khng b ho lng. Th d l nung kim loi trong gia cng p lc, nhit luyn, l nung gch, vi, clinke .. .
-6-
1.2.3. Phn loi theo ch cng tc nhit Theo c trng truyn nhit t ngun nhit ti b mt vt liu gia cng trong l, ngi ta phn ra: + Cc l lm vic ch bc x. + Cc l lm vic ch i lu. + Cc l lm vic ch lp. a) L lm vic ch bc x: s truyn nhit ti b mt vt liu gia cng ch yu bng truyn nhit bc x. Theo s phn b dng nhit t ngun nhit ti vt nung v t ngun nhit ti tng, nc l, ngi ta phn ra ba loi: + Ch bc x phn b u. + Ch bc x trc tip. + Ch bc x gin tip. Thng thng l c coi l lm vic ch bc x khi nhit trong khng gian lm vic ca l trn 600oC. Th d l nung thp gia cng p lc hoc nhit luyn, l phn x nu nhm, ng ... b) L lm vic ch i lu: s truyn nhit ti b mt vt liu gia cng ch yu bng trao i nhit i lu. Trong cc l lm vic ch i lu, trao i nhit c thc hin thng qua mt mi cht chuyn ng tip xc vi vt liu gia cng. Theo ngun gc lc tc ng gy ra chuyn ng ca mi cht, ngi ta phn ra: + Ch i lu t nhin. + Ch i lu cng bc. Thng thng cc l c nhit lm vic di 600oC thuc l lm vic ch i lu. Th d: l sy vt liu, nng sn, thc phm, l ram thp ... c) L lm vic theo lp: vt liu gia cng l vt liu dng ht c cht y ton b hay mt phn khng gian lm vic ca l thnh lp, cn kh nng chuyn ng qua lp ht v truyn nhit cho chng. Trong l tn ti c ba dng trao i nhit: bc x, i lu v dn nhit. Theo trng thi ca cc ht vt liu trong lp, ngi ta phn ra: + Ch lp cht. + Ch lp si. + Ch lp l lng.
-7-
1.2.4. Phn loi theo kt cu Theo kt cu l c chia ra cc loi: l ng, l tang quay, l bung, l hm, l ging, l nhiu vng . . . 1.3. Cc c trng c bn ca l cng nghip Cc c trng c bn ca mt l cng nghip bao gm: + Ch nhit . + Ch nhit. + Cng sut nhit. + Nng sut. + Hiu sut ca l. + Sut tiu hao nhin liu tiu chun. 1.3.1. Ch nhit ca l a) Nhit l: nhit l l nhit trung bnh gia nhit ca ngun nhit v nhit ca tng, nc l. Nhit l ph thuc vo nhit chy l thuyt ca nhin liu, ph ti nhit ca l, cu trc v tnh cht cch nhit ca l. t l = .tlt ; Trong : + tlt l nhit chy l thuyt ca nhin liu, [oC]. + l h s xt n nh hng ca cu trc v tnh cht cch nhit ca l. Trong thc t nhit ca l thng c o bng cc cp nhit in. b) Ch nhit ca l: l quy lut thay i ca nhit l theo thi gian. tl = f () n nh.
t l =0
[oC]
(1.1)
(1.2)
Nhng l c nhit khng thay i theo thi gian gi l l c ch nhit
hay
tl = const.
Nhng l c nhit thay i theo thi gian gi l l c ch nhit khng n nh.

t l 0
hay
tl const.
-8-
1.3.2. Ch nhit ca l Lng nhit cp cho l ti mt thi im nht nh c gi l ph ti nhit ca l ti thi im v quy lut thay i ph ti nhit theo thi gian c gi l ch nhit ca l. Q = f() nhit n nh.
Q =0
(1.3)
Nhng l c ph ti nhit khng thay i theo thi gian c gi l l c ch
hay
Q = const
Nhng l c ph ti nhit thay i theo thi gian c gi l l c ch nhit khng n nh.

Q 0
hay
Q const
1.3.3. Cng sut nhit ca l Cng sut nhit ca l l ph ti nhit ln nht m l c th tip nhn c trong mt n v thi gian m vn m bo iu kin lm vic bnh thng. Cng sut nhit thng c tnh bng [KW]. 1.3.4. Nng sut ca l Nng sut ca l l lng sn phm gia cng c bi l trong mt n v thi gian. Nng sut l thng c tnh bng [kg/h], [tn/h] hoc [kg/ngy], [tn/ngy]. Ngoi ra, so snh nng sut ca cc l khc nhau, ngi ta cn dng khi nim nng sut ring hay cn gi l cng y l, l lng sn phm gia cng c ng vi mt n v din tch y l trong mt n v thi gian. Thng thng cng y l c tnh theo [kg/m2.h]. 1.3.5. Cc hiu sut ca l a) Hiu sut s dng nhit c ch Hiu sut s dng nhit c ch ca l l t s gia lng nhit c ch gia cng vt liu v ton b lng nhit cp t bn ngoi vo cho l trong cng mt n v thi gian.
q = Q cch 100 ; Q cp
[%]
(1.4)
Lng nhit cp cho l t ngoi vo xc nh theo cng thc: -9-
Q
Trong :
cp
= Q c + Q vl + Q vl ; kk nl
[kj/h]
(1.5)
+ Q c l ng nhit do t chy nhin liu, c xc nh theo cng thc: Q c = B. Qd; [kj/h] (1.6)
+ Q vl l lng nhit vt l do nung nng trc khng kh c xc nh theo kk cng thc:

Q vl = BL n f (i c i d ) ; kk kk kk
[kj/h]
(1.7)
+ Q vl l lng nhit vt l do nung nng trc nhin liu c xc nh theo nl cng thc:
Q vl = B(i c i d ) ; nl nl nl
[kj/h]
(1.8)
Vi: B l lng nhin liu t chy trong mt gi, [kg/h] hoc [m 3 /h]. Qd - nhit tr thp ca nhin liu, [kj/ kg] hoc [kj/m 3 ]. Ln - lng khng kh dng t chy 1 kg hoc 1m 3 nhiu liu,[m 3 /kg] hoc [m 3 /m 3 ]. f - t l khng kh nung nng trc.
i d , i d - nhit hm khng kh v nhin liu trc khi nung, [kj/m3]. nl kk
i c , i c - nhit hm khng kh v nhin liu sau khi nung, [kj/m3]. kk nl
Lng nhit c ch xc nh theo cng thc sau: Qc ch =Qvt liu + Qx + Qthu - Qto ; [kj/h] Trong : + Qvt liu - lng nhit cn thit gia cng vt liu, [kj/h]. + Qx - lng nhit cn thit to x, [kj/h]. + Qthu - lng nhit cp cho cc phn ng thu nhit, [kj/h]. + Qto - lng nhit to ra t cc phn ng to nhit, [kj/h]. Ta c cng thc tng qut xc nh hiu sut nhit c ch nh sau:
c ch = Q vt liu + Q x + Q thu Q to Q c + Q vl + Q vl kk nl 100
(1.9)
[%]
(1.10)
b) Hiu sut s dng nhin liu c ch Hiu sut s dng nhin liu c ch l t s gia lng nhit c ch v lng nhit cp vo l do t chy nhin liu: - 10 -
nhi n liu = nhi n liu =
Q c ch Qc
100 ;
[%]
100 [%]
(1.11a)
Hay:
Q vt liu + Q x + Q thu Q to Qc
(1.11b)
c) Hiu sut s dng nhit ca l Ngoi lng nhit c ch, mt lng nhit ng k b mt mt ngay ti l do truyn nhit qua tng l, bc x qua ca l, do khi r qua ca, do nc lm ngui, tch nhit ca tng l, nung nng cc gi ... c trng cho kh nng s dng nhit v cu trc ca l (v phng din nhit) ngi ta s dng khi nim hiu sut s dng nhit ca l, l t s gia tng lng nhit c ch v lng nhit mt mt ti l so vi ton b lng nhit cp cho l.
q = Q c ch + Q mt m t t i l
Q
cp
100 ; [%]
(1.12a)
cp
Hay:
q =
cp
Q khi th i
100 ;
[%]
(1.12b)
So snh cng thc (1-4) v (1-12a) ta thy hiu sut s dng nhit bao gi cng ln hn hiu sut s dng nhit c ch. Nu cu trc l hp l, sao cho mt mt nhit ti l l khng ng k, th hiu sut s dng nhit c ch c gi tr xp x vi hiu sut s dng nhit, khi v phng din s dng nhit th l c cu trc tt nht. 1.3.6. Sut tiu hao nhin liu tiu chun Trong thc t, cc l cng nghip s dng nhiu loi nhin liu khc nhau v cu trc l, cng ngh gia cng cng khc nhau, bi vy nh gi v so snh chng v phng din nhit ngi ta dng khi nim sut tiu hao nhin liu tiu chun, l lng nhin liu tiu chun cn thit gia cng mt ki-l-gam vt liu, vi quy c mt ki-l-gam nhin liu tiu chun c nhit tr thp bng 7.000 kcal/kg hoc 29.300 kj/kg.
b= BQd ; 29 300 P
kg nhi n liu ti u chun kg vt liu gia cng
(1.13)
Trong :
B - lng tiu hao nhin liu [kg/h]. Qd - nhit tr thp ca nhin liu [kj/kg]. P - nng sut l [kg/h]. - 11 -
Chng 2 cng tc nhit ca l 2.1 Ch lm vic bc x Ch lm vic bc x l ch lm vic m s trao i nhit bn ngoi ca l ch yu bng truyn nhit bc x. Thng thng cc l c nhit lm vic cao (trn 600 - 700oC) u lm vic ch bc x. 2.1.1. Mt s khi nim v nh lut c bn v truyn nhit bc x a) Bc x nhit v s hp th nng lng bc x Theo vt l hc hin i th bc x nhit l mt hin tng phc tp, mt s trng hp n c tnh cht sng, mt s trng hp khc n li c tnh cht ht, ngha l nhng lung ht bay rt nhanh gi l lng t hay ph-tng. Ngy nay, ngi ta coi bc x nhit l mt dng ca sng in t, c bc sng t 0,76 - 400 m. Kh nng bc x nhit ca mt vt th c nh gi qua nng lng bc x ng vi mt n v din tch b mt vt th trong mt n v thi gian:
E= Q F
[W/m2]
(2.1)
Trong : Q l lng nng lng bc x ca vt th trong mt n v thi gian, [J/s]. F l din tch b mt ca vt th, [m2]. Nng lng bc x ng vi cc tia nhit c chiu di bc sng khc nhau th khc nhau, cng bc x n sc (I) ng vi mt chiu di bc sng () xc nh bi cng thc :
I = dE ; d
[W/m2.m]
(2.2)
Khi mt lung bc x nhit (Q) p ti mt vt th khc, mt phn b vt th hp th (QA), mt phn b phn x tr li (QR) cn mt phn n cho i qua (QD).
QA + QR + QD = Q
Suy ra Hay Trong :
QA QR QD Q + + = =1 Q Q Q Q
A+R+D=1
(2.3)
A - l kh nng hp th ( h s hp th).
- 12 -
R - l kh nng phn x (h s phn x). D - l kh nng cho qua (h s cho qua). Da vo kh nng hp th, phn x v cho qua i vi bc x nhit, ngi ta phn chia cc vt th ra nh sau: + Vt en tuyt i + Vt trng tuyt i + Vt trong sut + Vt xm : A = 1; R = 0; D = 0. : A = 0; R = 1; D = 0. : A = 0; R = 0; D = 1. : A + R = 1; D = 0.
Trn thc t khng c vt en tuyt i, tc l cc vt hp th hon ton, khng phn x v cng khng cho qua cc tia nhit vi mi chiu di bc sng p ti n. Ngi ta coi cc vt th hp th hu ht cc tia nhit bc x ti n v ch phn x mt phn nh l vt en. Trong l cng nghip, hu ht cc vt liu th rn v th lng c coi l vt xm (A+R=1), cc sn phm chy th kh ch c kh nng hp th v cho qua m khng c kh nng phn x ( R =0). b) S bc x v hp th nng lng bc x ca vt en tuyt i Mu vt en tuyt i c ch to bng cch ly mt khi cu rng lm bng vt liu hon ton c ( D=0) ri khot mt l nh trn thnh ca n, bt k mt tia nhit no i qua l vo trong khi cu u b hp th hon ton mc du mt trong ca n c kh nng phn x.
a)
a) Hp th b) Bc x
b) Hnh 2.1 Mu vt en tuyt i
Bng thc nghim v l thuyt ngi ta chng minh c cc nh lut v bc x ca vt en tuyt i nh sau: + nh lut Plng: xc lp quan h gia cng bc x ca vt en tuyt i vi chiu di bc sng v nhit tuyt i ca n:
- 13 -
I =
C 1 .5 e
C2 T
W ] m 2 .m
(2.4)
Trong : C1, C2 l cc hng s thc nghim.

C 1 = 3,69.10 16 [W.m2] C 2 1,44.10 2
[m.oK]
+ nh lut Stphan-Bolzman: xc lp quan h gia kh nng bc x ca vt en tuyt i vi nhit tuyt i ca n:
E0 =
=0
I.d = T
0
Kcal ] hay [W/m2] (2-5a) 2 m .h
Trong : T l nhit tuyt i ca vt, [oK]. 0 l h s bc x ca vt en tuyt i:

0 = 5,7.10 8 ;
W ] m . K4
2 o
Cng thc (2-5a) thng c vit di dng sau:

T E0 = C 0 ; [W/m2] hay 100
4
Kcal ] m 2 .h
(2.5b)
W ] m . K4
2 o
C 0 = 5,7 cng c gi l h s bc x ca vt en tuyt i, [
+ nh lut Lm-bec-ta: xc lp s phn b nng lng bc x theo cc hng trong khng gian. Theo nh lut Lm-bc-ta, mt tia bc x i ra t l h ca mu vt en tuyt i theo cc hng khc nhau th khc nhau, n t l vi cosin ca gc l gc to thnh bi hng nghin cu vi php tuyn ca mt phng l h:
E = E n cos
(2.6)
Trong : En, E l mt tia nng lng theo hng php tuyn v hng nghin cu, l gc gia hng nghin cu v hng php tuyn. + nh lut bnh phng khong cch: mt tia bc x t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch ti ngun bc x:
Er = E1 r2
- 14 -
(2.7)
Trong : E1 l mt tia bc x khong cch mt mt t ngun bc x, Er l mt tia bc x khong cch r mt ti ngun bc x. c) S bc x v hp th nng lng bc x ca vt xm Trong thc t tnh ton nhit trong cc l cng nghip ngi ta tha nhn bc x ca cc vt rn v cht lng l bc x ca vt xm v gi l bc x xm. i vi vt xm l tng, cng bc x ca n ch khc vi cng bc x ca vt en tuyt i bi mt h s no ( < 1) cng mt nhit v bc sng. Bi vy, kh nng bc x ca vt xm c th xc nh theo cng thc:
E = E 0 = 0 T 4
(2.8a)
4
Hay
T T E = C 0 = C. 100 100
(2.8b)
H s c gi l en ca vt xm, C c gi l h s bc x ca vt xm. Nghin cu kh nng hp th bc x ca cc vt th ni chung v vt xm ni ring, ngi ta thy nu mt vt th c kh nng hp th nng lng bc x mnh th n cng c kh nng bc x mnh. Theo nh lut Kic-khp th: T s gia kh nng bc x ca vt xm v kh nng hp th ca n c gi tr ng nht vi mi vt xm v bng kh nng bc x ca vt en tuyt i cng nhit trn.
E1 E 2 E = = = n = E0 A1 A 2 An
(2-9)
So snh (2.8a) v (2.9) ta thy vi vt xm, gi tr ca h s hp th A cng bng en ca n. d) S bc x v hp th nng lng bc x ca kh Trong cc l luyn kim, khi l bao gm cc kh c mt, hai hay nhiu nguyn t, nhng kh c mt hay hai nguyn t nh Ar, N2, O2, H2, CO ... c quang ph bc x l nhng di hp cho nn tng nng lng bc x ca nhng kh ny nhit cao khng ln lm. Thc t c th coi nhng kh ny hon ton khng bc x nhit v cng khng hp th nng lng bc x i qua n. Bi vy, khng kh sch c th coi nh vt hon ton trong sut. Nhng kh c ba hay nhiu nguyn t c kh nng hp th v bc x kh mnh nhit cao. Trong cc l luyn kim, quan trng nht l s bc x ca kh CO2 v H2O, quang ph ca chng trnh by trn hnh 2.2.
- 15 -
Kh CO2: Hi nc :
ICO2
2,36 - 3,02 m; 4,01 - 4,08 m; 12,5 - 16,3 m. 2,24 - 2,27 m; 4,80 - 8,5 m; 12 -25 m.
IH2O
(m) Hnh 2.2 Quang ph bc x ca kh CO2 v H2O
(m)
Nng lng bc x ca kh CO2 v H2O ph thuc vo p sut ring phn ca kh (p), chiu dy c hiu qu ca lp kh (Shq) v nhit , c th xc nh bng cng thc sau:
T E CO 2 = 4,1.( pS hq ) 3 ; [W/m2] 100
1 0,6 T E H 2 O = 40,7.p 0,8 .S hq ; 100 3 3, 5
(2.10) (2.11)
[W/m2]
T cc cng thc trn ta nhn thy bc x nhit ca kh CO2 v H2O khng tun ng theo nh lut Stphan- Blzman. Tuy nhin tnh ton c thun li ngi ta coi bc x ca kh cng tun theo nh lut Stphan- Blzman nhng en ca chng ph thuc nhit .
T Ek = kC0 100
4
(2.12)
en ca kh k xc nh theo cng thc:

k = CO 2 + H 2 O
(2.13)
Biu xc nh CO , H O v c dng nh trn hnh 2.3.

2 2
Chiu dy c hiu qu ca lp kh bc x tnh theo cng thc:

S hq = 4V F
(2.14)
Trong :
- 16 -
+ l h s c trng cho phn nng lng ca kh n b mt vt nung hay tng l. Thng = 0,9 - 0,95. + V l th tch khi kh, m3. + F l din tch b mt bao quanh khi kh, m2.
CO 2 H2O
p CO 2 .S hq
p H 2 O .S hq
p H O .S hq 2
toC
toC
p H2O
Hnh 2.3 Biu tra CO 2 , H 2 O v
e) H s gc bc x Xt hai b mt tham gia trao i nhit c din tch l F1 v F2, nu t b mt F1 bc x mt nng lng Q1 ra mi trng bao quanh th ch mt phn nng lng bc x ny p ti b mt F2 v ngc li cng vy. Ngi ta gi t s gia phn nng lng bc x p ti F2 (Q12) trn tng nng lng bc x ca mt F1 l h s gc bc x t mt F1 ti mt F2, k hiu l 12:
12 = Q 12 Q1
(2-14a)
Tng t ta c h s gc bc x t mt F2 ti mt F1 l:
21 = Q 21 Q2
(2-14b)
H s gc bc x khng ph thuc nhit , h s bc x, khong cch gia hai mt m n hon ton c xc nh bi cc gc c trng cho v tr tng i gia hai mt trong khng gian. Di y l gi tr ca s h s gc bc x trong mt s trng hp n gin (hnh 2.4): Trng hp (a): Hai mt phng song song c khong cch nh.
12 = 21 = 1
- 17 -
Trng hp (b): Hai mt cu hoc hai mt tr c khong cch b so vi chiu di lng nhau:
12 = 1 v 21 = F1 F2
F2 F1 F2 F1
F2 F1
F2 F1
a)
b)
c)
d)
Hnh 2.4 S tnh h s gc bc x gia hai b mt
- Trng hp (c): Mt cu rng v mt phng ct nhau.

12 = 1 v 21 = F1 F2
- Trng hp (d): Hai mt chm cu to thnh mt cu.

12 = F2 F1 + F2
v 21 =
F1 F1 + F2
2.1.2. Ch lm vic bc x phn b u a) Truyn nhit ch bc x phn b u ch bc x phn b u, dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti b mt vt nung bng dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti tng v nc l (gi chung l tng l).
qV = qT N N
c trng ca ch bc x phn b u l s phn b ng u ca nhit v en ca ngun nhit trong ton b th tch khng gian lm vic ca l. Khi l lm vic ch phn b u, tng l ng vai tr quan trng trong qu trnh trao i nhit. C th coi tng l nh vt trung gian tham gia vo qu trnh trao i nhit gia ngun nhit v vt nung. Do en tng l kh ln ( T > 0,6 ), trong qu trnh trao i nhit, tng l hp th mnh bc x nhit t ngun nhit p ti, lm cho nhit tng ln v tr thnh vt bc x truyn nhit ti vt nung. Khi trng thi n nh, nhit tng l cng cao th lng nhit bc x truyn t tng l
- 18 -
ti vt nung cng ln, nu en ca ngn la N = 1 v tn tht nhit qua tng

q tt = 0 th nhit tng l t cc i v bng nhit ngn la: TT = TN
Trong thc t, do N < 1 v tn tht nhit qua tng q tt > 0 nn nhit tng thng nm trong khong gia nhit vt nung v nhit ngn la:
TV < TT < TN
en ca ngun nhit cng nh hng ln ti hiu qu truyn nhit ti vt nung, khi tng N hiu qu truyn nhit tng. b) Chn nhin liu v phng php t Ch lm vic bc x phn b u c ng dng rng ri trong cc l nhin liu. Tiu chun quan trng chn nhin liu khi l lm vic ch bc x phn b u l kh nng to ra ngn la c sng cao ( N ln). Do vy, nhin liu thch hp l cc loi nhin liu kh cha nhiu cacbuahydro (CH4, CmHn), nhin liu lng v nhin liu bi. Vi cc nhin liu cha nhiu cacbuahydro, khi chy cacbuahydro phn hy to ra mt lng ln ht cacbon c sng cao lm cho ngn la c sng cao. V phng php t, do sng ca ngn la bao gi cng cao hn sng ca sn phm chy nn khi iu kin cng ngh cho php, cn kt hp qu trnh t chy v qu trnh trao i nhit trong cng mt khng gian lm vic ca l. Mt khc, phi to iu kin tt nht cho qu trnh cacbon ha t nhin ca ngn la trong qu trnh chy. Nung nng trc nhin liu v khng kh lm tng kh nng cc bon ha t nhin, cn ha trn trc kh t v khng kh li cn tr s cacbon ho. c) C hc kh i vi ch bc x phn b u, mt yu cu quan trng l phi to s ng nht ca trng nhit v sng ca kh l. t c iu , thng dng nhiu m t cng sut nh v b tr sao cho to ra s xo trn mnh gia ngn la v sn phm chy. Cc ming knh khi cn b tr hp l khng hnh thnh cc gc cht (ti kh l khng lu thng), khng c b tr ming knh khi i din vi m t khi khong cch gia chng khng ln. 2.1.3. Ch lm vic bc x trc tip a) Truyn nhit ch bc x trc tip
- 19 -
ch bc x trc tip, dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti b mt vt nung ln hn dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti tng v nc l.
qV > qT N N
c trng ca ch bc x trc tip l s phn b khng ng u ca trng nhit v en ca ngun nhit trong khng gian lm vic ca l. Vng gn b mt vt nung l vng c nhit v sng cao, vng gn tng v nc l l vng c nhit v sng thp. Trong l nhin liu, vng c nhit cao chnh l vng cha ngn la, gia ngn la v vt nung, cng nh gia ngn la v tng l l lp sn phm chy c nhit thp. Khi dng nhit t vng ngn la c nhit cao i qua lp kh c nhit thp, b cc lp kh ny hp th mt phn nn cng ca n gim. Vai tr ca tng l: Trong ch ny, nhit tng l thp v tng l c chc Vai tr ca ngn la: hiu qu trao i nhit ph thuc nhit v sng ca nng cng tc nhit nh hn so vi ch bc x phn b u. vng nhit cao (ngn la), en ca lp c nhit thp (sn phm chy). Khi nhit cc i ca ngn la ch bc x trc tip bng nhit ngn la ch bc x phn b u th nhit trung bnh ca n thp hn. Do vy, tng hiu qu trao i nhit cn nng cao nhit cc i ca ngn la. Vic tng sng ca lp c nhit cao v gim en ca lp c nhit thp lm tng tnh nh hng bc x v pha vt nung. b) Chn nhin liu Ch lm vic bc x trc tip thng d dng thc hin trong cc l nhin liu. to ra ngn la c sng cao, nhin liu phi c kh nng cacbon ha cao, do nhin liu thch hp l cc loi nhin liu kh cha nhiu cacbuahydro, nhin liu lng, nhin liu bi. c) C hc kh v phng php t V phng php t, cn t nhin liu sao cho to ra ngn la tp trung ch yu trong vng nhit cao, trong vng nhit thp ch yu cha sn phm chy. Chuyn ng ca kh trong l khng gy ra s xo trn gia hai vng. Do vy, thng chn thit b t c cng sut ln, s lng t, cc thit b t c b tr v mt bn, hng ngn la v gn b mt nung, ming knh khi b tr i din vi thit b t, to ra dng chuyn ng thng ca kh trong l l tt nht. d) Lnh vc ng dng
- 20 -
Ch bc x trc tip c ng dng rng ri trong cc l nu chy nh l luyn thp, l nu gang, l nu thu tinh Ch bc x trc tip cng c dng trong cc l nung nung vt mng cng nh vt dy, tuy nhin khi nung vt dy hiu qu thp hn ch bc x phn b u. 2.1.4. Ch lm vic bc x gin tip a) Truyn nhit ch bc x gin tip, dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti b mt vt nung b hn dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti tng v nc l.
qV < qT N N
c trng ca ch bc x trc tip l s phn b khng ng u ca trng nhit v en ca ngun nhit trong khng gian lm vic ca l. Vng gn b mt tng, nc l c nhit v sng cao, vng gn b mt vt nung c nhit v sng thp. Dng nhit t ngun nhit ch yu tp trung ln nc l v tng l, chuyn thnh bc x xm truyn n vt nung. thc hin ch bc x trc tip ngi ta s dng cc phng php sau: - Trong cc l nhin liu, hng thit b t v pha tng v nc l, to ra ngn la c nhit v sng cao nm gn tng v nc l, vng gn vt nung cha sn phm chy c nhit v sng thp. - Dng cc thit b t c mt gm t nc l to ra b mt bc x. Trong trng hp ny, hn hp kh t v khng kh c ha trn trc v c t chy cng bc ngay trn mt gm lm cho b mt gm b nung ln n nhit gn nhit chy ca nhin liu, ng thi b mt nc l cng b nung nng ln nhit cao to nn b mt bc x, dng nhit bc x qua lp kh trong l p ti vt nung. - Dng tng v nc l c b mt phn x cao ( R = 0,95 0,97 ), khi hu ht lung nhit p ti tng v nc l b phn x ti b mt vt nung. Trong ch bc x gin tip, vai tr cng tc nhit ca tng v nc l nng hn nhiu so vi cc ch trn. pht trin ca tng l = hiu qu truyn nhit, cn chiu cao l t nh hng hn. b) Chn nhin liu Vi l lm vic ch bc x gin tip, yu cu en ca sn phm chy phi thp v nhit cc i ca ngn la phi cao nn nhin liu thch hp l cc loi
- 21 -
FT nh hng ln n FV
nhin liu kh c nhit tr cao (thng trn 16.000 kj/m3) hoc l nhin liu lng thuc nhm nh. c) C hc kh v phng php t V c hc kh, ch bc x trc tip, cn to ra cc lung ngn la c hot lc ln to nn vng c nhit cao v sng ln ng u st nc l, nhng khng c qu ln trnh s xo trn gia vng ny vi lp kh st vt nung. t c yu cu trn, v phng php t, ngi ta dng cc m t c tc phun nh (khi t nhin liu kh), m phun thp p hoc m phun c bin bi c hc (khi t nhin liu lng), b tr thit b t tp trung phn trn ca l v hng ngn la v pha b mt nc l. Ming cc knh khi b tr u phn di ca l trong vng tun hon ca lp kh c nhit thp. d) Lnh vc ng dng L lm vic ch gin tip c s dng trong nhiu cng ngh khc nhau tr hai trng hp sau: Khi nung cc vt nung dy m vt nung c xp y khng gian l (v d Khi nhit yu cu ca vt nung gn bng nhit lm vic ti a ca l nung ngi, nung gch). gch xy tng l v nc l. 2.1.5. Tnh ton trao i nhit bc x Ta xt trng hp trao i nhit trong l c s trnh by trn hnh 2.5, vi gi thit:
QT T QT K
QV T
QV K
T QV
Hnh 2.5 S trao i nhit trong l
+ Nhit mt tng v vt nung c gi tr ng nht l TT v TV. + en ca tng v vt nung cng ng nht l T v V.

- 22 -
+ H s gc bc x t tng l n tng l v t tng l n vt nung cng ng nht theo mi hng v mi im trn tng l l T-T v T-V
hq Gi Q V l lng nhit c hiu qu m vt nung hp th c, xt cn bng
nhit trn b mt vt nung ta c:

hq Q V = Qp ti vt - Qi ra t vt
Qp ti vt = Q V + Q V K T Qi ra t vt = Q K V + Q T V + Q V PX PX BXR Vy Hay Vi: Trong : + Lng nhit t kh l p ti b mt vt nung:

Q
V K hq Q V = ( Q V + Q V ) - ( Q K V + Q T V + Q V ) K T PX PX BXR hq Q V = ( Q V + Q V ) - QV K T
(2.15) (2.16)
QV = Q K V + Q T V + Q V PX PX BXR
T = K .C 0 K .FV 100
+ Lng nhit t tng l p ti b mt vt nung:

Q V = Q T . T V (1 K ) T
Vi QT l tng lng nhit bc x v phn x ca tng l. + Q K V l lng nhit bc x t kh l n vt b vt phn x: PX

T Q K V = K .C 0 K .(1 V ).FV PX 100
4
+ Q T V l lng nhit t tng p ti vt b vt phn x: PX

Q T V = Q T . T V .(1 k )(1 V ) . PX
+ Q V l lng nhit bc x ring ca vt nung: BXR

Q
V BXR
T = V .C 0 . V .FV 100
Mt khc gi Q hq l lng nhit c hiu qu m tng hp th c v xt cn T bng cc dng nhit trn b mt trong ca tng l, ta c:
Q hq = Qp ti tng - Qi ra t T
tng
Qp ti
tng
T = Q T + Q T + Q V + Q K LT K T
- 23 -
Qi ra t Vy Hay Vi Trong :
tng
T = Q K T + Q V T + Q BXR PX PX
T T Q hq = ( Q T + Q T + Q V + Q K LT ) - ( Q K T + Q VT + Q BXR ) PX PX T K T
T Q hq = ( Q T + Q T + Q V + Q K LT ) - QT T K T
(2.17) (2.18)
T QT = ( Q KT + QVT + QBXR ) PX PX
+ Q T l lng nhit t kh p ti tng: K

T Q T = K .C 0 K .FT K 100 4
+ Q T l lng nhit t tng p ti tng: T

Q T = Q T . T T (1 K ) T
T + Q V l lng nhit t vt nung p ti tng: T Q V = Q V .(1 K )
+ Q K LT l lng nhit i lu t kh l ti tng: _ Q K LT = K L T ((TK TT ).FT
+ Q K T l lng nhit bc x t kh l ti tng b tng phn x: PX

Q
K T PX
T = K .C 0 K .(1 T ).F T 100
+ Q V T l lng nhit t vt p ti tng b tng phn x: PX

Q V T = Q V .(1 K )(1 T ) . PX
T + Q BXR l lng nhit bc x ring ca tng l:
T BXR
T = T . T .FT 100
trng thi nhit tng l n nh, th lng nhit c hiu qu m tng l hp th c Q hq khng th tch li trong tng l m n s truyn qua tng l ra bn T ngoi, tc l Q hq =Qtt (Qtt l lng nhit tn tht qua tng l do dn nhit). T Nu coi lng nhit m tng l truyn ra ngoi bng lng nhit m tng
nhn c bng i lu vi kh l ( Q tt = Q K LT ), gii h phng trnh (2.15), (2.17) v
(2.18) ta c:
- 24 -
hq V
Tk 4 TV 4 = C K T V .FV 100 100

k . V [1 + T V (1 k )] k + T V (1 k )[1 (1 k )(1 V )]
(2.19)
Vi
C K T V = C 0 .
H s CK-T-V c gi l h s bc x quy dn t kh l ti vt nung c tnh n vai tr tham gia trao i nhit bc x ca tng l. Nu t: V:
= 1 T V = FT ( gi l pht trin ca tng l) FV
K=
1 K [ V + (1 V )] + K
1 K +
Ta c:
CK-T-V = C0.V.K .
H s K c th xc nh bng tnh ton hay tra theo biu . Biu tra K c dng hnh 2.6.
K
0.8
=5
4 3
2
0,4
0,4
0.8
Hnh 2.6 Biu tra h s K
T phng trnh trao i nhit (2.19) ta nhn thy lng nhit hp th c hiu qu ca vt nung tng khi: + Tng b mt ca vt nung bng cch thay i cch xp vt nung. + Tng nhit kh l bng cch dng nhin liu c nng sut to nhit cao, nung nng trc khng kh v nhin liu, lm giu oxy trong khng kh. + Tng CK-T-V: CK-T-V ph thuc , K v V. Tng K th CK-T-V tng, khi en ca kh thp (K < 0,6) th nh hng ca K cng ln. Tng th CK-T-V tng, nhng cn lu rng khi tng phi m bo khi kh in y ton b khng gian l
- 25 -
tng chiu dy khi kh bc x nu khng hiu qu trao i nhit khng tng m li gim do tng tn tht nhit qua tng l. 2.2. Ch lm vic i lu L lm vic ch i lu khi s truyn nhit t ngun nhit ti b mt vt nung ch yu bng truyn nhit i lu. Thng thng cc l c nhit lm vic di 600oC u thuc l lm vic ch i lu. 2.2.1. Mt s khi nim v nh lut c bn v truyn nhit i lu a) Truyn nhit i lu ch lm vic i lu, trao i nhit c thc hin thng qua mt cht kh hoc cht lng (gi chung l mi cht) chuyn ng tip xc vi b mt vt liu gia cng. Da vo lc tc ng gy ra chuyn ng ca mi cht trong qu trnh trao i nhit ngi ta chia ra: + Ch i lu t nhin. + Ch i lu cng bc. ch i lu t nhin, nguyn nhn gy ra chuyn ng ca mi cht l s chnh lch nhit gia b mt vt nung v mi cht bao quanh, ch ny tc chuyn ng ca mi cht thng nh. ch i lu cng bc, mi cht chuyn ng nh tc ng ca ngoi lc, tc chuyn ng ca mi cht kh ln. b) Phng trnh c bn v truyn nhit i lu Lng nhit trao i bng i lu gia mi cht v vt nung xc nh theo phng trnh Newton:
Q = dl .t.FV
Trong : Q - lng nhit trao i bng i lu [W].

dl - h s trao i nhit i lu [W/m2.].
t - chnh lch gia nhit mi cht v nhit b mt vt [oC]. Trong cc thng s trn, h s trao i nhit dl l i lng c gi tr nm trong mt khong rng, ph thuc vo kch thc v tnh cht ca lp gii hn b mt, cc thng s ny li c xc nh bi mt lot thng s khc ca dng chy v b mt bao quanh dng chy, n l hm ca nhiu tham s:
dl = f (W, t k , t v , k , c k , , l 1 , l 2 , l 3 , )
- 26 -
Trong : W - tc dng chy [m/s]. tk - nhit mi cht [oC]. tV - nhit b mt vt [oC]. ck - nhit dung ca mi cht [j/kg.oC].
- nht ng lc hc ca kh l [Pa.s]. k - khi lng ring ca mi cht [kg/m3].
l1, l2, l3 - cc kch thc ca b mt vt [m].

- h s c trng cho hnh dng vt.
Thng thng ngi ta xc nh dl thng qua xc nh tiu chun Nuy-xen:

l N u = f F0 , R e , Pr , G r , lo
Trong :
Nu = Fo = Re = Pr = l - tiu chun Nuy-xen, tiu chun ng dng v truyn nhit i lu.
a tiu chun Phu-ri-. x2 Wd - tiu chun Rey-nn, tiu chun c trng cho ch dng chy. - tiu chun Prng--lia, tiu chun ng dng v trng nhit v a
tc .
gl 3 Gr = .t - tiu chun Grat-xp, tiu chun c trng cho chuyn ng i
lu t do.
- h s dn nhit [W/m.]. - h s nht ng [m2/s].
- thi gian [s]. - h s truyn nhit [m2/s]. c
a=
- h s gin n nhit ca mi cht [1/].
g - gia tc trng trng [m/s2].

- 27 -
t - hiu s nhit [oC]. x, l, lo - cc kch thc [m]. 2.2.2. Ch i lu t nhin Trao i nhit i lu t nhin trong khng gian t do trng thi n nh, c c trng bi phng trnh c dng tng qut:
N u = f (G r , Pr )
(2.29)
Cng thc thng gp nht c dng:

N u = C (G r .Pr )
n
(2.30)
Trong C, n l cc hng s chn theo bng (2.1). Bng 2.1. Gi tr ca cc hng s C, n (Gr.Pr) <10-5 10-3 5.102 5.102 2.107 > 2.107 C 0,45 1,18 0,54 0,135 n 0 0,125 0,25 0,333
Khi vt nung c b mt trao i nhit hng ln trn th tng hng s C ln 30%, cn khi hng xung di th gim 30% so vi tr s trong bng. Trong cng thc (2.30) cc thng s vt l ly theo nhit trung bnh:
t tb = tk + tv 2
Kch thc (l) chn ph thuc vo hnh dng v cch t vt, xem hnh 2.7.
l l
Hnh 2.7 Xc nh kch thc vt nung khi tnh Gr
Cng thc (2.30) p dng cho c cht kh v cht lng v vt th c hnh dng bt k. Trong tnh ton k thut, vi cc trng hp n gin c th xc nh dl theo cc cng thc gn ng:
- 28 -
i vi tng nm ngang, mt trao i nhit hng ln trn:

dl = 3,26.4 t
[W/m2.]
i vi tng nm ngang, mt trao i nhit hng xung di:

dl = 2,56.4 t
[W/m2.]
Trao i nhit i lu t nhin trong cc l in tr:

dl = 2,47.t 0,19 + 0,036 T.p T k .H
[W/m2.]
Trong : t - d chnh nhit gia b mt trong tng l v kh l[]. p - p sut kh quyn [Pa]. Tk - nhit kh l [oK]. H - chiu cao khng gian lm vic ca l [m]. 2.2.3. Ch i lu cng bc ch i lu cng bc, h s trao i nhit ph thuc nhiu yu t hn, phng trnh tng qut c dng:
N u = f (R e , Pr )
(2.31)
Khi tnh ton trao i nhit i lu cng bc phi phn ra nhng trng hp c th, di y l mt s trng hp in hnh. - Trao i nhit khi kh chuyn ng trong ng hoc knh:
N u = 0,021.R .P
0 ,8 e 0, 43 r
Pr ' P r
0, 25
(2.32)
Trong , cc thng s vt l tnh Re, Pr ly theo nhit trung bnh:

t= tv + tk 2
Cn vi Pr' ly theo nhit b mt vt tv. Phng trnh (2.32) ng dng cho c cht kh v cht lng khi R e = 10 4 5.10 6 v Pr = 0,6 2500 v L/d>50 (L, d l chiu di v ng knh thy lc ca knh). Trng hp ng un cong (hnh 2.8) p dng cng thc (2.32) v nhn thm h s hiu chnh ph thuc t s d/R:
- 29 -
= 1 + 1,77.
d R
Hnh 2.8 ng dn kh un cong
- Trao i nhit khi kh chuyn ng vung gc vi chm ng: Khi kh chuyn ng vung gc vi chm ng, mc chy ri tng dn khi i qua cc hng ng v t c trng thi n nh t hng th ba tr i. H s trao i nhit cho hng th ba tr i xc nh theo cng thc sau: Khi b tr kiu qun c (hnh 2.9a):
N u = 0,23.R
0,65 e 0, 25
.P
0,33 r
Pr P' r
Khi b tr kiu so le (hnh 2.9b):
P N u = 0,41.R 0,60 .Pr0,33 r' e P r
0, 25
i vi hng th nht ly bng 60% cho c hai kiu b tr v hng th 2 ly bng 90% vi kiu b tr qun c, 70% vi kiu so le so vi tr s ca hng th 3. H s trao i nhit ca c chm ng:
= 1 .S 1 + 2 .S 2 + ... + n .S n S 1 + S 2 + ... + S n
[W/m2.]
Hnh 2.9 B tr ng trong chm ng a) B tr kiu qun c b) B tr kiu so le - 30 -
2.2.4. Trao i nhit i lu trong cht lng Trong luyn kim thng gp cc l nung hoc lm ngui chi tit kim loi bng cht lng nh nc, du, mui hoc kim loi nng chy u im ca nung nng v lm ngui bng cht lng l h s trao i nhit ln, nung u, trnh c oxy ha. Cc cht lng c dng lm mi cht ti nhit c chia lm hai nhm: Nhm kim loi hoc hp kim nng chy: tnh dn nhit cao, s thay i Nhm cc mui hoc oxyt nng chy: tnh dn nhit thp v xp x bng cng trao i nhit i lu khng ln khi chuyn t chy tng sang chy ri. tnh dn nhit ca khng kh. Nc v du cng c xp vo nhm ny. Trn hnh 2.10, biu th s ph thuc ca h s trao i nhit vo qu nhit ca mui nng chy, khi nung nng v lm ngui chi tit bng thp.
1800 3 1600 4 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 2 5 4 3 2 1
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Hnh 2.10 S ph thuc ca h s trao i nhit vo qu nhit ca mui lng khi lm ngui ( ) v khi nung nng ( ) chi tit thp. 1) NaCl 2) 55%KNO3+45%NaNO3 3) NaNO3 4) NaNO2 5) BaCO2
T th ta nhn thy: H s trao i nhit khi lm ngui ln hn rt nhiu so vi khi nung nng. H s trao i nhit khi lm ngui t cc i khi qu nhit ca mui H s trao i nhit khi nung nng tng tuyn tnh vi qu nhit, khi
nm trong khong 150 - 200oC. nhit ca mui gn nhit nng chy h s trao i nhit ca cc mui gn nh nhau v nm trong khong 200 - 220 W/m2..
- 31 -
Khi nung vt bng mui nng chy, nu nhit nng chy ca mui cao v vt nung c khi lng ln, trong giai on u trn b mt vt hnh thnh lp tinh th kt tinh v truyn nhit qua lp ny l truyn nhit dn nhit nn h s truyn nhit nh. Khi lm ngui vt, khng xy ra hin tng hnh thnh lp tinh th, ngc li, do cht lng b nung nng, nht gim, i lu t nhin tng lm tng h s trao i nhit. 2.2.5. Chn nhin liu v phng php t i vi ch i lu, nhit l thng thp (< 400oC) nhin liu c t trong bung t ring nn c th s dng mi loi nhin liu (rn, lng, kh) hoc dng in. Khi dng nhin liu, nu nhin liu lng s dng m phun thp p, nu nhin liu kh dng m t c ngn la ngn gim th tch bung t. Bung t phi b tr sao cho khng c s bc x trc tip t bung t sang bung l. Khi l lm vic ch i lu, do nhit sn phm chy thng cao hn nhiu so vi nhit yu cu ca l nn thng phi pha long kh l bng khng kh hoc bng mt phn kh thi tun hon tr li. Th tch kh pha long xc nh t phng trnh:
Vk c k t k + Vkk c kk t kk = (Vk + Vkk )c hh t hh
Trong : Vk - lu lng th tch sn phm chy iu kin tiu chun [m3/s]. Vkk - lu lng th tch khng kh hoc kh pha long iu kin tiu chun [m3/s]. ck, ckk, chh - nhit dung ring ca sn phm chy, khng kh v hn hp [J/m3.]. tk, tkk, thh - nhit ca sn phm chy, khng kh v hn hp [oC]. 2.2.6. Lnh vc ng dng Ch i lu c ng dng trong cc l sy, l nung nhit thp hoc cc l nung, l lm ngui dng mi cht lng. Trong trng hp nhit l tng i cao (t 500 - 800oC) mc d trao i nhit bng bc x l ch yu nhng khi kh l chuyn ng vi tc ln trao i nhit i lu vn c vai tr ng k cn tnh n khi tnh ton trao i nhit. 2.3. Ch lm vic theo lp
2.3.1. Khi nim v phn loi

- 32 -
L lm vic theo ch lp l nhng l dng nung nng (hoc lm ngui) vt liu ht, trong vt liu gia cng c cht y ton b hay mt phn khng gian lm vic ca l, cn kh l i qua khe h gia cc ht liu trong lp v thc hin qu trnh trao i nhit vi vt liu. Khi ch lp, trong l tn ti c ba dng truyn nhit: bc x, i lu v dn nhit. Mt khc, din tch b mt trao i nhit khng n nh, do tnh ton truyn nhit khi l lm vic ch lp ngi ta a ra khi nim h s trao i nhit th tch:
V = .S V
[W/m3.]
Hay Trong :
V = .S 0
- h s trao i nhit b mt [W/m2.]
S - tng din tch b mt ca cc ht liu trong th tch V ca lp liu [m2]. S0 - din tch b mt ca cc ht trong mt n v th tch lp liu [m2/m3] i vi liu dng ht l tng (dng hnh cu ng knh d) ta c:
V 1 1 = = S S 0 6(1 f )
Vi f l rng ca lp. i vi ht kch thc khng u, t s V/S c tnh theo cng thc Furnas:
V d = S 7,5(1 f )
Vi d l ng knh trung bnh ca ht liu [m]. Da vo c tnh phn b v chuyn ng ca cc ht liu khi l lm vic, ngi ta phn ch lp thnh ba dng: Ch lp cht. Ch lp si. Ch lp l lng.
ch lp cht: liu c dng cc (kch thc ln) xp thnh lp, khi l lm vic, cc cc liu nm st nhau v hu nh khng chuyn ng tng i vi nhau, kh l i qua khe h cc cc liu.
- 33 -
ch lp si: liu c dng ht kch thc trung bnh, khi l lm vic, di tc ng ca dng kh cc ht liu trong lp chuyn ng tng i vi nhau to nn s xo trn mnh ca cc ht liu tng t nh hin tng si. ch lp l lng: liu c dng ht nh, khi l lm vic, di tc ng ca dng kh cc ht liu chuyn ng trng thi l lng trong dng kh, khong cch gia cc ht liu ln. 2.3.2. Ch lp cht a) c tnh ca lp cht ch lp cht, liu c xp thnh lp cht y ton b hoc mt phn khng gian lm vic ca l, cc ht liu nm st nhau, kh l i qua khe h gia cc ht liu v thc hin qu trnh trao i nhit. S xo trn ca cc ht liu trong lp hu nh khng ng k. Trong thc t, cc l lm vic ch lp cht thng c cu trc ng (gi l l ng), liu c cht vo ming l pha trn, cn kh l i t di ln, liu v kh chuyn ng ngc chiu nhau. b) Trao i nhit trong lp cht Do din tch tip xc gia cc ht liu b, chnh lch nhit gia cc ht liu tng i nh nn ch lp cht c th b qua truyn nhit dn nhit. ng thi chiu dy lp kh gia cc ht liu b, vi cc l nhit lm vic di 500oC c th b qua truyn nhit bc x. Do vy, truyn nhit trong l lm vic ch lp cht ch yu l bng truyn nhit i lu. Khi b qua nhit phn ng ha hc, c th xc nh h s trao i nhit th tch theo cng thc sau:
2 A 1 .T 0,3 .W00,7 R .10 1,68f 3,56 f Khi liu mng 0 : V = dm
R Khi liu dy 0
: V =
A 2 .T 0,3 .W00,9 d 0,75
.10 1,68f 3,56 f
Trong : R - bn knh ht liu [m]. - h s dn nhit ca vt liu [W/m.]. T - nhit tuyt i ca vt liu [oK]. W0 - tc kh tnh ton (khi l rng) iu kin tiu chun [m/s].
- 34 -
m - h s ph thuc vt liu: m = 1,3 khi lm ngui than cc, m = 0,9 cc trng hp cn li. A1, A2 - h s ph thuc vt liu v dng gia cng (nung nng hoc lm ngui) chn theo bng. Trng nhit ca kh l v liu theo chiu cao lp liu trong l c dng hnh 2.11. Nhit ca vt liu tv thay i theo thi gian lu liu trong l xc nh bi cng thc sau:
1 tv c W = 1 e v v k t k1 v .
Wv
Trong : cv - nhit dung ring ca vt liu [kj/kg.]. v - khi lng ring th tch ca vt liu [kg/m3]. Wk - ng lng nhit ca kh l [W/]. Wv - ng lng nhit ca vt liu [W/]. - thi gian lu liu trong l [s]
tv1 tk2 tv1 tk2 H2 H1 H1 H2 tv2 tk1 tv2 tk1
Hnh 2.11 Trng nhit ca kh l v liu trong l ng lm vic theo lp cht a) S l b) Khi Wk > Wv c) Khi Wk < Wv
Xt trao i nhit trong l c th chia ra hai trng hp: Trng hp a: ng lng nhit ca kh ln hn ng lng nhit ca vt liu (Wk >Wv), khi kt thc qu trnh trao i nhit t v 2 t k1 nhng t k 2 >> t v1 , do
- 35 -
nhit kh thi cn rt cao, hiu qu tn dng nhit thp, nhng vt liu t b qu nhit. Trng hp b: Wk <Wv, khi kt thc qu trnh trao i nhit t v1 t k 2
nhng t k1 >> t v 2 , do nhit kh thi thp, hiu qu tn dng cao, nhng vt liu d b qu nhit. Trong c hai trng hp, phn chiu cao l H2 hiu qu truyn nhit thp nn H2 ln ch lm cho l cng knh v ch. Trong thc t, c th coi qu trnh trao i nhit kt thc khi t v = (0,95 0,98)t k1 khi chiu cao l c th tnh theo cng thc:
H= 3 v c v v W v 1 V Wk
[m]
Trong : v - tc dch chuyn liu [m/s]. c) ng dng Ch lp cht c ng dng rng ri trong cc l gia cng vt liu dng ht, theo nguyn l lm vic c th chia ra ba nhm: Nhm 1: cc l c bung t ring hoc khng gian t ring, ti nhin liu c t chy hon ton, phn cn li ca l khng c phn ng pht nhit hoc thu nhit. Cc l in hnh cho nhm ny gm: l ng nu gang, nu ng, l nung vt liu samt dng ht Nhm 2: cc l c bung t ring hoc khng gian t ring, ti nhin liu c t chy hon ton, phn cn li ca l vn c phn ng pht nhit hoc thu nhit c ngha cng ngh. Cc l in hnh cho nhm ny gm: l nung vi, manhdit, lmit, l tch khi qung ng, qung ch, qung nikel, l cao luyn gang Nhm 3: cc l khng c bung t hoc khng gian t ring, qu trnh chy ca nhin liu xy ra trong ton b khng gian l, ng thi c cc phn ng thu pht nhit c ngha cng ngh xy ra. in hnh cho nhm ny l l nu chy tinh qung ng. 2.3.3. Ch lp si a) iu kin hnh thnh lp si S hnh thnh lp si ch bt u khi tc kh trong l t ti mt tc cn thit gi l tc ti thiu. Khi tip tc tng tc kh, hin tng si xy ra vi mc
- 36 -
cng ln hn v t n mt tc cc i no th hin tng si b ph v. c trng cho trng thi lp si ngi ta a ra ch s gi l s si xc nh theo cng thc sau:
ms = Ws Wmin
Trong : ms - s si. Ws - tc thi ca kh (ng vi l rng) [m/s]. Wmin - tc thi ti thiu hnh hnh lp si [m/s]. Hnh 2.12 m t trng thi ca lp si ng vi cc gi tr khc nhau ca s si: Hnh 2.12a: bt u hnh thnh lp si, m s = 1 2 . Hnh 2.12b: s xo trn ca vt liu c th nhn bit bng mt thng, ng vi
m s = 5 6 , th tch lp liu tng khong 15%.
Ws ms=12 a)
Ws ms=56 b)
Ws ms=50100 c)
Ws ms> 50100 d)
Hnh 2.12 Trng thi ca lp si ng vi cc gi tr khc nhau ca ms
Hnh 2.12c: trong lp liu bt u hnh thnh cc khong trng gi l bong bng kh, ng vi m s = 50 100 . Hnh 2.12d: cc bong bng kh m rng chim ton b tit ding ngang ca l, ng vi m s > 50 100 , lp si b ph v v bt u hnh thnh lp l lng. Quan h gia tr lc ca lp liu (p), tc thc ca kh (Wthc)v chiu cao lp liu (H) vo tc thi (Ws), trnh by trn hnh 2.13.
- 37 -
Lp cht
Lp si
Lp l lng
Wthc
Wmin
Wmax
Ws
Hnh 2.13 Quan h gia tr lc (p), tc thc ca kh (Wthc) v chiu cao lp liu (H) vo tc thi (Ws)
i vi cc l tit din trn, tc thi ti thiu Wmin xc nh theo cng thc sau:
Wmin = R e min . d
Trong :
- h s nht ng ca kh l [m2/s].
d - ng knh ht liu [m].

R e min = Ar 1400 + 5,22 A r
Ar - tiu chun achimed, xc nh theo cng thc:

Ar = gd 3 2k
( v k )
g - gia tc trng trng [m/s]. v, k - khi lng ring ca vt liu v kh l [kg/m3]. Tc Wmax xc nh theo cng thc:
Wmax = R e max . d Ar 18 + 0,6 A r
Vi
R e max =
- 38 -
b) Trao i nhit trong lp si Liu ca lp si c ht nh nn c th coi l liu mng, s trao i nhit quyt nh bi qu trnh trao i nhit bn ngoi, mt khc do liu c xo trn mnh nn vai tr truyn nhit bc x cng chim v tr quan trng. H s trao i nhit trong lp si xc nh theo cng thc:
= N u d td k 6G n v
Trong : dt - dng knh tng ng ca ht liu: d td = n - s lng ht trong th tch kho st.
G - tng khi lng ca cc ht trong th tch kho st [kg]. V - khi lng ring ca vt liu [kg/m3].
k - h s dn nhit ca kh [W/m.].
Nu - tiu chun Nuy-xen. Gi tr ca Nu ph thuc vo gi tr ca tiu chun Fe (tiu chun Fedorob) c gi tr xc nh theo cng thc sau:
Fe = d td 4g v k . k 3 2
Khi Fe = 30 100 :
N u = 0,0151.F
0, 74 e
.R
0,65 e
H d td
0,34
Khi Fe = 100 200 :

N u = 0,0283.F
0,604 e
.R
0,65 e
H d td
0,34
Trong :
Re =
Ws .d td .
c) Lnh vc ng dng ca lp si Ch lp si c ng dng sy v gia cng vt liu dng ht kch thc nh. Cc l sy: l sy ct, vt liu chu la, sy ht nng sn
- 39 -
Cc l gia cng vt liu: l gia cng qung sunfat nikel, ph thi pirit sau khi tuyn ni, cc l nung manhdit, lmit 2.3.4. Ch lp l lng a) c tnh ca lp l lng Nh kho st phn trn, khi m s > 50 100 bt u hnh thnh lp l lng, iu chng t ranh gii gia lp si v lp l lng khng c gii hn r rt. ch lp l lng, mt ht trong lp rt b, khong cch gia cc ht ln. Trng thi chuyn ng ca ht liu ph thuc rt ln vo kch thc ht. Khi ht c kch thc rt b ( d < 0,001 mm), c th coi chuyn ng ca cc ht liu l chuyn ng t do (chuyn ng Brown). Khi , cc ht liu b cun theo kh thi kh ln, gy tn tht vt liu nn t ng dng ch ny. Khi ht c kch thc d = 0,01 0,1 mm, c th chia lm hai nhm: + Nhm cc ht nh: khi chuyn ng, lc nng ca dng kh (lc Stoke) cn bng vi lc gy chuyn ng (trng lng ca ht, lc y Achimed ) cc ht c th t ti tc n nh. i vi nhm ny gi tr R e < 0,15 , chuyn ng ca cc ht c trng bi phng trnh:
Ar = Re 18
Trong : A r =
gd 3 2k
( v k ) l tiu chun Achimed.
+ Nhm cc ht ln: khi chuyn ng, lc nng ca dng kh (lc Stoke) cha cn bng vi lc gy chuyn ng, cc ht khng th t ti tc n nh. i vi nhm ny gi tr R e > 0,15 , chuyn ng ca cc ht c trng bi phng trnh:
4A r = R2 e 3k
Trong : k l h s tr lc. b) Trao i nhit trong lp l lng Trong lp l lng, do ht c kch thc b liu c th coi v vt mng, ng thi khong cch gia cc ht ln, do vy ta c th vit phng trnh cn bng nhit cho tng ht trong lp l lng:
4 (T k Tv )S v .d + C 1 T k4 Tv4 S v .d + C 1 Tv4 TT S v .d qVv v = 0
- 40 -
Trong : - h s trao i nhit i lu gia kh v liu [W/m2.oK]. C1 - h s trao i nhit bc x gia kh v liu [W/m2.oK4]. C2 - h s trao i nhit bc x gia liu v tng l [W/m2.oK4]. q - hiu ng nhit ca cc phn ng ha hc [j/kg]. Vv, v - th tch [m3] v khi lng ring ca vt liu [kg/m3]. Tk, Tv, TT - nhit tuyt i ca kh, vt liu v tng l [oK]. - thi gian lu liu trong l [s]. Xt trao i nhit i lu trong lp l lng, ta c: i vi trng hp i lu t nhin: Khi G r = 1 45 Khi G r = 45 2500 : N u = 2,29.G 0,03 r : N u = 1,4.G 0,167 r
i vi trng hp i lu t nhin v cng bc: Khi R e = 5 30 v G r = 1 45 :

N u = (0,0594 2,75).R e .G 24.10 r
4
48.10 6 R e
Khi R e = 20 120 v G r = 35 1500 :

N u = (0,0361 3,03).R e .G 572.10 r
4
477.10 6 R e
i vi trng hp i lu cng bc, R e = 20 400 :

N u = 0,2.R 0,83 e
Trong cc tiu chun trn, tc ca kh c ly theo hiu s tc ca kh v ht liu ti v tr ra khi khng gian lm vic ca l. c) Lnh vc ng dng Ch lp l lng c ng dng nhiu trong cc l nung hoc sy qung sunfat, dung dch c c ca sunfat km, ng, pirit v cc cht thi pirit sau tuyn ni. 2.3.5. Chn nhin liu v phng php t Nhin liu dng cho l lm vic ch lp c th l nhin liu rn, lng v kh. V phng php t, i vi ch lp cht v lp si, khi dng nhin liu kh khng cn ha trn trc, nhin liu v kh c thi ng thi qua ghi l, qu trnh ha trn v dt chy xy ra trong lp liu. Nhin liu lng cng c thi qua ghi cng
- 41 -
vi khng kh, trong qu trnh chy mt phn nhin liu ha kh ha trn vi khng kh v b t chy, mt phn bm vo b mt ht liu v chy ngay trn mt ht liu. i vi nhin liu rn thng c nghin thnh ht v trn cng vt liu khi a vo l, qu trnh chy xy ra ngay trong lp liu. Trong mt s trng hp nh l thiu kt qung, lng nhit cp cho l chnh l nhit cc phn ng ha hc sinh ra trong qu trnh gia cng vt liu, trong trng hp ny khng cn dng nhin liu. ch lp l lng, nhin liu c t bung t ring sau dn kh nng vo l, i vi cc l gia cng qung thng khng cn cung cp nhit bn ngoi m tn dng nhit phn ng sinh ra do cc phn ng ha hc.
- 42 -
Chng 3
Nung kim loi

3.1. Khi nim chung 3.1.1. Mc ch ca qu trnh nung Nung kim loi l mt khu quan trng trong nhiu qu trnh sn xut luyn kim. Trong gia cng kim loi bng p lc, nung nng nhm mc ch tng do, gim tr lc bin dng, lm tng kh nng bin dng ca kim loi, iu cho php tng nng sut gia cng, gim c yu cu v cng sut thit b v gim hao mn dng c. Trong gia cng nhit luyn, kim loi c nung nng n nhit thch hp trc khi lm ngui t c s thay i t chc theo yu cu. Qu trnh nung kim loi c thc hin trong cc l nung, cng nung kim loi khng nhng ph thuc cng tc nhit ca l m cn ph thuc nhiu yu t khc nh: tnh cht nhit, vt l ca kim loi, kch thc hnh dng ca vt nung ... Vic xc nh hp l cng nung v thi gian nung c nh hng rt ln n cht lng sn phm cng nh cc ch tiu kinh t, k thut ca l. 3.1.2. Cc hin tng xy ra khi nung Trong qu trnh nung, tu theo kim loi cng nh iu kin nung c th xy ra nhiu hin tng khng mong mun nh: hin tng oxy ha kim loi, hin tng thm hoc thot ccbon (i vi cc loi thp), hin tng qu nhit hoc chy, hin tng nt. Hin tng oxy ha: trong mi trng nhit cao v tc ng ca mi trng kh l, kim loi lp b mt b oxy ha, gy ra s chy hao kim loi. Lng kim loi b chy hao trong mt ln nung cn v rn t 1- 2 %, nung nhit luyn khong 0,5 1,0 %. Tc oxy ha kim loi xy ra mnh khi nhit cao, v d i vi chi tit bng thp khi nhit trn 800oC xy ra vi tc rt ln. Hin tng thot cc bon: i vi chi tit bng thp, song song vi qu trnh oxy 2H2 + Fe3C 3Fe + CH4 CO2 + Fe3C 3Fe + 2CO H2O + Fe3C 3Fe + H2 + CO ha cn xy ra qu trnh kh cc bon, cc phn ng kh cacbon xy ra nh sau:
- 43 -
Hin tng nt: Khi nung, nu tc nung ln, trong kim loi pht sinh ng sut
nhit do cc lp kim loi c nhit khc nhau, nu ng sut sinh ra qu ln, kim loi c th b nt. Do vy, khi nung cc loi thp c hm lng cacbon cao, thp hp kim lc u phi nung vi tc chm trnh nt (trong khong nhit di 500oC), cn khi nhit cao cn nung vi tc ln gim chy hao v tng nng sut. Cn khi nhit nung chn khng hp l c th dn n kim loi b qu nhit hoc chy lm gim cht lng sn phm hoc gy ra ph phm. 3.1.3. Ch nung khi nung kim loi Ch nung quyt nh cng nung kim loi, thng c th hin qua cc gin nung, biu hin s thay i nhit ca l, nhit kim loi theo thi gian. Chn ch nung hp l khng nhng nng cao ch tiu k thut, cht lng sn phm m cn lm tng ng k hiu qu kinh t. Tu thuc tnh cht kim loi, hnh dng, kch thc cng nh nhit yu cu sau khi nung, ngi ta c th ng dng nhiu ch nung khc nhau. Trn hnh 3.1 trnh by mt s gin nung vi cc ch nung in hnh.
toC tk tm tt tt
I
toC tk tm
toC tk tm
tt
II
II
III
a)
b)
c)
Hnh 3.1 Gin nung a) Nung 1 giai on b) Nung 2 giai on c) Nung 3 giai on
Gin hnh 3.1a: gin nung mt giai on thng p dng cho cc vt nung Gin hnh 3.1b: gin nung hai giai on thng p dng cho cc vt nung
mng hoc cc vt nung trung bnh c h s dn nhit ln (tr nhit b). trung bnh c h s dn nhit kh ln (tr nhit trung bnh) v chnh lch nhit mt v tm cho php sau khi nung kh ln. - 44 -
Gin hnh 3.1c: gin nung ba giai on c giai on gi nhit, p dng cho
cc vt nung dy, c h s dn nhit thp (tr nhit cao) v chnh lch nhit mt v tm cho php sau khi nung b. Khi xy dng cc gin nung, nu chng ta chn nhit l cao, cng nung ln, gim c thi gian nung, gim c chy hao kim loi nhng d gy ra nt (nht l giai on khi nhit vt nung cn thp) v qu nhit kim loi. Ngc li, chn nhit l thp, cng nung b, thi gian nung ko di, tng oxy ho (nht l khi nhit cao) v gim nng sut. 3.2. Tnh ton thi gian nung 3.2.1. Cc iu kin gii hn khi nung Tnh ton qu trnh nung kim loi lin quan ti vic gii phng trnh vi phn truyn nhit dn nhit (phng trnh Phu-ri-) c dng:
2t 2t 2t t = a 2 + 2 + 2 x y z
(3.1)
Trong a l h s truyn nhit :

a= c
[m2/s]
(3.2)
Nghim ca phng trnh (3.1) xc lp mi quan h gia s thay i ca nhit ca vt th theo thi gian v khng gian:
t = f (x, y, z, )
(3.3)
Nghim c th ca phng trnh ph thuc vo cc iu kin gii hn: trng thi nhit ban u ca vt th (gi l iu kin ban u), kch thc hnh hc ca vt th v quy lut trao i nhit gia b mt vt th vi mi trng chung quanh (gi l iu kin bin). a) iu kin ban u : l iu kin gii hn v thi gian, xc nh s phn b nhit vt th ti thi im ban u = 0, biu th bi hm s c dng: t = f(x, y, z, 0) nhau: t = t0 = const. i vi trng thi nhit n nh, nhit ban u ca vt th khng nh hng n s phn b nhit ca vt th nn iu kin gii hn v thi gian khng cn ch n. - 45 (3.4) Trng hp n gin nht l trng hp nhit ban u ca vt th mi im l nh
b) iu kin bin: l iu kin gii hn v khng gian, c chia ra ba trng hp: - iu kin bin loi 1: cho ch nhit ca b mt vt th, ngha l cho bit nhit b mt ca vt th thay i nh th no theo thi gian: tm = f(). V d nhit b mt vt th tng theo hm s bc nht: tm = Cn hay tm = t + Cn (3.6) Trong Cn l tc nung [oC/s]. - iu kin bin loi 2: cho trc dng nhit i qua mt vt th. q = f() hay q = const. (3.7) (3.5)
- iu kin bin loi 3: Cho ch nhit ca ngun nhit v quy lut truyn nhit t ngun nhit n b mt vt th. tl = f() V hay tl = const
4 4 q = C 0 (Tl Tm )
(3.8)
q = (t l t m ) hay
3.2.2. Phng php tnh Trong trng hp tng qut, vic xc nh thi gian nung bng phng php gii gii tch phng trnh vi phn truyn nhit kt hp vi cc iu kin gii hn thng rt phc tp v gp nhiu kh khn. Tuy nhin, trong nhng trng hp n gin nh vt nung c dng hnh hc n gin (hnh tm, hnh tr, hnh cu) v vi nhng gi thit gn ng, cho php ta gii bi ton vi chnh xc chp nhn c. Di y kho st mt s trng hp in hnh khi tnh ton thi gian nung kim loi trong l. a) Phn loi vt nung tnh ton ngi ta phn vt nung thnh hai loi: vt mng v vt dy. Cc vt nung c coi l vt mng l nhng vt c tr nhit b (t s gia chiu dy v h s dn nhit
x 0) , l cc vt m vt liu c h s dn nhit rt ln
( ) hoc chiu dy ca vt b ( x 0 ). Khi nhit vt gn nh ng nht trong ton b vt th v ch ph thuc thi gian:
t = f ( )
Cc vt dy l nhng vt c tr nhit ln (
x c gi tr ng k), nhit vt
nung ph thuc to im kho st v thi gian: - 46 -
t = f (x, y, z, )
Khi khng th b qua chnh lch nhit gia mt v tm trong qu trnh nung. Trong tnh ton, ngi ta thng dng tiu chun Bi (tiu chun Bi-) xc nh gii hn gia vt mng v vt dy:
Bi = x
(3.9)
Trong : - h s trao i nhit [W/m2.]. - h s dn nhit [W/m.]. x - ta im kho st [m]. Khi gi tr Bi < 0,25 vt nung c gi l vt mng v Bi > 0,5 gi l vt dy, cn vi gi tr Bi = 0,25 - 0,5 c coi l vt trung bnh nhng trong tnh ton thng tnh ton theo vt dy. b) Tnh thi gian nung cc vt mng tnh ton thi gian nung i vi cc vt mng vi iu kin bin loi 3, ngi ta chia thi gian nung thnh nhiu giai on, ng vi mi giai on coi nhit l v nhit vt khng i v ly bng gi tr trung bnh. Tng thi gian nung xc nh theo cng thc:
= ni
i =1 n
[h]
(3.10)
Khi thi gian nung vi mi giai on tnh theo cng thc:

i = xc (Ftc Ftd ) k
[h]
(3.11)
Trong : x - chiu dy quy dn [m]. - khi lng ring ca vt liu, [kg/m3]. c- nhit dung ca vt liu [Kcal/kg.oC]. k - h s hnh dng, v d i vi dng tm k = 1, dng tr k = 2. - h s trao i nhit b mt [Kcal/m2.h.oK4]. Ft, Ftc - thng s nhit , tra theo biu (hnh 3.2 v 3.3) ng vi nhit u v cui giai on. Cc thng s vt l trong biu thc chn theo nhit trung bnh. - 47 -
Ft
tkoC Hnh 3.2 Biu xc nh thng s nhit khi tnh thi gian nung i vi vt mng khi tk <1000oC Ft
tkoC Hnh 3.3 Biu xc nh thng s nhit khi tnh thi gian nung i vi vt mng khi tk >1000oC
c) Tnh thi gian nung cc vt dy tnh ton vi vt nung c coi l vt dy, ngi ta ng dng rng ri cc phng trnh tiu chun c thit lp trn c s ca l thuyt ng dng. Khi phng trnh vi phn truyn nhit c vit li di dng phng trnh ca cc tiu chun ng dng l nhng i lng khng th nguyn. i vi vt nung n gin v iu kin bin loi ba, phng trnh c dng: - 48 -
x = F Bi, Fo, x0 0
(3.12)
Trong =
thng s nhit tng i, xc nh theo cng thc (3.13): 0 = t k t v = 0 t k t vo
(3.13)
t k - nhit trung bnh ca kh l [oC]. t v - nhit ca im kho st trn vt nung ti thi im [oC]. t vo - nhit ban u ca im kho st trn vt nung [oC].
Fo- tiu chun Fu-ri-:
Fo =
a x2
(3.14)
x x - ta tng i ca im kho st, khi = 0 th im kho st tm vt x0 x0
th,
x = 1 th im kho st trn b mt vt th. x0
Bng tnh ton l thuyt v thc nghim, ngi ta xy dng cc biu biu th quan h gia cc tiu chun (phng trnh 3.12) ng vi cc trng hp khc nhau. Trn cc hnh (3.4 - 3.7) gii thiu biu tnh ton ng vi vt nung dng tm v dng tr.
Hnh 3.4 Nhit tng i ca b mt vt khi vt nung dng tm
- 49 -
Hnh 3.5 Nhit tng i ca tm vt khi vt nung dng tm
Hnh 3.6 Nhit tng i ca mt vt khi vt nung dng tr
Thi gian nung vt dy gm thi gian nung c bn v thi gian gi nhit, tnh ton ngi ta cng chia thi gian nung thnh nhiu giai on, trong mi giai on nhit kh l v nhit kim loi c coi nh khng i v ly bng nhit trung bnh. Khi tng thi gian nung xc nh bi cng thc:
= ni + gn
i =1 n 1
(3.15)
Trong : n - s giai on nung v gi nhit. - 50 -
ni - thi gian nung c bn ng vi giai on th i. gn - thi gian gi nhit vi mc ch lm ng u nhit gia tm v mt
Hnh 3.7 Nhit tng i ca tm vt khi vt nung dng tr
tnh thi gian nung c bn, ta tin hnh tnh ton cho tng giai on. Trong mi giai on, da vo nhit trung bnh ca kim loi, ly gn ng theo nhit
td + tc trung bnh ca mt vt t i = m m , xc nh cc thng s vt l ca vt liu, tnh tiu 2
chun Bii, nhit tng i b mt m,i v tra biu Fo m = F (Bi, m ) xc nh tiu chun Foi. Bit gi tr ca Foi, tnh c thi gian nung:
n ,i
2 Fo i .x 0 = ai
(3.16)
Sau dng gin t = F (Bi i , Fo i ) , xc nh c t ,i v tnh nhit tm cui giai on theo cng thc:
t c,i = t k ,i (t k ,i t d,i ) t ,i t t
(3.17)
tnh thi gian gi nhit, trc ht cn xc nh chnh nhit cho php gia mt v tm cui giai on gi nhit:
[t c ] = t cm t ct = t.x 0
- 51 -
(3.18)
Trong t l chnh nhit cho php trn mt n v chiu dy [oC/cm], x0 chiu dy truyn nhit [cm]. Nu u giai on gi nhit (cui giai on nung cui cng) chnh nhit mt v tm t d > [t c ] ta phi tnh thi gian gi nhit. Gi thit nhit tm khi kt thc gi nhit yu cu bng t c , xc nh nhit t mt tm:
t c = t c + t c m t
(3.19)
Bit t d , t d v t c , tnh c Bi v m, tra biu Fo m = (Bi, m ) xc nh gi tr m t m ca Fo v tnh gn.

Fo = a 2 x0
0,12
3
0,8
2
1 1 0,4
6
5 4
0,2
0,4
0,6
t c t c
Hnh 3.8 Biu tra Fo khi gi nhit 1) Dng tm. 2-5) Dng thi (khi B/S=2;1,5;1,2;1) 6) Dng tr
tnh thi gian gi nhit gn khi tm= const, cng c th s dng phng trnh thc nghim i vi mi dng vt nung: i vi dng tm:
2 , 47 2 t c x0 = 1,03.e t d
agn
(3.20)
i vi dng tr:
5, 76 t c = 1,142.e t d
agn
2 r0
(3.21)
agn
2 , 47 2 8, 25 2 t c r0 h Hoc = 1,142.e khi r0 <0,5h. t d Trong : r0, h l bn knh v chiu di thi hnh tr [m].
agn
- 52 -
Hoc s dng biu hnh 3.8, khi :

=
2 Fo.x 0 a
(3.22)
i vi vt nung dng thi, Fo ph thuc vo t l gia b rng thi (B) v chiu dy truyn nhit (S). 3.3. V d tnh thi gian nung Ta xt trng hp vt nung bng thp C20 dng tm, chiu dy 2x0 =200 mm, t = 20oC, nhit nung yu cu tt,c = 1200oC, nung i xng 2 mt. Gin nung biu th trn hnh 3.9 gm 2 giai on nung v mt giai on gi nhit. Giai on 1: nung t 20 - 1000oC, c h s bc x quy dn C1 = 2,92 Kcal/m2.h.oK4. Giai on 2: nung t 1000 - 1200oC, c h s bc x quy dn C2 = 2,57 Giai on 3: gi nhit, c h s bc x quy dn C3 = 2,34 Kcal/m2.h.oK4.
toC tk1 =1350
tm2=1200
Kcal/m2.h.oK4.
tk3 =1250
tt2
t 3 = 30
tk0 =1000
tm1=1000
tm
tt1
tt
tm0=tto=20
n 1
n 2
gn
Hnh 3. 9 Gin nung
a) Giai on nung 1: Nhit trung bnh ca kh l:

t k1 = t k 0 + t k1 1000 + 1350 = = 1175 2 2
[oC]
Nhit trung bnh ca kim loi:

t1 = t m 0 + t m1 20 + 1000 = = 510 2 2
[oC]
- 53 -
Tra bng ta c: 1 = 7695 [kg/m3], 1 = 33,8 [Kcal/m.h.oC], c1 = 0,134 [Kcal/kg.oC] v tnh c a1 = 0,033 [m2/h]. H s truyn nhit bc x:
4 4 T1 T k1 C 1 100 100
1,bx =
T k1 T 1
1448 4 783 4 2,92. 100 100 = = 176 1448 783
[Kcal/m2.h.oK4]
Ly 1,dl = 0,1. 1,bx , ta tnh c h s truyn nhit tng cng:

1 = 1,bx + 1,dl = 1,10.1,bx = 1,10.176 = 194
[Kcal/m2.h.oK4]
Tnh tiu chun Bi:

Bi1 = 1 .x 0 194.0,1 = = 0,57 1 33,8
Bi1 = 0,57 >Bith, vt nung coi l vt dy. Tnh nhit tng i ca mt tm:
m1 = T k1 Tm1 1448 1000 = = 0,15 T k1 Tm 0 1448 293
Tnh thi gian nung giai on 1: Bit Bi1 = 0,57, m1 = 0,15 tra biu Fo m = (Bi 1 , m1 ) xc nh c Fo 1 = 3,4 v
tnh c thi gian nung:

n1 =
2 Fo 1 .x 0 3,4.0,12 = = 1,04 a1 0,33
[h]
Xc nh nhit tm cui giai on:
x Bit Bi, Fo tra biu t = Bi, F0 , xc nh c t1 = 0,2 v tnh nhit tm x0
cui giai on:

t t1 = t k1 (t k1 t t 0 ). t1 = 1175 (1175 20).0,2 = 944
[oC]
b) Giai on nung 2: - Nhit trung bnh ca kh l:

t k 2 = 1350
[oC]
Nhit trung bnh ca kim loi: - 54 -
t2 =
t m1 + t m 2 1000 + 1200 = = 1100 2 2
[oC]
Tra bng ta c: 2 = 7696 [kg/m3], 2 = 24,5 [Kcal/m.h.oC], c 2 = 0,165 [Kcal/kg.oC] v tnh c a2 = 0,02 [m2/h]. H s truyn nhit bc x:
4 4 T k2 T 2 1623 4 1373 4 C2 100 100 2,57. 100 100 = 348 [Kcal/m2.h.oK4] = = 1623 1373 T k2 T 2
2,bx
Ly 2,dl = 0,05.1,bx , ta tnh c h s truyn nhit tng cng:

1 = 1,bx + 1,dl = 1,05.1,bx = 1,05.348 = 365
[Kcal/m2.h.oK4]
Tnh tiu chun Bi:

Bi 2 = 2 .x 0 365.0,1 = = 1,49 2 24,5 T k 2 Tm 2 1623 1473 = = 0,43 T k 2 Tm1 1623 1273
Tnh nhit tng i ca mt tm:

m2 =
Tnh thi gian nung giai on: Bit Bi2 = 1,49, m2 = 0,43 tra biu Fo m = (Bi 2 , m 2 ) xc nh c Fo 2 = 0,5
v tnh c thi gian nung:

2 Fo 2 .x 0 0,5.0,12 2 = = = 0,25 a2 0,02
[h]
Xc nh nhit tm cui giai on:
Bit Bi2, Fo2 tra biu t = (Bi 2 , Fo 2 ) xc nh c t 2 = 0,6 v tnh nhit tm cui giai on:
t t 2 = t k 2 (t k 2 t t1 ). t 2 = 1350 (1350 944).0,6 = 1106
[oC]
c) Tnh thi gian gi nhit Nhit trung bnh ca kh l:

t k 3 = 1250
[oC]
chnh nhit gia mt v tm cho php 3oC/cm:
- 55 -
t 3 = t.x 0 = 30
[oC]
T s
t c 30 = = 0,32 , tra biu (3.8) nhn c Fo = 0,5, tnh c: t d 94 gn

2 Fo 3 .x 0 0,5.0,12 = = = 0,23 [h]. a3 0,022
Vy thi gian nung tng cng:

= 1 + 2 + gn = 1,04 + 0,25 + 0,23 = 1,52
[h]
- 56 -
Chng 4 Nhin liu v s chy ca nhin liu

4.1. Nhin liu 4.1.1. Khi nim chung Nhin liu l loi vt cht m khi chy ta ra mt lng nhit ln, lng nhit ny c th s dng mt cch c hiu qu trong cng ngh cng nh trong i sng. Nhin liu phi tho mn cc yu cu chung sau y: + Sn phm chy ca nhin liu phi th kh. Khi , sn vt chy mi c th chuyn ng thun li trong l, truyn nhit cho vt nung v thot ra ngoi d dng phn ng chy ca nhin liu tip tc xy ra. + Sn phm chy khng gy tc ng c hi i vi vt liu gia cng, khng ph hy thit b, khng c hi i vi ngi v sinh vt xung quanh. + C th khng ch c qu trnh chy. + Tr lng ln v gi thnh khai thc, ch bin thp. T cc yu cu chung trn, ta thy ch nhng cht c ngun gc hu c, gm cc bon v hyr to thnh, mi c th tho mn ng thi cc yu cu . Cc bon v hyr khi b oxy ho u c hiu ng nhit ln, sn phm chy th kh v vi nng khng ln l loi kh khng c hi. 4.1.2. Cc loi nhin liu a) Phn loi Cn c vo ngun gc hnh thnh, nhin liu c phn ra: thin nhin, nhn to. Cn c vo trng thi, nhin liu c phn ra: nhin liu rn, nhin liu lng,
nhin liu kh. Cc loi nhin liu c s dng trong cng nghip trnh by bng 4.1. Bng 4.1 Phn loi nhin liu s dng trong cng nghip
Trng thi Thin nhin Rn Lng Kh khi, than ngtraxit, ... Du m Kh t thin nhin t xng, du ho, mazut,... Kh t l cc, kh l cao, kh l sinh kh,... Ngun gc Nhn to Ci, g, than bn, than nu, than Than ci, than cc, than bi,..
- 57 -
b) Nhin liu rn - Nhin liu rn thin nhin: gm cc loi g, than bn, than nu, than khi, than antraxit. G: Thnh phn ch yu ca g l xen-luy-l, nc v mt s oxyt kim loi kim. Thnh phn nguyn t ca g nh sau: %C = 49,4 50,4; %H = 5,9 6,1; %O = 42,7 43,9; %N = 0,7 1. Nhit tr Qd = 1.878 4.460 Kcal/kg. G c hm lng cht bc cao (khong 80 %) d chy, khng cha lu hunh, hm lng tro nh (A = 0,7 1,2 %), nhc im ca g l cha nhiu nc (g ti W = 40 60 %, g kh W = 30%), nhit tr ca g thp ( khi w = 50 %, Qd =1878 Kcal/kg), khi lng th tch nh nn chi ph vn chuyn cao. G l loi nhin liu c dng nhiu trc y, song hin nay g l ngun nguyn liu c gi tr ca nhiu ngnh cng nghip khc nn rt hn ch dng lm nhin liu. Than bn: l loi than tr tui nht va chuyn t thc vt sang, cha nhiu nc, mi khai thc W = 85 91 %, phi kh k vn cn W = 30 40 %, khi lng th tch nh 325 425 kg/m3. Thnh phn nguyn t trung bnh ca than: %Cc = 57,8; %Hd =6,0; %O = 33,4; %Nc = 2,5; %Sc =0,3; %Ak = 9,7. Nhit tr Qd = 2.660 2.940 Kcal/kg. Than bn c u im: d bc chy, cha t lu hunh, d kh ha. Nhc im: khi lng th tch nh, bn c hc thp, nhit tr thp, im chy ca tro thp. Than bn ch yu dng trong cng nghip a phng, gn ni khai thc. Than nu: than nu do than bn tri qua mt thi k bin i to thnh, qu trnh chuyn bin t thc vt sang khong vt hon thnh. Thnh phn nguyn t ca than nu: %Cc = 72 78 ; %Hd = 4,4 5,6; %O = 15 21; %Nc = 1,3 1,5; %Sc = 0,4; %Ak = 11 30; %Wd = 35 - 50. Nhit tr Qd = 2.660 4.100 Kcal/kg. So vi than bn, than nu c thnh phn cc bon cao hn, khi lng th tch t 800 900 kg/m3, bn c hc cao hn, ht nc t hn, thnh phn cht bc thp hn. Than nu c th c dng lm nhin liu cho cc l nhit khng cao, kh ho sn xut kh t.
- 58 -
Than khi: Qu trnh cc bon ho ca than hon thin hn, ht nc ca than b, lng cht bc gim, bn c hc cao hn. Theo cng dng than khi c phn ra: than la di, than kh t, than bo, than luyn cc, than gy. Than la di v than kh t c hm lng cht bc cn kh cao, khi chy sinh ra ngn la di, c dng t trc tip hoc ch to kh t. Than bo mt phn t trc tip, mt phn luyn cc. Than luyn cc l loi than qu dng luyn than cc, loi nhin liu quan trng trong cc l luyn v nu gang. Than gy ch yu dng t trc tip. Than khng khi ( than antraxit): than khng khi l loi than gi tui nht, bn ln, ht m t, hm lng cc bon cao, lng cht bc thp, khi chy khng sinh khi. Hm lng tro v lu hunh trong than bin i trong phm vi rng. Than khng khi c dng t trc tip, mt phn c nhit luyn thay th mt phn than cc trong nu gang. - Nhin liu rn nhn to: than g, than cc, than antraxit nhit luyn. Than g: than g c ch to bng cch chng kh ci g theo phng php th cng hoc dng l kn v nung bng khng kh nng 350 - 400 oC. Thnh phn hu c ca than g: %C = 79,81 88,87 ; %H = 4,33 3,23; % (O+N) = 15,86 7,90. Than g cha t lu hunh, trc y c s dng lm nhin liu cho l c, l cao c nh nhng hin nay t dng. Than cc: Than cc c luyn bng cch nung bt than c tnh dnh kt tt (than luyn cc, than bo) trong mi trng cch bit vi khng kh ti nhit 850 1000oC sau lm ngui. Qu trnh luyn cc nh sau: nghin than n ht khong 3 mm, cht vo l v nung. Di tc dng ca nhit, than c sy kh v chng, trong than xy ra cc phn ng phn ha nhit. Giai on quan trng nht i vi s to thnh than cc l nhit 400 - 500 oC, than b bin mm v tit ra cht bc lm cho khi than tr nn xp. Tip tc nng nhit , khi than s chuyn sang trng thi rn ta thu c than cc. Than cc c ly ra khi l v lm ngui bng nc sau sng phn loi theo c ht. Than cc c c im: bn c v bn nhit cao, xp than ln, hm lng cht bc thp, hm lng tro t 8 - 14%. Than cc ch yu dng cho cc l cao luyn gang v cc l ng nu gang.
- 59 -
Than antraxit nhit luyn: Than antraxit c xp b, khi b nung nng t ngt, nc v cht bc thot ra mnh lm cho than b v vn nhiu gy kh khn cho qu trnh chy l. tng bn nhit ca than antraxit ngi ta tin hnh nhit luyn. Qu trnh nhit luyn than tin hnh nh sau: em than nung nng chm n 1000 1100oC, gi nhit trong mt thi gian sau lm ngui, thu c than nhit luyn. Khi nung nng chm, nc v cht bc trong than thot ra ngoi, hm lng nc v cht bc trong than gim, ng thi xp ca than tng ln lm tng ng k bn nhit ca than khi chy l. Than gy nhit luyn c s dng thay th mt phn than cc nu gang trong l ng v luyn gang trong cc l cao c nh. c) Nhin liu lng Nhin liu lng dng trong l cng nghip ch yu l du mazut v du izen l cc sn phm thu c khi gia cng du m. Du m nguyn khai l hn hp ca nhiu loi cacbua hyr v mt lng nh cc tp cht ca oxy, nit v lu hunh. Cc cacbua hyr trong du m c chia ra ba nhm: m-tan (CnH2n+2), np-ten (CnH2n) v cacbua thm (CnH2n-6). Du m c khi lng ring 750 - 1.000 kg/m3, nhit tr 9.800 - 10.500 kcal/kg. Mc d du m c nhit tr cao nhng ngi ta khng dng n trc tip lm nhin liu v trong n cha nhiu sn vt qu. Du m c gia cng bng hai phng php: chng phn trc tip v crckinh. Khi chng phn trc tip, da vo nhit si khc nhau ca cc sn phm trong du m, ngi ta chng du m nhng nhit cn thit tch ring tng loi. Cc sn phm thu c khi chng phn trc tip gm: t-xng nh, t-xng nng, du ho, ligrain, gajin v mazut. em mazut chng trong chn khng, tip tc thu c cc loi du nhn v hc-n. Crc-king du m l qu trnh lm phn ha nhit du m 450 - 460oC bin nhng cacbuahyr nng thnh nhng cacbuahyr nh hn. Nh phng php crcking ngi ta tng thm c lng du nh thu hi khi gia cng du m. d) Nhin liu kh So vi nhin liu rn v lng, nhin liu kh c nhiu u im hn: + D ho trn vi khng kh nn ch cn h s d khng kh nh cng m bo t chy hon ton, gim tn tht nhit do khi l mang ra ngoi. - 60 -
+ C th t dc nhit chy cao nh nung nng trc khng kh v nhin liu. + Thit b t n gin, d khng ch nhit , chiu di ngn la v p sut trong l. + D vn chuyn t ni sn xut n ni tiu th. - Kh t thin nhin: Kh t thin nhin c cc m ring hoc cc m du. Thnh phn c th chy trong n ch yu l m tan(CH4), chim khong 75 - 98%, mt t cacbuahyr nng, hyr v CO, thnh phn khng th chy l CO2 v N2. Kh t thin nhin c nng sut to nhit cao, Qd 8.600 Kcal/m3. - Kh t nhn to: Kh t nhn to gm nhiu loi (bng 4.2). Bng 4.2 Thnh phn v nhit tr ca kh nhn to
Loi kh t Kh t bn cc Kh t l cc Kh t hi nc Kh t hn hp Kh t khng kh Kh t l cao
8 - 14 23 - 31 10 -15 0,1 - 2,6 48 - 60 0,5 - 15 32 - 33 0, 5 -0,9 64 - 66 5-7 0,1 - 0,3 24 - 30 12 - 15 0,5 - 3 0,2 - 0,4 46 - 55 5-7 0,1 - 0,2 35 - 40 47 - 52 0,3 - 0,6 2-6 2-3 0,7 - 1,2 4-8 53 - 60 19 - 25 1,6 - 2,3 7 - 15 12 -15 0,2-0,5 7 - 12 8 - 12 45 - 62 5-8 2 - 10 CO2+H2 S O2
Thnh phn theo th tch (%)

CO H2 CH4 C mH n N2
Qd kcal/m3
5.300 -7.000 3.700 - 4.000 2.400 - 2.500 1.150 - 1.550 900 - 1.030 900 - 1.265
Kh t l cao: l sn phm ph khi luyn gang bng l cao, luyn 1 tn gang thu c 3.600 - 4.000 m3 kh l cao. Thnh phn kh chy ch yu ca kh l cao l CO (hm lng 23 - 31%) v hyr (hm lng 10 - 15%). Nhit tr kh l cao thp (Qd= 900 - 1265 Kcal/m3), nng cao nhit chy ngi ta thng nung nng trc hoc hn hp vi kh l cc.
- 61 -
Kh l cc: l sn phm ph thu c khi luyn than cc, luyn 1 tn than cc thu c 230 - 270 m3 kh l cc. Thnh phn c th chy ca kh l cc ch yu l H2 (53 - 60%) v CH4 (19 - 225%), Qd = 3700 - 4000Kcal/kg. Kh t khng kh l sn phm thu c khi kh ha than m kh thi l khng kh. Thnh phn chy ch yu l CO (32 - 33%). Nhit tr kh t khng kh thp, Qd = 3780 - 4600 Kcal/kg. Kh t hi nc l sn phm thu c khi kh ha than bng hi nc. Thnh phn chy ch yu l CO ( 35 - 40%) v H2 (47 - 52 %). Nhit tr kh t hi nc thp Qd = 2400 - 2500 Kcal/kg v gi thnh cao nn t dng trong luyn kim. 4.1.3. Thnh phn ca nhin liu Thnh phn nhin liu l mt ch tiu quan trng nh gi cht lng ca nhin liu. a) Thnh phn nhin liu rn v lng i vi cc nhin liu rn v lng, thnh phn ca chng rt phc tp, cc nguyn t to thnh chng thng khng tn ti mt cch c lp, m ho hp vi nhau to thnh cc hp cht. Vic phn tch chnh xc thnh phn nhin liu theo cc hp cht to thnh chng rt kh khn, bi vy trong tnh ton nhit thng ngi ta coi nhin liu rn v lng bao gm cc cht tn ti c lp: Cc bon (C): l thnh phn chy chnh ca nhin liu rn v lng. Phn ng chy C +O2 = CO2 + 8.137 Kcal/kg Hyr (H): dng chy c gm hyr t do v hyr ha hp vi cc cht chy
1 O2 = H2O + 34.180 Kcal/ kg 2
hon ton ca ccbon vi oxy c hiu ng nhit ln.
c, dng khng chy c l hp cht vi oxy. Phn ng chy ca hyr vi oxy: H2 + -
Nit (N): l thnh phn khng chy c, trong nhin liu rn v lng nit ch Lu hunh (S): c ba dng l lu hunh hu c, lu hunh sunphit v lu hunh
chim 1 - 2 % nn t nh hng. dng mui. Hai dng u c th chy cn lu hunh dng mui khng th chy. Lu hunh l tp cht c hi trong nhin liu cn hn ch. Tro (A): gm cc khong cht SiO2, Al2O3, MgO, Fe2O3... l cc thnh phn khng chy c. Hm lng tro trong nhin liu cng cao th cht lng nhin liu cng - 62 -
gim do gim hm lng cht chy c, tn hao nhit do nung nng tro, tng lng bi trong sn phm chy, gy kh khn cho vic khng ch qu trnh chy. Nc (W): gm nc hp ph b mt, nc hp th qua cc l xp ca nhin liu v nc kt tinh. Khi sy nhin liu ch hai dng u l c kh nng bc hi cn dng nc kt tinh vn cn trong nhin liu. i vi nhin liu rn v lng, thnh phn ca chng c biu din bng bn cch: + Cht hu c + Cht kh : Ch + Hh + Oh + Nh = 100 %. : Ck + Hk + Ok + Nk + Sk +Ak = 100 %. (4.1) (4.2) (4.3) (4.4) + Cht c th chy : Cc + Hc + Oc + Nc + Sc = 100 %.
+ Thng dng: %Cd + %Hd + %Od + %Nd + %Sd +%Ad + %Wd = 100 % th hon cho bng 4.3.
chuyn i t thnh phn ny qua thnh phn khc ngi ta dng cc h s Bng 4.3. H s chuyn i thnh phn nhin liu rn v lng
Thnh phn bit Cht hu c C th chy Cht kh Thng dng Thnh phn mun chuyn i Cht hu c 1
100 100 S c 100
C th chy
100 S c 100
Cht kh
100 (S k + A k ) 100 100 A k 100
Thng dng
100 (S d + A d + W d ) 100 100 (A d + W d ) 100
1
100
k
1
k
100 (S + A )
k
100 A 100
d d
100 W d 100 100
100 100 (S + A + W )
d d
1
d
100 (A + W )
d
100 W
b) Thnh phn nhin liu kh Nhin liu kh thng l hn hp c hc ca mt s kh, c th phn tch chnh xc tng thnh phn ca chng. Cc thnh phn c th chy trong nhin liu kh gm: CO, H2, CH4, CmHn, H2S. Cc thnh phn khng th chy gm CO2, N2, SO2, H2O, O2. Trong cc thnh phn c th chy th cc cacbuahyr nh CH4, CmHn c nng sut to nhit cao, sau l H2 v CO, cn H2S l thnh phn c hi cn hn ch. Thnh phn nhin liu kh c biu th bng hai cch: + Thnh phn kh: CO2k + COk + H2k + CH4k + C2H2k + H2Sk + ...+ N2k = 100 % - 63 (4.5)
+ Thnh phn t: CO2u + COu + H2u + CH4u + C2H2u + H2Su +...+ N2u + H2Ou= 100% (4.6) Cng thc chuyn i gia cc thnh phn nh sau:
Xu = Xk. 100 H 2 O u 100
(4.7) (4.8) (4.9)
Xk = Xu.
100 100 H 2 O u 100 806,3 +
Trong :
H2Ou =
Vi l m ca nhin liu, tnh bng lng nc cha trong mt mt khi kh kh [ g/m3]. 4.1.4. Nhit tr ca nhin liu Nng sut to nhit hay nhit tr ca nhin liu l lng nhit to ra khi t chy hon ton mt n v khi lng nhin liu (nu l nhin liu rn v lng) hay mt n v th tch nhin liu ( nu l nhin liu kh), c k hiu l Q [kcal/kg hoc kj/kg v kcal/ m3 hoc kj/m3]. Trong thc t, ngi ta dng hai khi nim v nhit tr l nhit tr cao v nhit tr thp. Nhit tr cao l nhit tr ca nhin liu xc nh vi iu kin cc sn vt chy ngui n nhit ban u, nc trong sn vt chy th lng v ngui n 0oC, k hiu l Qc. Nhit tr thp l nhit tr ca nhin liu xc nh vi iu kin cc sn vt chy ngui n nhit ban u, nc trong sn vt chy th hi v ngui n 20oC, k hiu l Qd. xc nh nhit tr ca nhin liu c hai phng php: xc nh bng thc nghim v tnh ton. i vi nhin liu rn v nhin liu lng, v khng bit thnh phn cu to cht, nn xc nh nhit tr thng tin hnh bng thc nghim. Ngoi ra, c th tnh ton gn ng theo thnh phn nguyn t bng cc cng thc thc nghim, trong cng thc c dng nhiu l cng thc ca Men--l-p: Qc = 4,18 [81Cd + 300Hd - 26( Od - Sd)] Qd = 4,18 [81Cd + 246Hd - 26( Od - Sd) - 6Wd] [Kj/kg] [Kj/kg] (4.10) (4.11)
- 64 -
i vi nhin liu kh c th xc nh bng thc nghim hoc tnh ton theo thnh phn nhin liu. Cng thc tnh nhit tr ca nhin liu kh khi bit thnh phn kh nh sau: Qc = 4,18(30,2CO + 30,5H2 + 95CH4 +152C2H4 + . . . +61H2S)[Kj/m3] (4.12) Qd = 4,18(30,2CO + 25,7H2 + 85,5CH4 +141C2H4 + . . . +56H2S) [Kj/m3] (4.13) 4.2. S chy ca nhin liu 4.2.1. S chy ca nhin liu rn Qu trnh chy ca nhin liu rn (ch yu l than) l qu trnh chy d th gia mt cht l th rn (nhin liu) v mt cht l th kh (oxy ca khng kh). Tuy nhin, trong qu trnh chy cng xy ra mt phn qu trnh chy ng th l qu trnh chy cht bc. Qu trnh chy ca nhin liu rn c th chia ra cc giai on sau: + Nung nng v bc hi nc. + Phn ha nhit nhin liu, thot cht bc v to thnh cc. + Chy cht bc. + Chy cc bon. Khi chy, s chy cht bc xy ra trc, tuy thi thi gian chy cht bc ngn, nhng n c ngha quan trng lm tng nhit ca nhin liu, thc y qu trnh chy tip theo. S chy ca cc bon l qu trnh chy ch yu ca nhin liu rn. Qu trnh chy cac bon c c trng bi cc phn ng sau: Chy cac bon: C + O2 = CO2 + 399 254 kj/kmol 2C + O2 = 2CO + 246 623 kj/kmol. Phn hy kh CO2 v hi nc: C + CO2 = 2CO - 162 530 kj/kmol C + 2H2O = CO2 + 2H2 - 65 294 kj/kmol Chy tip kh CO: 2CO + O2 = 2CO2 + 571 684 kj/kmol Trong qu trnh chy, cc phn ng chy cac bon xy ra trc, cc phn ng phn hy kh CO2, hi nc v chy CO l cc phn ng tip theo (phn ng th cp). Qu trnh chy ca cc bon l qu trnh chy d th, do tc khhuch tn oxy ti b mt cc
- 65 -
bon nh hng ln ti qu trnh chy. Lng kh khuch tn n b mt vt rn xc nh bi cng thc:

V= D (C 0 C n )..F
[g]
(4.14)
Trong : V - lng kh khuch tn [gam]. D - h s khuch tn phn t [cm2/s]. - chiu dy lp chy tng bao quanh vt rn [cm]. C0, Cn - nng cht khuch tn trong dng kh v gn mt vt rn [g/cm3]. F - b mt vt rn [cm2]. - thi gian [s]. Tc khuch tn ca oxy n mt than ph thuc vo tiu chun Re v tc dng kh ():
kt = 0,031. R 0, 2 e
[cm/s]
(4.15)
Lng oxy khuch tn n b mt than, mt phn chy cn mt phn c b mt vt rn hp th. S hp th oxy ca mt than ch yu ph thuc vo b mt than v p sut kh, khi p sut kh tng lng oxy c hp th tng. Nghin cu tc chy cc bon trong lp nhin liu rn gm nhng ht hnh cu, ngi ta thy tc bin i b mt than ph thuc p sut kh v tc dng kh nh sau:
K = A(p )
0, 4
+B
(4.16)
Trong : K - tc bin i b mt cu [cm2/s]. , p - tc v p sut dng kh, [m/s] v [at]. A, B: cc h s thc nghim. T phng trnh (4.16), ta nhn thy khi tng tc hay p sut dng kh dn n tc chy cc bon tng. 4.2.2. S chy ca nhin liu lng Qu trnh chy ca nhin liu lng (ch yu l cc loi du) va l qu trnh chy d th (s chy cc ht rn sinh ra khi phn hu nhin liu) va l qu trnh chy ng th (chy hi du). - 66 -
t chy nhin liu lng cn phi tch nhin liu thnh ht nh tng b mt tip xc gia nhin liu v khng kh, qu trnh c gi l qu trnh bin bi. Cht bin bi du gi l cht bin bi. Hin nay ngi ta dng cht bin bi l khng kh nn, hi nc v khng kh p sut cao. Khi cht bin bi va chm vo dng nhin liu, ng nng cht bin bi gim, gim ng nng U0 ca cht bin bi mt phn sinh cng c hc lm bin bi nhin liu cn phn ln nng lng ny bin thnh nhit lm tng nhit hm ca hn hp. Phn ng nng lm bin bi nhin liu ( U) ph thuc vo t s gia khi lng ring ca cht bin bi (2) v khi lng ring ca nhin liu (1). Nu b qua tc ng ca nht th t s gia U v U0 c th tnh gn ng:
U 2 U 0 1
Nu khi lng ring ca nhin liu khng i th khi lng ring ca cht bin bi cng ln th t s ny cng ln v hiu qu bin bi cng cao. Nu gi E l nng lng cn thit ph v b mt t do git nhin liu th E = U, do xc nh c ng knh ca cc ht bi du:
d=
d=
[2 (1 + E u ) 1 ]
1+ ()2 . 2 . 12.
12.
1+ . 2 .
Hay: Trong :
[m]
(4.17)
- h s sc cng b mt ca nhin liu [N/m2].

= G2 - sut tiu hao n v ca cht bin bi (G1 v G2 l lu lng nhin liu G1
v cht bin bi) [kg/kg].

= 2 (1 + E u ) 1 .
Kch thc ht du sau khi bin bi dao ng trong khong 0,05 - 0,5 mm. Qu trnh chy ca cc ht bi du xy ra theo cc giai on sau: Ho trn gia bi du v khng kh. Hn hp c sy nng v bi du bc hi. Phn hu cc hp cht cacbua hyr. - 67 -
nhau.
Xy ra cc phn ng chy.
Trn thc t cc giai on trn c quan h mt thit vi nhau v khng tch ri

3
2 1
Hnh 4.1 Qu trnh chy bi du 1) Ht du 2) Vng hi du 3) Vng xy ra cc phn ng chy
Xt cc yu t nh hng ti s chy ca nhin liu lng ta nhn thy, nu kch thc ht du cng nh v qu trnh trao i nhit gia mi trng vi hn hp cht bin bi v nhin liu tt th hn hp c sy nng nhanh, du bc hi tt v qu trnh chy xy ra nhanh. Qu trnh chy cn ph thuc vo s khuch tn ca oxy vo vng chy v s khuch tn ca sn phm chy ra khi vng ny nn s xo trn hn hp tt cng lm cho qu trnh chy xy ra nhanh hn. 4.2.3. S chy ca nhin liu kh Qu trnh chy ca nhin liu kh l qu trnh chy ng th gia kh chy v oxy ca khng kh. Qu trnh chy ca nhin liu kh c th chia ra: + Giai on ho trn nhin liu v khng kh to thnh hn hp chy. + Giai on chy ca hn hp chy. Tc v cht lng chy ca nhin liu kh, nhit v chiu di ca ngn la trn thc t ch yu ph thuc vo tc v cht lng ca qu trnh ho trn. Nguyn nhn to thnh hn hp l do s khuch tn ca cc phn t kh do chnh lch nng (khuch tn phn t) hoc do s va p ca cc dng kh chuyn ng (khuch tn xo trn). Khi s ha trn xy ra cng tt th qu trnh chy xy ra cng nhanh, chy cng hon ton, chiu di ngn la ngn hn v nhit ngn la cng cao hn. Mt yu t quan trng khc nh hng ti s chy ca nhin liu kh v nhit ngn la l t l gia khng kh v kh t trong hn hp. Nu lng khng kh a vo khng th kh t chy khng hon ton, nhit ngn la thp. Ngc li, nu lng khng kh a vo d, nhin liu chy hon ton, tuy nhin nhit ngn la cng khng cao do tn nhit nung khng kh d. - 68 -
4.2.4. Khi nim chy hon ton, chy khng hon ton v h s khng kh d a) Khi nim chy hon ton v chy khng hon ton S chy ca nhin liu thc cht l qu trnh phn ng ha hc gia nhng thnh phn c th chy ca nhin liu vi oxy:
C + O 2 = CO 2 1 H2 + O2 = H2O 2 S + O 2 = SO 2
Nu nhng thnh phn c th chy trong nhin liu u tham gia phn ng chy v sn vt chy to thnh ch gm nhng cht kh khng th chy nh c nh CO2, H2O, SO2 ... th gi l qu trnh chy hon ton. Ngc li, trong qu trnh chy, mt phn nhin liu khng tham gia phn ng hay trong sn vt chy cn c c nhng kh chy c nh CO, H2 ... th gi l qu trnh chy khng hon ton. Da vo nguyn nhn gy ra chy khng hon ton ngi ta chia ra: Chy khng hon ton ho hc: xy ra khi mt phn nhng cht c th chy trong nhin liu tham gia phn ng chy, v mt iu kin no khng th chy c v b cun ra ngoi theo sn vt chy. Nguyn nhn gy ra chy khng hon ton ha hc c th l: + Cung cp khng kh khng . + Khng kh v nhin liu hn hp khng tt. + Phn ha nhit. Trong cc nguyn nhn trn, hai nguyn nhn u c th hn ch c, nguyn nhn th ba khng th hn ch c, v d phn ng phn ho ca CO2:
2CO 2 2CO + O 2
Mc phn ha ca CO2 ph thuc p sut ring phn v nhit ca kh. Chy khng hon ton c hc: do nhin liu b ri vi, r r trong qu trnh t, lm cho mt phn khng th tham gia phn ng chy. Chy khng hon ton c hc ph thuc nhin liu v thit b t, v d than lt qua mt ghi, kh r r trn ng ng trc m t ...
- 69 -
b) H s khng kh d Thng thng khi t nhin liu, nu lng khng kh s dng ly ng theo t l cc phn ng ha hc th gy ra chy khng hon ton, do ngi ta thng ly d so vi yu cu l thuyt. nh gi mc d khng kh, ngi ta dng khi nim h s d khng kh xc nh bng cng thc sau:
n= Ln L0
(4.18)
Trong : L0 - th tch khng kh cn thit theo l thuyt t chy ht mt n v khi lng hay th tch nhin liu [m3/kg hoc m3/m3]. Ln - th tch khng kh c s dng t chy mt n v khi lng hay th tch nhin liu[m3/kg hoc m3/m3]. H s khng kh d c chn cn c vo nhin liu, cu to ca thit b t, iu kin vn hnh. Bng 4.4 cho gi tr h s khng kh d thng dng trong thc t. Bng 4.4 H s khng kh d Nhin liu v kiu thit b t Bung t than thao tc th cng Bung t than c kh ha t than bi t kh t, m t khng c ngn la t kh t, m t c ngn la 4.3. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu nhm mc ch xc nh lng khng kh cn thit t chy nhin liu, lng sn vt chy, thnh phn, khi lng ring ca sn vt chy v nhit chy. tnh ton ngi ta da vo cc gi thit sau: Cc cht kh c coi l kh l tng. Khng tnh n th tch sn vt chy do phn ha nhit. Th tch kh u i v iu kin tiu chun. Trong khng kh ch cha oxy v nit vi t l th tch: 21% O2 v 79%N2. H s d khng kh, n 1,30 - 1,70 1,20 - 1,40 1,20 - 1,25 1,03 - 1,05 1,10 - 1,15
- 70 -
4.3.1. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu rn v lng dn gin trong tnh ton, mi tnh ton c tin hnh vi 100 kg nhin liu. a) Tnh lng khng kh l thuyt cn dng t nhin liu : Chuyn i thnh phn nhin liu v thnh phn thng dng: Cd + Hd + Od + Nd + Sd +Ad + Wd = 100 % Tnh s kmol cc cht c trong 100 kg nhin liu:
C d Hd Od N d S d Wd ; ; ; ; v 12 2 32 28 32 18
(kmol)
Ring thnh phn tro (A) khng tham gia phn ng chy v khng bin thnh kh l nn khng tnh n. - Da vo phng trnh phn ng chy ca cc cht, tnh lng oxy cn t chy nhin liu:
N
' O2
C d Hd Sd = + + 12 4 32
(kmol)
Od kmol oxy nn lng oxy cn cung cp: Do trong nhin liu c 32 N O2 = C d H d S d Od + + 12 4 32 32
(kmol)
(4.19)
Vy th tch oxy cn cung cp t chy 100 kg nhin liu l:

VO2 C d Hd S d Od = 12 + 4 + 32 32 .22,4 79 C d H d S d O d + + 21 12 4 32 32
(m3)
(4.20)
Lng nit a vo theo khng kh tnh theo kmol l:

N N2 =
(kmol)
(4.21)
C d Hd S d Od N N 2 = 3,762. 12 + 4 + 32 32
(kmol)
(4.22)
Lng nit a vo theo khng kh tnh theo th tch l:

VO2 C d Hd S d Od = 3,762. 12 + 4 + 32 32 .22,4
(4.23)
Vy th tch khng kh cn cung cp t chy 100 kg nhin liu l:
- 71 -
Vkk = VO2 + VN 2
C d Hd S d Od = 4,762. 12 + 4 + 32 32 .22,4
(4.24)
b) Tnh lng sn vt chy l thuyt: Lng sn vt chy l thuyt gm hai phn: + Lng sn vt chy do nhin liu chy sinh ra:
N
nl SVC
C d Hd S d Nd Wd = 12 + 2 + 32 + 32 + 18
(kmol)
(4.25)
+ Lng kh do khng kh mang vo:

N
kk svc
= VN 2
C d H d S d Od = 3,762. 12 + 4 + 32 32 (kmol)
(4.26)
Vy lng sn vt chy tng cng khi t 100 kg nhin liu l:

C d Hd Sd Nd Wd C d H d S d Od + 3,762. N SVC = + + + + 12 12 + 4 + 32 32 (kmol) (4.27) 2 32 32 18
VSVC C d H d S d N d W d C d H d S d O d 3 + 3,762. = + + + + 12 + 4 + 32 32 .22,4 (m ) 2 32 32 18 12
(4.28) c) Tnh lng khng kh v sn vt chy l thuyt v thc t khi t chy 1 kg nhin liu: - T cng thc (4.24) tnh c lng khng kh l thuyt cn t chy 1 kg nhin liu:
C d H d S d O d 22,4 L 0 = 4,762. 12 + 4 + 32 32 . 100
[m3/kg]
(4.29)
- T cng thc (4.28) tnh c lng sn vt chy l thuyt khi t chy 1 kg nhin liu:
C d H d S d N d W d C d H d S d O d 22,4 + 3,762. V0 = + + + + 12 + 4 + 32 32 . 100 2 32 32 18 12
[m3/kg]
(4.30) - Lng khng kh thc t cn t chy 1 kg nhin liu:

L n = n.L 0
[m3/kg]
(4.31)
- Lng sn vt chy thc t sinh ra khi t chy 1 kg nhin liu:

Vn = V0 + (n 1)).L 0 [m3/kg]
(4.32)
- 72 -
Cc kt qu tnh ton thng c biu din theo bng (xem bng 4.6). d) Tnh thnh phn sn vt chy:
%X i = N Xi
N
i =1
.100
Xi
[%]
(4.33)
Trong : NXi l s kmol ca thnh phn sn vt chy Xi. e) Tnh khi lng ring ca sn vt chy: Khi lng ring ca sn vt chy xc nh theo cng thc:
=
n
N
i =1 n i =1
Xi
.M Xi
[kg/m3]
(4.34)
Xi
Trong NXi, MXi, VXi l s kmol, khi lng kmol v th tch ca thnh phn sn vt chy Xi. e) Tnh nhit chy ca nhin liu: Nhit chy l thuyt ca nhin liu l nhit m sn vt chy th kh c th t ti khi t chy nhin liu trong iu kin l tng, tc l chy hon ton, khng c tn tht, khng c phn ha nhit cng nh khng c khng kh d. tnh ton, ngi ta gi thit nhit chy l thuyt to cn tm nm trong khong t1 n t2 v:
t 1 < t do < t 2 o t 2 t 1 = 100 C
(4.35)
Khi , nhit chy l thuyt xc nh theo cng thc sau:

t do = i tng i 1 i 2 i1
(t 2 t 1 ) + t 1
(4.36)
Trong :
i1 = %X i .i Xi ,t1 - nhit hm ca sn vt chy nhit t1, iXi,t1 l nhit hm ca i =1 100
n
thnh phn Xi nhit t1.

i2 = %X i .i Xi ,t 2 - nhit hm ca sn vt chy nhit t2, iXi,t2 l nhit hm i =1 100
n
ca thnh phn Xi nhit t2. itng l nhit hm tng cng ca sn vt chy: - 73 -
i tng =
Q H + i nl + i kk L n Vn
[kcal/m3] hay [kj/m3]
(4.37)
y inl = cnl.tnl l nhit hm ca nhin liu v ikk = ckk.tkk l nhit hm ca khng kh. Khi khng nung nng nhin liu v khng kh th inl, ikk bng khng. Trong cc tnh ton trn nhit hm ca cc cht c tra theo bng cho sn. Nhit chy thc t ca nhin liu tnh theo cng thc sau: t tt = .t do Trong l h s nhit , ph thuc loi l v dng nhin liu, tra theo bng. Bng 4.5 Bng tra h s nhit Loi l L bung L bung L lin tc Dng nhin liu Kh l sinh kh Rn Rn 0,73 - 0,78 0,66 - 0,70 0,70 - 0,75
Di y kho st mt v d tnh ton s chy vi nhin liu l than c thnh phn chy nh sau: 85,32%Cc, 4,56%Hc, 4,07%Oc, 1,80%Nc, 4,25%Sc, 7,78%Ak, 3,00%Wd. V h s d khng kh n = 1,25. i thnh phn chy sang thnh phn thng dng:
100 3 100 W d = 7,78. = 7,55 100 100
i thnh phn tro Ak sang Ad:

Ad = Ak
[%]
H s th hon t thnh phn chy sang thnh phn thng dng:

K= 100 A d + W d 100 (7,55 + 3) = = 0,8945 100 100
Thnh phn thng dng ca nhin liu: Ad Wd Cd Hd Od Nd Sd = = = = = 0,895 x 85,32 0,895 x 4,56 0,895 x 4,07 0,895 x 1,80 0,895 x 4,25 = 7,55 % = 3,00 % = 76,32 % = 4,08 % = 3,64 % = 3,64 % = 3,80 % - 74 -
Bng 4.6 Bng kt qu tnh lng khng kh, lng v thnh phn sn vt chy cho 100 kg nhin liu Khng kh S lng O2 N2 Cng m3 kmol kmol kmol kmol kmol 27,782 2,04 0,119 6,36 kmol Cng m3 kmol kmol H2O SO2 O2 N2 kmol 6,360 1,020 0,119 CO2 kmol 6,36 2,04 0,119 Sn vt chy
Nhin liu
Thnh phn kg 12 2 32
Hm lng
Khi lng
kmol
kg
76,32
76,32
4,08
4,08
3,8
3,8
nhin liu (kt qu trnh by bng 4.6).
22,4 x 36,53
3,762 x 7,385
35,167 x 22,4
O -0,114 28 0,059 0,167 7,385 21,0% 79,0 9,23 21,00 100 27,78 35,67 787,8 18 -
3,64
3,64
32 0,114
T khng kh vo 0,059
7,385 + 27,782
- 75 0,167
1,61
1,61
- Tnh ton xc nh lng khng kh lng v thnh phn sn vt chy cho 100 kg
7,55
7,55
100
100
6,36 2,207 0,119 17,41 6,04 6,36 2,21 0,33 0,12 1,85
27,84 36,53 76,22 100 34,80 45,34
818,2
n=1
Thnh phn (%)
n = 1,25
34,73 43,96 984,7 79,00 100
1016 14,03 4,87 0,26 4,09 76,75 100
Thnh phn (%)
- Lng khng kh l thuyt:

L0 = 787,8 = 7,878 100
[m3/kg]
Lng khng kh thc t:

Ln = 984,7 = 9,847 100
[m3/kg]
Lng sn vt chy l thuyt:

V0 = 818,2 = 8,182 100
[m3/kg]
Lng sn vt chy thc t:

Ln = 1016 = 10,16 100
[m3/kg]
- Thnh phn sn vt chy: CO2 H2O SO2 O2 N2 = 14,03 % 4,87 % 0,26 % 4,08 % 76,75 % 100 %
- Tnh khi lng ring ca sn vt chy: Khi lng ca sn vt chy: CO2 H2O SO2 O2 N2 6,36 . 44 = 279,84 2,21 . 18 = 39,73 0,12 . 64 = 7,62
1,85 . 32 = 59,32 =
76,75 . 28 = 974,44 1360,9 kg
Khi lng ring ca sn vt chy:

= 1360,9 = 1,34 1016
[kg/m3]
- Nhit chy l thuyt ca nhin liu: Nhin liu v khng kh khng c nung nng trc nn ta c: - 76 -
i tng =
Qd Vn
Theo cng thc Men--l-ep:

Od + 25S d + 6 9H d + W d Q d = 80,8C d + 344,6 H d 8
Qd = 81.76,32 + 246.4,08 - 26.( 3,64 - 3,8) - 6.3 Qd = 7171 [kcal/kg] Khi n = 1,25 c Vn = 10,16 m3/kg, ta c:
i tng = 7172 = 705,9 10,16
[kcal/m3]
Tnh i1 = i1800oC: CO2 H2O SO2 O2 N2 0,1403. 1031 = 144,7 0,0487. 819,3 = 39,90 0,0026. 1018 = 2,65 0,0409. 669,1 = 27,37 0,7675. 635,3 = 487,59 ---------------------------i1800oC = 702,2 Tnh i2 = i1900oC: CO2 H2O SO2 O2 N2 0,1403. 1095 = 153,6 0,0487. 873,2 = 42,52 0,0026. 1072 = 2,79 0,0409. 710,5 = 29,06 0,7675. 673,2 = 516,68 ---------------------------i1900oC = 744,7 Nhit chy l thuyt:
t do = t do = i tng i 1 i 2 i1
[kcal/m3] [kcal/m3] [kcal/m3] [kcal/m3] [kcal/m3] [kcal/m3] [kcal/m3] [kcal/m3] [kcal/m3] [kcal/m3] [kcal/m3] [kcal/m3]
(t 2 t 1 ) + t 1
705,9 702,2 (1900 1800) + 1800 = 1809 [oC] 744,7 702,2
- 77 -
Tho mn iu kin t1 < to < t2. 4.3.2. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu kh i vi nhin liu kh, mi kmol cht kh iu kin tiu chun u c th tch 22,4 m3, do quan h gia cc thnh phn trong phn ng chy theo kmol tng ng vi quan h th tch. Bi vy, cc tnh ton tin hnh theo phm trm th tch. Cc bc tnh ton tng t vi nhin liu rn hoc lng.
- 78 -
Chng 5
Thit b t nhin liu

5.1. Thit b t nhin liu rn t chy nhin liu, trong cc l luyn kim cng nh trong cc l cng nghip ni chung, ngi ta s dng thit b gi l thit b t. Thit b t cn m bo t chy nhin liu mt cch hiu qu, mt khc phi n gin v kt cu, d s dng v sa cha. t nhin lin rn m ch yu l than dng cc ngi ta s dng thit b t gi l bung t. Bung t nhin liu rn c chia thnh: + Bung t th cng : thao tc cp than bng th cng. + Bung t c kh: thao tc cp than c kh ha. 5.1.1. Bung t th cng Bung t th cng c chia thnh hai loi: bung t ghi phng v bung t ghi nghing. Bung t ghi phng: Cu trc ca bung t ghi phng trnh by trn hnh 5.1a.
1 2 3 4 5 6
b)
a)
c)
Hnh 5.1 S cu trc bung t ghi phng 1) Ca cht than 2) Than 3) Ghi l 4) Ca cp gi 5) Ca tho x 6) Bung cha x
Trong bung t ghi phng, than c cp vo l qua ca cht than (1), tri thnh lp trn mt ghi (3), gi c thi vo mt di ca ghi qua ca cp gi (4) v i qua ghi t chy than (2) to thnh kh l i sang bung lm vic ca l. X to thnh khi t than ri xung ngn cha x (6) v nh k c tho ra ngoi qua ca tho x (5).
- 79 -
Ghi l c ch to t gang hp kim chu nhit, dng thanh ghp li vi nhau (hnh 5.1b) hoc dng tm (hnh 5.1c). Khi than c c cc ln ngi ta s dng ghi thanh, u im ca ghi thanh l d thay th khi b hng nhng kh khn trong lp t. Khi than c c cc b, ngi ta s dng ghi tm, u im ca n l d lp t nhng khi b hng phi thay c tm. T l gia tng din tch l mt ghi v din tch ton b mt ghi gi l t l mt ghi, t l ny i vi ghi phng thng t 15 - 30 %, tr s ln dng cho than c nh. Bung t th cng ghi phng c cu trc n gin, thun li cho thao tc nhng c nhc im: + Nhit trong bung t khng n nh do cht than theo chu k. + H s d khng kh ln n = 1,3 - 1,7. + Hn ch vic dng gi nng. Bung t ghi nghing: i vi cc bung t c cng sut nhit ln, thun tin cho vic cp than v nh x ngi ta dng bung t ghi nghing. Cu trc ca kiu bung t ny c trnh by trn hnh 5.2.
1 2
5 6 7
3 4
Hnh 5.2 S bung t ghi nghing 1) Bongke cha than 2) C cu iu chnh 3) Ghi nghing 4) Ghi phng 5) Ca gi trn 6) Ca gi di 7) Ca tho x
Ghi l gm 2 phn: phn ch yu l ghi nghing (3) v mt phn l ghi phng (4). Ghi nghing c to bi cc thanh ghi bn rng t 200 - 250 mm ghp thnh bc 70 100 mm, to thnh mt mt phng nghing so vi mt phng ngang mt gc t 35 40o.
- 80 -
Than c cp t bongke cha (1) ri xung ghi nghing (3) v c t chy ch yu trn mt ghi nghing, phn than chy cha ht ri xung v tip tc chy trn phn ghi phng. X to thnh ch yu tp trung trn phn ghi phng v ri xung bung cha x, nh k c tho ra ngoi qua ca tho x (7). Lng than cp vo l c iu chnh bng c cu quay ng m ca bongke thng qua cn gt (2). Gi c cp qua ca gi trn (5) t than trn ghi nghing v qua ca gi (6) t than trn ghi phng. Bung t ghi nghing c u im: + S chy ca nhin liu xy ra lin tc v u dn nn nhit t thay i. + C th dng t than c nh. + Thao tc cp than d dng hn. Nhc im ca bung t ghi nghing l kt cu cng knh, lp t kh khn. 5.1.2. Bung t c kh Trong bung t c kh, vic cp than v tho x ra ngoi c c kh ha hon ton. Trong cc bung t loi ny, than c cp t di ln nh c cu xon ti hoc cp t trn xung bng kh nn, bng c cu quay kiu cnh gt. Trn hnh 5.3 trnh by s bung t cp than t di ln bng xon ti.
1 2 5 6 7 4
Hnh 5.3 S bung t c kh cp than t di ln bng xon ti 1) Bongke cha than 2) C cu cp than 3) Xon ti 4) Ghi l hnh phu 5) Ghi cha x 6) Bung gi 7) Bung cha x
Than t bongke cha (1) c c cu cp a vo xon ti (3) v c y ln cao hn mt ghi hnh phu (4), cn gi c cp vo bung gi (6) v qua cc l mt ghi i ln t chy than. X to thnh trong qu trnh chy ln xung ghi cha x v ri xung bung cha (7).
- 81 -
Trong bung t c kh cp than t pha trn bng cnh gt, ngi ta dng c cu quay kiu cnh gt, than t bongke ri vo bung cp c cc cnh gt tung ln mt ghi. Lng than cp c iu chnh bi tc quay cnh gt. Trong bung t c kh cp than t pha trn bng kh nn, ngi ta dng kh nn y than tung ln mt ghi, lng than cp c iu chnh bng cch thay i p sut kh nn. Bung t c kh ci thin iu kin lao ng cho ngi thao tc, nhng kt cu phc tp, gi thnh cao, ch thch hp vi l c cng sut nhit ln. 5.1.3. Tnh ton bung t a) Chn kiu bung t Khi thit k bung t, cn cn c vo c im ca nhin liu, cng sut nhit ca l chn kiu bung t thch hp. Nguyn tc chung chn kiu bung t: + Nu bung t c cng sut nhit nh th nn dng bung t th cng, i vi l cng sut nhit ln nn dng bung t c kh. + Nu than c c cc nh hoc d v vn dng bung t ghi tm phng hoc dng ghi nghing khi cng sut nhit tng i ln. Than c c cc trung bnh v ln s dng bung t ghi thanh. + Nu than c hm lng cht bc ln cn chn chiu cao bung t ln. + Khi din tch mt ghi ln nn chia bung t thnh mt s bung thun tin cho thao tc cp than v nh x. b) Tnh cc kch thc c bn ca bung t Xc nh din tch mt ghi:
B R 0,28.B.Q d r
Din tch mt ghi c xc nh theo cng thc sau:

F=
[m2] [m2]
(5.1) (5.2)
Hoc: Trong :
F=
B - lng nhin liu t trong mt gi [kg/h]. Qd - nhit tr thp ca nhin liu [j/kg]. R - cng chy ca ghi l [kg/m2.h]. r - cng nhit ca ghi l [W/m2]. - 82 -
Gi tr ca R, r chn theo bng (bng 5.1). Bng 5.1 Cng chy v cng nhit ca ghi l Dng nhin liu Than ci Than bn Than Than antraxit Kiu bung t Ghi th cng Ghi th cng Ghi th cng Ghi th cng R kg/m2.h 200 - 300 200 - 400 70 - 120 100 - 120 Kcal/m2.h 400 - 1 500 600 - 1 200 300 - 1 500 400 - 1 500 r .10-3 W/m2 465 - 1 744 697 - 1 395 349 - 1 744 465 - 1 744
Chn t l mt ghi v cc kch thc c bn ca ghi: Cn c vo loi than, c ht
ca than chn t l mt ghi, tnh din tch mt ghi, xc nh hnh dng v kch thc ca mt ghi. Bng 5.2 Quan h gia loi than v t l mt ghi Loi than Than , than nu Than ci, than bn Than gy, than antraxit T l mt ghi f/F (%) 25 - 30 15 - 20 10 - 15
Xc nh th tch bung t: Th tch bung t ph thuc loi than v kiu l,

Q d .B q
c xc nh theo cng thc sau:

V=
[m3]
(5.3)
Trong : Qd - nhit tr thp ca nhin liu, [j/kg]. B - lng than cn t trong mt gi, [kg/h]. q - mt nhit th tch ca bung t, [W/m3], gi tr chn theo bng 5.3. Tnh chiu cao ca bung t: Chiu cao bung t xc nh theo cng thc:
H= V F
[m]
(5.4)
Trong : V- th tch bung t [m3]. F - din tch mt ghi [m2]. - 83 -
Bng 5.3 Mt nhit th tch ca bung t Bung t l nung Loi nhin liu Than ci, than bn Than Mazut Nhin liu kh kcal/m3.h 300 - 400 230 - 450 250 - 500 200 - 350 W/m3 348 - 465 290 - 523 290 - 581 230 - 407 Bung t l sy kcal/m3.h 200 - 250 250 - 300 200 - 300 200 - 250 W/m3 232 - 290 290 - 348 232 - 348 232 - 290
Xc nh kch thc bung t: kch thc bung t c chn cn c cc yu t + Din tch mt ghi v s bung t. + Kiu bung t v iu kin thao tc. + Tng quan gia bung t v bung l, yu cu v b tr th xy. Theo quy c kch thc bung t nm dc theo chiu chuyn ng ca kh l
sau:
t bung t sang bung l l chiu di (hoc chiu su bung t), kch thc cn li gi l chiu ngang. i vi bung t th cng, chiu di bung t khng c chn qu ln gy kh khn cho thao tc cht than v nh x, cn chiu ngang chn sao cho t l gia chiu ngang v chiu di nm trong khong 1 - 1,3. Nu t l gia chiu ngang v chiu di ln hn, tch bung t thnh hai bung t k tip nhau theo chiu ngang. i vi bung t c kh thng chn kch thc chiu ngang v chiu di xp x nhau. Trng hp khng gy tr ngi cho vic b tr cc c cu c kh v khng nh hng n iu kin lm vic ca l c th chn chiu di ln hn chiu ngang. i vi cc l c nhit cao, bung t thng b tr cnh bung l, khi chn kch thc bung t cn xem xt tng quan vi kch bung l sao cho b tr cc th xy v thi cng thun li. Tnh tn tht p sut ca khng kh i qua ghi v lp than. Do ma st, thay i tc , thay i hng chuyn ng v nhiu yu t khc, tn tht p sut ca khng kh i qua ghi v lp than kh ln. Tn tht ny c xc nh theo cc cng thc thc nghim. i vi bung t ghi phng t than ci:
- 84 -
B h tt = 3 400.F
12 . %CO 2
[mmH2O]
(5.5)
Bung t ghi phng t than bn:

B h tt = 4. 350.F
2
10 . %CO 2
[mmH2O]
(5.6)
Bung t ghi phng t than antraxit:

B h tt = m 150.F
2
[mmH2O]
(5.7)
Trong : B - lng nhin liu cn t trong mt gi [kg/h]. F - din tch mt ghi [m2]. %CO2 - hm lng CO2 trong khi l [%]. m - h s ph thuc hm lng tro ca than m = 25 - 50. Trong thc t tn tht p sut qua ghi vo khong 90 - 120 mmH2O, nu tnh c tn tht do lp than th p sut gi di ghi cn khong 100 - 120 mmH2O. i vi cc bung t nhit cao, t than t cht bc, mun cho than chy hon ton th p sut gi di ghi cn tng ln, vo khong 120 - 140 mmH2O. 5.2. Thit b t nhin liu bi 5.2.1. Khi nim v t nhin liu bi Khi t nhin liu rn, nu c ht qu b, s dng bung t thng thng, tn tht nhin liu ln (do lt qua mt ghi), ng thi qu trnh t gp nhiu kh khn v tr lc khng kh qua lp than ln. gii quyt vn ny, ngi ta chuyn sang t dng bi. Khi t than bi, than c nghin nh thnh ht c kch thc t 0,05 - 0,07 mm, dng khng kh nn thi vo bung t to thnh dng hn hp bi than v khng kh. Do din tch tip xc ca than v khng kh ln, cc ht than c xo trn mnh vi khng kh nn cc phn ng chy xy ra vi tc ln. ng thi, khi chy do b nung nng mnh v cht bc thot ra nhanh, cc ht than b cc ho v vn thnh ht nh nn nhin liu chy cng nhanh v trit hn, lm tng hiu qu t nhin liu. Phng php t nhin liu bi cng c hiu qu khi hm lng cht bc trong than cng ln, do thng ng dng vi cc loi than c hm lng cht bc t 20 - 30 %. - 85 -
5.2.2. Cc thit b t nhin liu bi t nhin liu bi, ngi ta ngi ta s dng bung t ring kiu xicln hoc t trc tip trong bung l. a) Bung t kiu xicln S cu trc ca bung t kiu xicln trnh by trn hnh 5.4. Bung t kiu xicln c dng ng hnh tr, ng knh t 1 - 2 m, th tch t 10 - 15 m3, v l lm bng thp, bn trong c m mt lp hn hp vt liu chu la dy 30 - 50 mm.
1 2 3
Hnh 5.4 Bung t than bi kiu xicln 1) Ca cp khng kh t 1 2)Ca cp than bi 3) Ca cp khng kh t 2
Khi t, than bi c khng kh nn phun vo bung t theo hng tip tuyn vi thnh bung t to thnh dng xoy v b t chy. Lng khng kh t 1 dng phun bi than to thnh hn hp chim khong 20% lng khng kh cn thit t nhin liu, tc phun khong 20 - 25 m/s, khng kh cn li c nung nng trc n khong 400oC v phun vo l vi tc khong 80 - 100 m/s. b) t than bi trc tip trong bung l S t thit b t nhin liu trc tip trong bung l trnh by trn hnh 5.5. Than bi t bong ke cha (1) qua xon ti cp (2) cng vi khng kh t 1 c cp vo m phun (3) phun vo bung l v c t chy to thnh ngn la r rt ngay trong bung l. T l khng kh t 1, tu thuc vo loi than, chim t 20 - 50 %, tc dng hn hp khi ra khi ming phun khong 20 - 40 m/s. Tc phun ca khng kh t 2 chn ln hn tc dng hn hp khng kh t mt + bi than. Trong trng hp nung nng trc khng kh, nhit nung khng kh t 1 khng qu 150oC, nhit nung khng kh t 2 khng qu 300 - 400oC. H s d khng kh n =1,15 - 1,25 - 86 -
Hnh 5.5 t than bi trc tip trong l 1) Bongke cha than bi 2) Xon ti cp liu 3) M phun
Bng 5.4 Lng khng kh t 1 v tc bt la ca hn hp bi than Lng khng kh t 1 Loi than Cht bc 30%, tro 5% Cht bc 30%, tro 15% Cht bc 20%, tro 5% Cht bc 15%, tro 5% Cht bc 15%, tro 15% % 50 40 30 25 20 Tc bt la m/s 0 - 12 10 - 11 6-7 3-4 2-3
t nhin liu bi c u im: than chy tt, n nh, h s d khng kh nh, s dng c than vn nhng c nhc im sn vt chy cha nhiu bi. 5.3. Thit b t nhin liu lng t nhin liu lng ngi ta dng thit b t gi l m phun. Theo p sut lm vic, cc m phun c chia ra: + M phun p sut thp: p sut cht bin bi nh hn p sut ti hn. + M phun p sut cao: p sut cht bin bi ln hn p sut ti hn. 5.3.1. M phun p sut thp Trong m phun p sut thp, cht bin bi l khng kh c p sut t 300 - 800 mmH2O, tc cht bin bi khi ra khi ming phun t 50 - 80 m/s. Trn hnh 5.6 trnh by s cu to ca mt s loi m phun p sut thp. Trong m phun hnh 5.6a, du phun ra t ng (1) gp dng khng kh trong ng (2) b bin thnh bi du cng vi khng kh phun ra khi ming phun (4) v c t chy. - 87 -
Khng kh vo m phun c p sut khong 500mmH2O, tc t 70 - 80 m/s. Kiu m phun ny c kt cu n gin nhng lun lun phi gi cho m phun lm vic cng sut.
2 4
2 4
a)
b) Hnh 5.6 S m phun p sut thp 1) ng dn du 2) ng dn khng kh 3) Vt chnh du 4) Ming m phun
Trong m phun hnh 5.6b, du chuyn ng trong ng (1), khng kh chuyn ng trong ng dn (2). Khi du phun ra khi ming ng phun b khng kh nh ti thnh bi du to thnh hn hp i ra khi ming ng phun. Lu lng du c iu chnh bi vt iu chnh (3), cn lng khng kh c iu chnh nh thay i khe h gia ng phun du v ming m phun, p sut du t 500 - 1.000 mmH2O, p sut khng kh t 300 - 700 mmH2O. Nh c cu iu chnh, loi m t ny c th lm vic vi cng sut gim ti 40 - 50%. 5.3.2. M phun p sut cao Trong m phun p sut cao, cht bin bi l khng kh nn c p sut t 4 - 6 at hoc hi nc c p sut t 5 - 15 at , tc hn hp ra khi ming m phun t ti 330 m/s hoc ln hn.
3 2 1
Hnh 5.7 M phun p sut cao 1) ng dn du 2) ng dn cht bin bi 3) ng dn khng kh
- 88 -
Trong m t hnh 5.7, du c dn vo ng (1), cht bin bi c dn v ng (2), cn khng kh t nhin liu c dn vo qua ng (3). Khi nhit thng, tc ca khng kh bin bi ra khi ming ng phun t t 300 - 320 m/s, nu nung nng trc n 200 - 300oC, tc c th t ti 500 - 530 m/s. Lng cht bin bi nu l khng kh nn cn 0,6 - 0,8 m3/kg, nu l hi nc cn 0,4 - 0,6 kg hi/kg. Vi loi m t ny, nu kch thc nh th chiu di ngn la khon 2,5 - 4 m, nu kch thc ln c th ti 6 - 7 m.
5 3
Hnh 5.8 S cu to m phun p sut cao 1) ng dn du 2) ng dn cht bin bi 3) ng loe La- van 4) Bung hn hp 5) ng dn khng kh
Vi m phun hnh 5.8, trn phn u ca ng phun c lp thm ng loe La-van (3), nh ng loe ny tc cht bin bi t ti 750 m/s hoc cao hn. Nh vy cht lng bin bi tt hn v chiu di ngn la c th t ti 8 - 10 m. Loi m phun ny c cng sut t 250 - 2.500 kg/h, lng cht bin bi 180 - 1.900 kg/h i vi khng kh nn v 25 - 1250 kg/h i vi hi nc. 5.3.3. Tnh ton m phun Vic tnh ton m phun nhm xc nh kch thc cc ng ng dn v kch thc ming ra ca du, ca khng kh t tnh ton cc thng s khc hoc chn m t c sn. a) Tnh ton m phun p sut thp Thng s ban u: + Loi nhin liu. - 89 -
+ Lng tiu hao nhin liu G1 [kg/s]. + p sut khng kh trong ng dn trc m phun p0 [N/m2]. + Nhit khng kh t2 [oC]. + Lng khng kh cn t chy hon ton du G2 [kg/kg]. + p sut mi trng l pmt [N/m2].
d1 d2
Hnh 5.9 S tnh ton m phun p sut thp
Tnh p sut cn thit ca khng kh: p = pmt + pt
Trong pt p sut tnh ti ming ra, xc nh theo cng thc: pt = k.p0 Vi k l h s tn tht trong ng dn thng ly k =0,9. Tc khng kh khi ra khi ming phun:
p 2 = 2.R.T2 1 mt pd
[m/s]
(5.8)
Trong : R - hng s kh, R = 288 [Nm/kg.oK]. T2 - nhit ban u ca khng kh, [oK]. Tit din ming ra ca khng kh:
F2 = G2 2 . 2
[m2]
Trong 2 l khi lng ring ca khng kh [kg/m3] c xc nh theo cng:

2 = pd R.T2
[kg/m3]
Tit din ming ra ca ng phun du:
- 90 -
F1 =
G1 1 .1
[m2]
Trong : 1 - tc ca du, i vi m phun p sut thp chn 1 = 1m/s. 1 - khi lng ring ca du [kg/m3]. ng knh ming ra ca ng dn du:
d1 = 4.F1
[m]
(5.9)
Tit din ngoi ca ming ng phun du: Khi chiu dy thnh ng l , tit din
.(d 1 + 2 ) F1n = 4
ngoi ca ng dn du:
2
[m2]
ng knh ming ra ca ng dn khng kh:

d2 = 4.(F2 + F1n ) 1 + .2 (1 + E u ) 1+
[m]
(5.10)
Tc ca hn hp bi du v khng kh c xc nh theo cng thc:

hh =
Trong
Eu = p 2 p mt , tiu chun -le, vi p2 l p sut tnh trong dng chy ca cht 2 .2
bin bi. - sut tiu hao cht bin bi [kg/kg]. Kim tra kch thc ht du:
d= 1+ ()2 . 2 . 12.
Trong : + = 2 (1 + E u ) 1 . + - sc cng b mt ca du [N/m2], thng = 0,032 N/m2.
- 91 -
Sau khi tnh c cc kch thc ch yu ca m phun, da vo tc cho php ca khng kh kk ( kk = 10 - 15 m/s) v tc cho php ca du d (d = 0,2 - 0,8 m/s) trong ng dn tnh tit din v ng knh ca ng dn. b) Tnh ton m phun p sut cao Thng s ban u: + Loi nhin liu. + Lng tiu hao nhin liu G1 [kg/s]. + p sut khng kh trong ng dn trc m phun p [N/m2]. + Nhit khng kh t2 [oC]. + Lng tiu hao khng kh nn [kg/kg]. + p sut mi trng l pmt [N/m2]. + Ch s on nhit ca khng kh k = cp/cv. S tnh ton trnh by trn hnh 5.10.
0 1 2
d1
D1
D2
Hnh 5.10 S tnh ton m phun cao p c lp ng loe La-van
- Tnh cc thng s ti tit din ti hn (0-0): Xc nh p sut tnh tit din ti hn ca ng phun La-van:
p th 1 2 k 1 = = pd k + 1
k
Trong l h s ph thuc k c th tra theo gin (hnh 5.11). + Nhit ti hn ca khng kh xc nh theo cng thc:
Tth = Td 2 k +1
[oC]
+ Khi lng ring ca khng kh ti tit din ti hn:
- 92 -
th =
p th R.Tth
[kg/m3]
1,95 1,9 1,85 1,8 1,75 1,7 1,65 k 1,05 1,15 1,25 1,35 1,45 1,5
Hnh 5.11 S ph thuc ca h s vo k
Tc khng kh ti tit din ti hn:

th = 2. k .R.Td k +1
[m/s]
(5.11)
+ Tit din ti hn ca ng phun La-van:

Fth = G th 3600.th . th
(5.12)
Trong : Gth = G2 = .G 1 [kg/s]. - Tnh cc thng s ca phn cui ng phun La-van (1-1): Xc nh tiu chun tc :
d k +1 pt 2 = = k 1 .1 p th d
2 k 1 k
Trong : - tc ban u ca khng kh, [m/s]. pt - p sut tnh ca khng kh ming ra ca ng [N/m2], c th ly pt = 1,1.pmt. Tnh tc ca khng kh ming ra ca ng:
2.1 = .th
[m/s]
Tnh khi lng ring ca khng kh cui ng La-van:

2.1 = pt R.T2.1
[kg/m3]
- 93 -
Tit din cui ca ng La-van:

F1 = Fth th . 2.1
(5.13)
Tnh kch thc ng dn du: + Tit din ming ra ng phun du:

f1 = G1 11
[m2]
(5.14)
Trong 1 - tc du trong ng dn, thng chn 1 = 5 - 10 m/s. + ng knh trong ca ng dn du ti ming ra:
d1 = 4.f1
(5.15)
+ ng knh ngoi ca ng dn du ti ming ra:

d n1 = d 1 + 2
(5.16)
+ Tit din ngoi ca ng dn du ti ming ra:

.d 21 n f n1 = 4
Tnh ng knh trong ca ng phun La-van:

D1 = 4.(F1 + fn1 )
[m]
(5.17)
Tnh ng knh ng dn du ti tit din ti hn:

2 d n 0 = D1
4.Fth
[m]
(5.18)
Chiu di ng phun La-van:

L= d n 0 d n1 2.tg 2
(5.19)
Trong = 5 - 10o l gc m ca ng phun La-van. - Tnh cc thng s ca ng hn hp: Xc nh tiu chun -le i vi khng kh ti phn cui ng phun La-van (1-1):
Eu = pt pd 2 2.1 .2.1
Tc chuyn ng ca hn hp: - 94 -
hh =
1 + .2.1 (1 + E u ) 1+
U 0 G1
(5.20)
Xc nh nhit ca hn hp:
c1 .t 1 c 2 .t 2.1 + t hh = c1 + .c 2
Trong : t1 - nhit nung nng trc du [oC]. t2.1 - nhit khng kh cui ng La-van [oC]. c1, c2 - nhit dung trung bnh ca du v khng kh [j/kg.]. U0 - gim ng nng ca cht bin bi, xc nh theo cng thc:
U 0 = G1 . [2.1 (1 + E u ) 1 ] . 1+ 2
[N.m/s]
Khi lng ring khng kh khi ra khi ming phun:

kk = p mt R.Thh
[kg/m3]
(5.21)
- Tit din ra ca ng hn hp (tit din 2-2): Coi lu lng th tch ca du khng ng k, c th tnh tit din ming ra ca ng hn hp:
F2 = Vkk hh
[m2]
G2 . kk
Trong Vkk l lu lng th tch ca khng kh ti ming ra, Vkk = ng knh ming ra ca ng hn hp:
D2 = 4.F2
[m]
(5.22)
Chiu di ng hn hp: Khi chn gc m ca ng hn hp cng gc m ca ng phun La-van, chiu di ng hn hp xc nh theo cng thc:
L hh = D 2 D1 2.tg 2
(5.23)
- 95 -
ng knh ht bi du:
d= 1+ ()2 . 2 . 12.
5.4. Thit b t nhin liu kh t nhin liu kh ngi ta s dng thit b gi l m t. Theo c im ho trn kh t v khng kh, ngi ta chia m t thnh: + M t c s ha trn trc (m t t ht). + M t khng c s ha trn trc (m t lng ng). Trong m t c s ha trn trc, kh t v khng kh c ha trn trc trong m t v phun vo bung l thc hin qu trnh chy. Trong m t khng c s ha trn trc, kh t v khng kh c phun vo bung l cha c ha trn, s ha trn ch yu xy ra trong bung l. 5.4.1. M t t ht M t t ht c dng nhiu trong cc l cng sut nh v trung bnh, t cc loi kh t nhit tr khng cao. u im ca loi m t ny l: + Ho trn kh t v khng kh tt, to iu kin t chy hon ton nhin liu vi h s d khng kh nh. + Khng kh t b r r, c th dng thit b trao i nhit gm. Tuy nhin loi m t ny c nhc im: + Phm vi iu chnh cng sut hp. + Kh t phi c p sut ln, nhit nung khng kh c gii hn. + Kch thc m t ln. Theo cu to, m t t ht c chia thnh hai loi: + M t t ht mt ng dn. + M t t ht hai ng dn. a) M t t ht mt ng dn S cu to m t t ht mt ng dn trnh by trn hnh 5.12. Trong m t mt ng dn, kh t c p sut cao qua ng dn (1) phun ra u ming phun vi tc ln, to nn vng chn khng xung quanh ming ng phun, ht khng kh t bn ngoi vo qua khe h (3). Kh t v khng kh tip tc c ha trn trong ng (4), qua ng khuch tn (5) v ming m t vo bung l thc hin qu
- 96 -
trnh chy. Lng khng kh c iu chnh nh thay i khe h (3) khi dch chuyn c cu (2). Tc hn hp ming ra m t t 20 - 30 m/s.
4 1 2 3
5 6
Hnh 5.12 M t t ht mt ng dn 1) ng dn kh t 2) C cu iu chnh 3) ng dn khng kh 4) ng hn hp 5) ng loe 6) Ming m t
M t t ht mt ng dn c cu to n gin, d lp t nhng cng sut nhit khng ln, thng dng cho l c nh. b) M t t ht hai ng dn S cu to m t t ht hai ng dn trnh by trn hnh 5.13.
2
3
1
4 5
Hnh 5.13 M t t ht hai ng dn 1) ng dn kh t 2) ng dn khng kh 3) ng hn hp 4) ng loe 5) Nc lm ngui
Trong m t t ht hai ng dn, kh t c p sut cao qua ng dn (1) phun ra u ming phun vi tc ln, to nn vng chn khng xung quanh ming ng phun, ht khng kh c p sut d t ng dn (2) vo dng kh t. Kh t v khng kh tip tc c ha trn trong ng (3), qua ng khuch tn (4) v ming m t vo bung l thc hin qu trnh chy. M t t ht hai ng dn c cng sut nhit ln nhng kt cu phc tp, thng dng cho l c ln. - 97 -
5.4.2. M t lng ng M t lng ng c dng nhiu trong cc l t kh c nhit tr cao, nht l cc l cn tp trung nhit thc hin mt qu trnh cng ngh vi s m t khng nhiu. M t loi ny c u im: + Phm vi iu chnh cng sut rng. + Kch thc nh gn. + C th lm vic vi kh t v khng kh nung nng trc c nhit cao. + Ngn la ko di v vng nhit cao cch xa ming m t v tng l. Nhc im: + H s tiu hao khng kh ln, lm gim nhit chy ca nhin liu v tng hm lng ni t trong sn vt chy. + Phi c c cu iu chnh t l kh t v khng kh. + Tn hao khng kh trn ng dn ln. Theo cu to, m t lng ng c chia ra: + M t lng ng thng thng. + M t lng ng c dng xoy. a) M t lng ng thng thng Cc m t lng ng thng thng (hnh 5.14) c hai ng dn, ng (1) dn kh t, ng (2) dn khng kh. S ho trn kh t v khng kh xy ra nh s va p ca dng khng kh vi kh t. S ha trn ca m t loi ny khng tt nn ngn la ko di. Tc kh t ra khi ming phun khong 80 - 100 m/s, t l gia tc khng kh v kh t khong 1:3 n 1:2. Khi cng sut m t nh, kt cu m t c dng hnh 5.14a, cn khi cng sut ln c dng hnh 5.14b.
2 1 2
a)
b)
Hnh 5.14 M t lng ng khng c to xoy 1) ng dn kh 2) ng dn khng kh 3) Ca quan st
- 98 -
b) M t lng ng c dng xoy tng hiu qu ha trn, ngi ta s dng m t lng ng c cu to c bit (hnh 5.15). Trong m t, trn ng dn khng kh c lp cc cnh to xoy (3) nh dng khng kh ra khi m phun khng chuyn ng thng m chuyn ng xoy. Do khng kh chuyn ng xoy, s ha trn ca kh t v khng kh xy ra tt hn, nhin liu chy nhanh hn v ngn la ngn hn.
2 3
Hnh 5.15 M t lng ng c to xoy 1) ng dn kh 2) ng dn khng kh 3) Cnh to xoy
5.4.3. Tnh ton m t Vic tnh ton m t nhm xc nh hai thng s ch yu l ming phun kh t v kch thc ng dn khng kh. Trn c s hai thng s trn c th xc nh cc kch thc khc ca m t hoc chn m t c kch thc tng t. a) Tnh m t t ht S tnh ton m t t ht trnh by trn hnh 5.16.
0 1
' F1
F1
F2
F3
Hnh 5.16 S tnh ton m t t ht
C s tnh ton: Da trn phng trnh xc nh chn khng cn thit u ng hn hp: - 99 -
2 1 .1
p = f
2 A.f1
(5.24)
Trong :
p l chn khng c ch, xc nh theo cng thc:

p = (Pk p 0 ) + p tt + . hh .hh .f2 .
1 2 0 1 + 0
(5.25)
pk - p sut mi trng ni dng phun phun vo [N/m2]. p0 - p sut mi trng ni dng phun xut pht [N/m2].
p tt - tng tn tht p sut trong ng dn khng kh n tit din 0-0 v tn

tht trong ng hn hp [N/m2]. hh - khi lng ring hn hp cui ng hn hp [kg/m3]. hh - tc hn hp cui ng hn hp [m/s].
f1 =
f2 =
F1 - t s gia tit din ming ra ng phun kh t v tit din ng hn hp. F2

' F1 F2
- t s gia tit din ming ra ng phun khng kh v tit din ng hn
hp.
f3 = F2 - t s gia tit din u v cui ng loe. F3 01 02
0 - bi s th tch phun iu kin tiu chun:

0 = n.
Vi n h s d khng kh [kg/kg], 01, 02 khi lng ring kh t v khng kh iu kin tiu chun [kg/m3]. + A h s xc nh theo cng thc:
A = 1+ Thh 2 (1 + 0 )2 1 + 2. 02 0 hh .f32 .k 2. 02 . T2 .k f2 1 + k c .f22 . 0 hh 01 2 T1 01 T hh 01 01 (5.26) 0 . 1 + 0
Trong :
k =
- 100 -
Thh, T1, T2 l nhit ca hn hp, kh t v khng kh [oK]. kc h s tr lc trn ng dn khng kh t tit din 0-0 n tit din 1-1. - h s phc hi trong ng loe:
= 1 f 32 1 f 32
- h s tr lc ca ng loe. 0hh - khi lng ring hn hp iu kin tiu chun:

1 + 0 . 0 hh = 02 01 1 + 0
[kg/m3]
Nhit hn hp Thh xc nh theo cng thc:

Thh = T1 1 + 0 . c 2 T2 . c1 T1 1 + 0
c1, c2 - nhit dung kh t v khng kh [kj/kg.]. Trn c s cng thc (5.26), trng hp cho trc bi s th tch phun 0 v cc thng s vt l ca kh t, khng kh, ta tnh c ng nng yu cu ca kh t. Trng hp cho trc kch thc ng phun c th kim tra c iu kin lm vic ca m t. - Thit k m t lm vic ch ti u: Thit k m t lm vic ch ti u nhm xc nh kch thc ca ng hn hp v tit din ht vo ca kh phun sao cho m bo bi s phun cho trc vi lng tiu hao ng nng ca kh phun l cc tiu. Gii phng trnh (5.26) khi s tiu hao ng nng ca kh phun cc tiu, ta nhn c t s cc tit din:
F1' = 1+ kc F 2 ti u F2 = A0 F1 ti u
(5.27)
Trong :
A0 = 1 + Thh 2 (1 + 0 )2 1 + 2. 02 0 hh .f32 .k 02 . T2 .k . 1 . 0 hh (5.28) 01 01 T1 1+ kc T1 01 01
- 101 -
Khi khng c ng loe f3 = 1 v = 0:

A0 = 1 + Thh (1 + 0 )2 1 + 2. 02 0hh T1 01 01 T 2 1 .k 02 . 2 .k . . (5.29) 01 T1 1+ kc
Tiu hao ng nng cc tiu xc nh theo cng thc:

1. 2 F 1 = 2.A 0 = 2 2 F p 1 ti u ti u
(5.30)
T cc cng thc (5.27) n (5.30) ta c th xc nh c cc thng s ca m t lm vic vi ch ti u. - Thit k m t lm vic ch bnh thng Khi thit k theo ch lm vic ti u, kch thc m t nhn c thng ln. Trong trng hp p sut d d tr ca kh t c th iu chnh c ngi ta thit k m t lm vic ch bnh thng. m t lm vic bnh thng theo bi s th tch phun cho trc, t l cc tit din m phun phi tha mn iu kin:
2B.E u 1 B 1 F2 f = F = 1 + 1 2B.E u 1 1
(5.31)
Trong :
2B.E u 1 l diu kin c hin tng t ht xy ra. B = 1+ Thh 2 (1 + 0 )2 1 + 2. 02 .k 2. 02 T 2 .k . f2 1 + k c f22 . 0 hh T1 2 01 01 01 Thh
(5.32)
Eu =
(p p 0 ) + p tt p c = k 2 2 1 .1 1 .1
(5.33)
T phng trnh (5.32) ta nhn thy khi khng c ng loe = 0 th B t cc i. Khi lp thm ng loe, th vi ng loe c cng ln th B cng nh, iu kin t ht cng d dng tha mn. Tuy nhin vic lp thm ng loe thng lm cho kt cu m t thm phc tp nn ch s dng khi thc s cn thit. b) Tnh m t lng ng i vi m t lng ng, khi tnh ton thit k ngi ta chia ra ba trng hp:
- 102 -
+ M t p sut thp: p sut kh t trc m t nh, c th b qua s thay i khi lng ring ca kh. + M t p sut trung bnh: lm vic vi p sut trung bnh, khi lng ring kh thay i ng k. + ln. Trn thc t, ngi ta tha nhn m t lm vic vi p sut thp khi tc phun ca kh k nh hn 40% tc ti hn th (k <0,4 th), trung bnh khi k = (0,4 1,0)th v cao khi k > th. Trong th xc nh theo cng thc sau:
th = 2. k .R.Tk k +1
M t p sut cao: lm vic vi p sut cao, khi lng ring kh thay i
(5.34)
Trong : k - ch s on nhit, k =cp/cv. Tk - nhit ca kh, [oK]. R - hng s kh, R=8319/M [N.m/kg.]. M - khi lng mol ca kh. Vic tnh ton ch yu xc nh u phun kh ca m t, trn c s chn tip cc kch thc khc theo quan h vi kch thc u phun hoc chn cc m t c sn. - Tnh u ng phun kh p sut thp S tnh ton u phun kh p sut thp trnh by trn hnh 5.17.
1
d1
d0
0 1 Hnh 5.17 S tnh u phun kh p sut thp
Xt hai tit din 1-1 v 0-0, ta c phng trnh Becnuly i vi kh khng b nn:
2 k .1 k .2 k pu + = + h tt 2 2
(5.35)
Trong : - 103 -
pu - p sut d ca kh trc m t N/m2. 1 - tc chuyn ng ca kh trong ng dn trc m t (ti tit din 1- 1). k - tc chuyn ng ca kh khi ra khi ming u phun (ti tit din 0- 0) k - khi lng ring ca kh [kg/m3].
h tt - tng tn tht p sut ca kh trong m t, [N/m2]: h tt =

2 1 2 . d 4 = k k. 0 4 2 2 d1
(5.36)
- h s tn tht p sut trong m t, xc nh theo cng thc:

= cb + . l d1
(5.37)
cb- h s tn tht cc b. - h s ma st. l - chiu di ng dn kh [m]. Thay cc i lng trn vo phng trnh (5.34) nhn c cng thc xc nh tc kh khi ra khi ng phun:
k = 2p u d4 k 1 + ( 1). 0 4 d1
[m/s]
(5.38)
ng knh ming phun c xc nh theo cng thc:

d0 = 4.G k . k . k
[m]
(5.39)
d1 2 c d0
Trng hp ng knh ng dn kh chn khi thit k tho mn iu kin
th b qua tn tht trong ng dn, khi c th xc nh tc kh khi ra khi ng phun theo cng thc:
k = 2. p u k
m/s
(5.40)
Tnh u ng phun kh p sut trung bnh Tc kh ra khi ming ng phun: Khi lm vic vi p sut trung bnh, phi tnh
n s thay i khi lng ring ca kh t trong khi chuyn ng. - 104 -
Trong trng hp ny, tc kh ra khi u phun xc nh theo cng thc:

p k k = 2. .R.Td 1 mt pd k 1
k 1 k
(5.41)
Trong : Pmt - p sut ca mi trng ni dng kh phun vo, [N/m2]. P - p sut tnh ban u ca kh [N/m2]. k - ch s on nhit, k =cp/cv. Tk - nhit ca kh, [oK]. R - hng s kh, R=8319/M [N.m/kg.] M - khi lng mol ca kh. Khi lng ring ca kh ming ra ca u phun xc nh t cng thc:
G 1+ 1+ k 1 k G th = 2
k = 1
1 1 k 2 1 .U k +1
(5.42)
Trong : Gk - lu lng khi lng qua ming ng phun [kg/s]. Gth - lu lng khi lng ti hn (ng vi khi kh chuyn ng t tc ti hn)[kg/s].
G th = th. F0. th
[kg/s]
th - khi lng ring ti hn:

th = 1 . k +1 2
[kg/m3]
th - tc ti hn ca kh khi chuyn ng: th = 2. U= k .R.Tk k +1
[m/s]
k , h s tc . th
1 - khi lng ring ca kh t khi vo ng phun, [kg/m3].
Tc ti hn ly bng tc lan truyn ca m thanh trong mi trng. - 105 -
ng knh ming ra ng phun:

d0 = 4.G k . k . k
[m]
(5.43)
- Tnh u ng phun kh p sut cao Tc kh khi ra khi ming ng phun:

th = 2. k .R.Tk k +1
[m/s]
(5.44)
Khi lng ring ca kh ming ra:

k = p th k + 1 . R.Tk 2
[kg/m3]
(5.45)
Trong : pth l p sut ti hn, xc nh theo cng thc:

2 p th = p d . k +1
k k 1
[N/m2].
(5.46)
p sut tnh nh nht trc u ng phun, ni xut hin tc ti hn xc nh theo cng thc:
p 0t = p mt 2 k +1
k k 1
[N/m2]
(5.47)
ng knh ming ra ng phun:

d0 = 4.G k . k . k
[m]
(5.48)
- 106 -
Chng 6
Vt liu xy, th xy v khung l

6.1. Vt liu xy l xy l luyn kim, ngoi vic s dng nhng vt liu xy dng thng dng nh st thp, xi mng, ct, si ... cn dng mt lng rt ln vt liu chuyn dng l vt liu chu la v vt liu cch nhit. Trong phn ny ch yu cp ti mt s vn chung v tnh cht ca cc loi vt liu chu la, cch nhit thng dng, kch thc hnh hc ca mt s vt phm ph bin dng trong xy l. 6.1.1. Yu cu chung i vi vt liu chu la Vt liu chu la l nhng vt liu c kh nng lm vic lu di nhit trn 1000oC m vn gia c bn c hc v hnh dng hnh hc. Nhn chung, vt liu chu la s dng xy l cn m bo cc yu cu sau: + chu nng trn 1580oC. + C bn c hc nhit trn 1000oC. + C kh nng chu c s dao ng ca nhit . + Bn v mt ha hc i vi cc cht tip xc trong qu trnh lm vic. + C tnh n nh v th tch v hnh dng khi nhit cao. + C th sn xut hng lot vi gi thnh phi chng. + m bo mt s tnh cht nhit vt l cn thit theo yu cu cng ngh. 6.1.2. Mt s tnh cht c bn ca vt liu chu la Cht lng ca vt liu chu la c nh gi qua cc tnh cht nhit vt l v cc tnh cht s dng. a) Tnh cht nhit vt l xp: xp ca vt liu chu la l t s gia tng th tch l rng cha trong
khi vt liu v th tch ca khi.

f=
v .100
V
[%]
(6.1)
Trong : v - tng th tch l rng trong khi vt liu [m3]. V- th tch khi vt liu [m3]. Khi lng th tch: l khi lng ca mt n v th tch k c l rng [kg/m3]: - 107 -
v =
G V
[kg/m3]
(6.2)
Trong : G - khi lng khi vt liu k c l rng [kg]. V- th tch khi vt liu [m3]. thm kh: c trng cho kh nng cho kh i qua ca vt liu, c xc nh
theo cng thc:

K= Vk .L F..p
[lt/m.h.mmH2O]
(6.3)
Trong : Vk - lng kh thm qua khi vt liu [lt]. F - din tch b mt kh thm qua [m2]. - thi gian kh thm qua[h]. p - chnh lch p sut gia hai b mt kh i qua [mmH2O]. L - chiu dy khi vt liu m kh i qua [m]. ht nc: c trng cho kh nng cha nc ca vt liu, c xc nh theo
G 2 G1 .100 G1
cng thc:
W=
[%]
(6.4)
Trong : G1, G2 l khi lng ca khi vt liu khi kh v khi bo ha nc [kg]. Khi bo ho nc, bn c hc ca vt liu b gim ng k, mc gim bn c hc c nh gi qua h s bin mm:
E= bh k
(6.5)
Trong :
bh - bn c hc khi trng thi bo ha nc [N/m2]. k - bn c hc khi trng thi kh [N/m2].
bc m: c trng cho kh nng cho lng m trong vt liu thot ra ngoi.
- 108 -
Nhit dung: l i lng c gi tr bng lng nhit cn thit nng nhit mt
n v khi lng vt liu ln mt n v. Nhit dung ca vt liu thay i khi nhit thay i, s ph thuc ny c dng:
c t = a + b.t
[kj/kg.]
(6.6)
Trong : a, b l cc h s ph thuc vt liu. dn nhit: c trng cho kh nng truyn nhit bng dn nhit ca vt liu, c nh gi qua h s dn nhit . H s dn nhit ca vt liu chu la thay i theo nhit :
t = 0 + .t
[W/m.]
(6.7)
Trong : 0, t - l h s dn nhit ca vt liu oC v toC. - h s ph thuc vt liu. dn in: c trng cho kh nng dn in ca vt liu, c gi tr bng nghch
o ca in tr sut:
= 1 r
[m/]
nhit thng, phn ln vt liu chu la khng dn in, nhng khi nhit cao in tr ca chng gin r rt nn vi cc l c nhit cao cn quan tm n vn ny. S ph thuc ca in tr vt liu vo nhit c dng:
lg R = A +B T
(6.8)
Trong A, B l cc h s ph thuc vt liu. b) Cc tnh cht s dng chu nng: c trng cho kh nng chu c tc ng ca nhit cao m
khng b bin mm hoc chy lng. chu nng c nh gi qua mu th hnh thp bng cch nung mu th cng vi cc mu chun bit trc chu nng. Nhit m ti mu th hnh thp gc xung chm y l cng vi mt mu chun c gi l chu nng ca vt liu. bn nhit: c trng cho kh nng chu c tc ng ca s thay i nhit
trong qu trnh lm vic, c nh gi bng mu th. Ngi ta nung nng v lm ngui lin tc mu th theo mt chu trnh chun khi s ln nung nng v ngui mu - 109 -
cho n khi khi lng mu gim i 20% so vi ban u c gi l bn nhit ca vt liu. cng v bn c hc nhit cao: l cng v bn ca vt liu xc
nh iu kin nhit cao, thng thng ngi ta xc nh cng v bn nn l hai ch tiu quan trng khi s dng. Tnh n nh th tch: c trng cho kh nng gi nguyn th tch khi chu tc
ng ca ti trng c hc hoc nhit thay i, c nh gi qua co (hoc gin n) ca vt liu. co hoc gin n th tch ca vt liu chu la c khng ch di 1%. bn v mt ha hc: c trng cho kh nng chng li s ph hy vt liu do Cc tnh cht trn l nhng tnh cht chung ca vt liu chu la, trong thc t khng c loi vt liu chu la no tho mn ng thi cc yu cu trn, do ty iu kin s dng ngi ta la chn loi vt liu thch hp v phng din s dng cng nh phng din kinh t. 6.1.3. Vt liu chu la thng dng a) Vt phm inat: l vt phm chu la cha khong cht thch anh SiO2 >93%. Tnh cht ca vt phm i-nat: + chu nng t 1600 - 1710oC. + Bn vi mi trng axit. + Gin n nhit ln. + bn nhit thp. b) Vt phm samt: l vt phm chu la cha t 30 - 45 % Al2O3. Tnh cht ca vt phm sa-mt: + chu nng 1610 - 1730oC. + C tnh axit yu. + bn nhit tng i ln (10 - 50 ln). + Gin n nhit ln. c) Vt phm alumin cao: l vt phm chu la c hm lng Al2O3 t 46 - 100%. Tnh cht: + chu nng cao v ph thuc hm lng Al2O3. + Bn vi c mi trng kim v mi trng axit. - 110 -
cc phn ng ha hc vi cc cht trong mi trng tip xc.
+ bn c hc v bn nhit cao (trn 100 ln). d) Vt phm bn axit: l vt phm chu la cha 15 - 30 % Al2O3 v > 65 % SiO2. Tnh cht: + chu nng 1610 - 1700oC. + Bn vi mi trng axit. + Bn nhit thp. e) Vt phm manhdit: l vt phm chu la cha 90 - 96 % MgO. Tnh cht: + chu nng cao, trn 2000oC. + Bn vi mi trng kim. + Bn nhit thp. + Gin n nhit ln. + Gim cht lng mnh khi b m. g) Vt phm crmit: l vt phm chu la cha 80 - 90 % crmit, 10 - 12 % manhdit v 7 - 10 % dumit. Tnh cht: + chu nng 1900oC. + C tnh trung ho, bn vi c mi trng axit v mi trng kim. + Bn nhit thp (3 - 5 ln). h) Vt phm crmit - ma nhdit: l vt phm chu la cha 30 - 70 % crmit v 70 30 % manhdit. Tnh cht tng t manhdit nhng cht lng cao hn. i) Vt phm cacbon: Gm cc loi: cacbrun, graphit, cc bon. - Vt phm cacbrun: vt phm sn xut t bt SiC c cht dnh kt l t st chu la v silicat st. Tnh cht: + chu nng cao, trn 2000oC. + bn nhit cao. + Tnh chng mi mn v bn c hc tt. + Dn in, dn nhit tt. + Khi nhit trn 1300oC d b oxy ha v b kim n mn. - Vt phm graphit: c sn xut t hn hp 20 - 60 % graphit, 30 - 40 % t st chu la v 10 - 40 % samt. - 111 -
Tnh cht: + chu nng > 2000oC. + bn nhit tt. + H s gin n nhit nh. + Dn nhit tt. + Bn vi mi trng x v kim loi lng. Vt phm cacbon: thnh phn ch yu l cac bon, cha 80 - 90 %C. + chu nng cao > 2500oC. + bn nhit tt. + Dn in v dn nhit tt. + H s gin n nhit nh. 6.1.4. Vt liu cch nhit Vt liu cch nhit dng trong l luyn kim gm hai nhm: + Vt liu cch nhit thin nhin: iatmit, inphurit, aming. + Vt liu cch nhit nhn to: vt phm chu la nh, x bng ... a) Vt liu cch nhit thin nhin iatmit, inphurit c thnh phn ch yu l SiO2 nhng c xp rt ln do Aming: thnh phn chnh l silicat manh ngm nc, h s dn nhit khong
dn nhit km, h s dn nhit 0,014 - 0,06 W/m.. 0,15 W/m.. b) Vt liu cch nhit nhn to Vt phm chu la nh: c thnh phn tng t cc vt phm chu la cng loi nhng c xp ln ( 50 - 80 %), do khi lng th tch b (0,27 - 1,3 kg/m3) v dn nhit km, h s dn nhit 0,11 - 0,81 W/m.. chu nng ca vt phm cch nhit thp hn chu nng ca vt phm chu la cng loi. - X bng: c sn xut t x luyn kim dng si, c xp ln, cch nhit v chu nng tt. 6.1.5. Cc th gch xy l xy l, ngi ta s dng cc th gch chu la v cch nhit sn xut theo hnh dng v kch thc c tiu chun ha. Trn hnh 6.1 gii thiu mt s th gch xy thng dng.
- 112 -
c c a a b b d a d b
a)
d a b
b)
c e
c)
c b
a d
c b d
d)
e)
g)
Hnh 6.1 Hnh dng v kch thc mt s loi gch quy chun a) Gch thng b) Gch vt nm c) Gch vt ng d) Gch chn vm e) Gch vm cu g) Gch vm treo
Gch thng: dng xy tng thng, y l hoc phi hp vi gch vt xy vm
v tng cong, kch thc ph bin l 230x113x65. Gch vt nm: dng xy tng cong hoc vm l c chiu dy mng, kch thc ph bin l 230x113x65/55 hoc 230x113x65/45 Gch vt ng: dng xy tng cong hoc vm l c chiu dy ln, kch thc Gch chn vm: dng xy chn vm cong, kch thc ph bin l Gch vm treo: dng xy vm l phng bng mc treo, kch thc ph bin l Khi chn gch xy l nn dng cc loi gch tiu chun c ch to hng lot v d kim. Trong trng hp cn dng cc loi gch phi tiu chun cng nn a v gn vi dng gch tiu chun vic ch to cng d dng hn. ph bin l 230x113x65/55 hoc 230x113x65/45. 230x113x135/56/37. 300x276x260/100/75/30.
- 113 -
6.2.
Th xy l
6.2.1. Khi nim chung a) Cp xy Lp gch chu la trong cc l luyn kim (cn gi l lp lt) l b phn trng yu nht ca l. Cht lng xy lp ny nh hng trc tip n tui th lm vic v cc ch tiu kinh t, k thut ca l. Bi vy, ty vo th xy v iu kin lm vic ca th xy, ngi ta chn mc cn thn khi xy khc nhau. Theo mc cn thn khi xy ngi ta phn ra nm cp xy. Bng 6.1. Cc cp xy gch chu la Cp xy I II III IV V Yu cu khi xy Xy c bit cn thn Xy cn thn Xy tng i cn thn Xy thng thng Xy gch Chiu dy mch xy (mm) 1 2 3 4 5 - 10 Loi va xy Bt mn kh hay va lng Va nho Va c
Cp xy I v II: dng xy cc l nu chy kim loi hoc nu chy cc vt liu
phi kim. Cc th xy tip xc vi kim loi lng, x hoc yu cu kn kh th dng cp xy I. i vi cc cp xy I v II, m bo mch xy nh cn chn gch c cng kch thc v b mt bng phng (i khi phi mi gch trc). Khi xy va lng, nhng gch vo va lng ri t vo lp xy, trng hp gch cn xy kh (nh gch manhdit) th dng bt mn in y vo cc khe h gia cc vin gch xy. Cp xy III: dng ph bin khi xy cc th xy ca l nung, l sy ... tin hnh vi Cp xy IV: dng khi xy nhng b phn khng quan trng c nhit lm vic va nho. thp ca l, lp lt cc ng ng dn bng phng php xy y hoc xy p vi va nho. Cp xy V: dng khi xy cc th xy gch . Trong qu trnh lm vic, cc th xy chu tc ng ca s thay i nhit gy ra s gin n nhit. th xy khng b ph hy khi gin n ngi ta b tr trong th - 114 b) Mch nhit
xy cc khe gin n nhit gi l mch nhit. S lng v kch thc mch nhit c chn da vo h s gin n nhit ca gch v kch thc ca th xy. Chiu dy mch nhit tnh cho mt mt chiu di th xy ng vi cc loi gch khc nhau cho bng 6.2. Bng 6.2. Gi tr trung bnh ca mch nhit Chiu dy mch nhit cho 1 m Th xy gch Samt inat Manhdit iatmit
1
chiu di th xy (mm) 5-6 12 12 - 14 5-6

2 1
a) 1 2 1
b) 2
c) 1 2 1
d) 1
2 2 1
e)
f)
Hnh 6.2. Cch t mch nhit trong cc th xy a) Tng thng b) Tng nhiu lp gch khc loi c) Gc tng thng d) Vm l e) Tng cong f) y l 1) Mch nhit 2) Gch
- 115 -
Phng php b tr mch nhit trong th xy ph thuc cu trc th xy v c hai cch: b tr mch nhit tp trung v b tr mch nhit phn tn. Trn hnh 6.2 trnh by cch b tr mch nhit trong mt s th xy thng gp. i vi cc tng thng, thng b tr mch nhit phn tn nh hnh 6.2a. Khi tng nhiu lp xy bng cc loi gch khc nhau mch nhit nh hnh 6.2b. i vi nc l khi chiu di 5 mt mch nhit tp trung hai u, cn khi > 5 mt, ngoi mch nhit hai u cn t thm mt mch nhit gia (hnh 6.2d). i vi cc tng cong, mch nhit t tp trung pha ngoi st v l (hnh 6.2e) th xy y, i vi cc loi gch t gin n nh manhdit hay crmit mch nhit phn tn trong th xy. y l c chiu di di 3 mt, gch t gin n th mch nhit t tp trung hai u, khi chiu di > 3 mt th mch nhit t trong th xy nh tng l (hnh 6.2 f). 6.2.2. Cu trc ca cc th xy Cc th xy trong l luyn kim c th xy bng nhiu loi gch khc nhau v chiu dy th xy c th ln hoc b, khi xy ngi ta c th t vin gch ng, nm hoc nghing. Theo quy c, vi vin gch tiu chun 230x113x65, th khi xy nm chiu dy lp gch l 65 mm, khi xy nghing chiu dy lp gch l 113 mm v khi xy ng chiu dy lp gch l 230 mm. a) Th xy tng Th xy tng thng: xy tng thng s dng gch tiu chun thng thng. Tng l thng gm hai lp, lp lt xy bng gch chu la, lp cch nhit xy bng gch (hoc vt liu bt, vn, tm) cch nhit. Nu coi chiu dy tng bng chiu di vin gch tiu chun (230 mm) l mt th chiu dy lp gch chu nhit c th chn: 1; 1,5 ; 2; 2,5 v 3. Chiu dy lp cch nhit xy bng gch t 113 - 350 mm, vi lp cch nhit vt liu bt, vn hoc tm cch nhit th dy t 30 - 100 mm. Khi xy tng thng (hnh 6.3), cc vin gch c xy nm theo hng, trong mt hng mch va khng dc trng nhau. Mch va gia cc hng k tip cng khng c trng nhau. Nguyn tc khng trng mch va cng p dng c cc gc tng v nhng ch tng giao nhau. xy lch mch ngi ta thng dng cc gch hnh c chiu di bng 1/2 hoc 3/4 vin gch tiu chun. Khi tng gm hai lp gch khc nhau, tng lin kt
- 116 -
gia hai lp, khi xy lp trong c 5 n 8 hng gch (theo chiu cao tng) lp trong xy cha ra lp ngoi 1/2 vin gch.
a)
b)
a)
b) Hnh 6.3 Th xy tng thng a) Hng di b) Hng trn
i vi tng cong, ty theo cong ca tng, s dng ton b gch vt tiu chun hoc kt hp gch vt vi gch thng. Khi xy, mch va trong mt hng cng nh gia hai lp k tip phi lch nhau. i vi cc tng c lp cch nhit bng bt hoc vt liu vn, pha ngoi phi c v bng kim loi. b) Th xy y Th xy y c hai dng: y phng v y cong. i vi y phng c xy bng gch tiu chun trc tip trn mng l hoc trn cc tm thp c dm pha di. Chiu dy th xy y ph thuc iu kin lm vic ca l, nu l l nung, l sy chiu dy t 1 - 4 vin gch, nu l l nu chy chiu dy c th ti 4 - 8 vin gch. Th xy y thng gm ba lp: lp di cng l lp cch nhit xy bng gch samt nh, gch iatmit hoc gch . Tip theo l lp m xy bng gch samt mc thp v trn cng l lp lm vic xy bng gch chu la mc cao. Lp cch nhit thng xy nm, lp m xy nm hoc nghing, cn lp lm vic xy nghing hoc ng.
- 117 -
3 2
{
a) b) c) Hnh 6.4. Th xy y phng 1) Lp cch nhit 2) Lp m, 3) Lp lm vic
1 {
Khi xy th xy y, cn thc hin nguyn tc bt cho mch. i vi cc hng trong mt lp, bt cho mch bng cc t lch nhau, cn i vi hai lp k tip bt cho mch bng cch t lch gch hoc xoay gch i mt gc 90o (hnh 6.4b) hay 45o (hnh 6.4c). Khi xoay gch 45o ngi ta gi l xy theo kiu nhnh thng. i vi cc y cong c th xy bng gch (hnh 6.5a) hoc dng lp m bng hn hp vt liu chu la kt hp vi cht dnh kt (hnh 6.5b).
Hnh 6.5 Th xy y cong a) Xy bng gch b) Lp m bng vt liu chu la
c) Th xy nc Th xy nc chia lm hai dng: nc thng v nc cong. nc l cong, vm l c cong nht nh, do khi gch dn n nhit, nc l vn gi c n nh cao khng gy sp nc l. Nc l thng, mt trong l mt phng nn tnh n nh ca kt cu thp hn. Tu theo iu kin lm vic ca l, nc c kin to bng gch hoc bng cc tm b tng chu nhit c sn. i vi th xy nc thng, khi nhit lm vic cao, s dng gch treo, dng mc kim loi mc ln cc dm pha trn nc l. i vi cc l nhit thp, nc l c to hnh bng cc tm b tng chu nhit c sn ghp li.
- 118 -
i vi nc cong, nc l c kin to bng cch xy gch hoc treo gch bng mc treo to thnh vm cun c gc tm nht nh. Tu theo kch thc ca nc, gc tm c ly theo quy nh: 38, 45, 56, 60, 74, 106 v 180o. Th xy nc thng gm hai lp: lp trong l gch chu la, lp ngoi l lp cch nhit. i vi cc l luyn thp c nhit cao, lp gch chu la c th dy ti 400 500 mm v khng c lp cch nhit. xy nc cong phi dng mi khun bng g hoc kim loi c to hnh theo cun ca nc c dng nh hnh 6.6.
Hnh 6.6 S t khun xy nc 1) Ct khun 2) Tng l 3) Gch chn vm 4) Khun
Khi xy nc cong c th tin hnh theo hai cch: xy theo vng hoc xy bt cho mch. Khi xy theo vng, gch c xy thnh tng vng theo cung vm (hnh 6.7a). Gch c xy bt u t gch chn vm ln nh vm. to p cn thit gia cc vin gch ngi ta t cc vin gch kha. Vi vm nc c dy cung < 3m ti nh vm t mt vin gch kha, vi dy cung > 3m t 2 - 3 vin gch kha, khi t 2 - 3 vin gch kha b tr sao cho khong cch gia cch vin gch kha bng nhau. Khi xy bt cho mch (hnh 6.7b), gch c xy theo tng hng dc theo gch chn vm, cc vin gch gia cc hng lch mch 1/2 hoc 3/4 vin. Cch xy bt cho mch, lin kt gia cc vin gch tt hn nhng khi thay th sa cha kh khn hn khi xy cun vng. Trong qu trnh xy, tng t nh khi xy cun vng, cng t cc vin gch kho to nn gia cc vin gch.
- 119 -
a) Hnh 6.7 Phng php xy nc a) Xy cun vm b) Xy bt cho mch
b)
cc nc vm c nhit lm vic cao, kch thc vm rng hoc cu trc phc tp s dng vm gch treo. Khi xy nc treo, gch c treo thnh tng nhm nh cc mc treo kim loi lin kt vi x pha trn nc l. Gch treo c th xp kh hoc xy vi va. i vi nhng vm n gin, gch treo bt u t nh i xung hai pha chn vm. nhng ch vm c cu trc phc tp dng gch hnh c bit, khi xy vm bt u treo gch t nhng v tr ny v khai trin dn ra xung quanh. Trong cc l luyn thp nc l c dng chm cu th phi dng gch xy vm cu, xy thnh tng vng khp kn ng tm v bt u xy t chn vm ln nh. d) Th xy ca cc l luyn kim thng c hai loi ca: ca thao tc v ca quan st. Ca thao tc thng c kch thc ln, cn ca quan st c kch thc nh. Hnh dng v kch thc ca c tiu chun ha (bng 6.4). Ca thng gm hai b phn: b phn khung kim loi t st vo tng l lm tng cng vng ca ca l v b phn np ca c th ng m theo yu cu trong qu trnh chy l. i vi th xy ca, vi cc ca kch thc ln (hnh 6.8a), phn di c dng hnh ch nht, phn trn xy cun vm bng gch vt, nh c vin gch kho. Vi - 120 -
cc ca kch thc nh (chiu rng B < 450 mm) phn trn dng gch xy bc to thnh vm ca (hnh 6.8b). Bng 6.4 Kch thc tiu chun ca ca l Chiu rng B (mm) 240 350 470 580 700 810 930 1050 1160 1400 1510 1840 1970 2200 cao f (mm) 30 45 60 80 95 110 125 140 155 190 205 235 265 295 cao n (mm) 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 170 190 290 220 240 270 270 280 300 330 350 580 410 440 240 250 340 290 370 390 400 550 570 600 750 780 950 980 Chiu cao ca H (mm) 320 400 369 519 519 670 830 840 1010 1160 1190 1360 1390 390 470 425 800 800 950 1100 1250 1420 1670 1740 1770 1800
f
H
a) Hnh 6.8 Cu trc ca l a) Xy cun vm b) Xy bc
b)
- 121 -
e) Th xy cng khi Cng khi l b phn quan trng trong h thng thot khi, trong cc l luyn kim phn ln cng khi c t ngm, khong cch gia nh cng khi v mt t t nht >300 mm. Cu trc th xy cng khi nh hnh 6.9, tit din c dng hnh ch nht ng, nh xy cun vm, nu chiu rng cung vm nh th gc tm ly bng 180o, chiu rng cung vm ln th ly bng 60o. Kch thc cng khi c tiu chun ha, chn theo bng 6.5. Cng khi thng c hai lp: lp trong gch chu la, lp ngoi gch cch nhit hoc gch . nhng ni c nc ngm, bn ngoi cng khi c tng b tng bo v chng thm nc. Bng 6.5 Kch thc tiu chun ca tit din cng khi Chiu ngang B (mm) 470 580 580 700 810 810 930 1050 1280 1400 1510 1630 Gc tm = 60o Chiu cao H (mm) 540 560 700 710 900 930 1010 1100 1260 1420 1500 1550 Tit din F (m2) 0,25 0,3 0,38 0,48 0,61 0.72 0,90 1,11 1,64 1,90 2,17 2,56 Chu vi C (m) 1,13 2,15 2,54 2,66 3,02 3,41 3,76 4,12 4,80 5,33 5,69 6,19 Gc tm = 180o Chiu cao H (mm) 640 700 830 890 950 1150 1210 1410 1520 1720 1840 2040 Tit din F (m2) 0,23 0,38 0,44 0,57 0,70 0,80 0,94 1,36 1,77 2,20 2,53 3,04 Chu vi C (m) 2,08 2,31 2,57 2,88 3,74 3,87 3,88 4,45 5,05 6,05 8,65 7,64
- 122 -
H
1 2 3
1 3
B a) b)
Hnh 6.9 Cu trc cng khi a) Ni khng c nc ngm b) Ni c nc ngm 1) Gch chu la 2) Gch cch nhit hoc gch 3) B tng
6.2.3. Tnh ton gch xy nc l xy nc vm thng s dng phi hp gch vt v gch thng tiu chun. tnh ton lng gch xy, cn c vo dy cung vm l (S), chn gc tm () v tra bng xc nh chiu cao cung (f). Bng 6.6 Quan h gia gc tm () v dy cung (B), chiu cao cung (f) Gc tm T s f/S T s S/R 38 1:12 0,651 45 1:10 0,756 56 1:8 0,939 60 1:7,5 1 74 1:6 1,204 106 1:4 1,597 180 1:2 2
S tnh lng gch xy cung vm trnh by trn hnh 6.10.

s c c f d R a d S b
Hnh 6.10 S tnh gch xy vm
- 123 -
a) Tnh cho mt vng cung nc l: Lng gch xy cn thit xy mt vng cung nc l:

n= (R + s ) 180(c + )
[vin]
(6.9)
Trong : R - Bn knh trong ca vm l [mm]. s - chiu dy gch nc l [mm]. c - cnh ln ca vin gch vt [mm]. - chiu dy mch va [mm]. - gc tm ca vm [mm]. lch chiu di gia cung ngoi v cung trong ca vm:
l c = .s. 180
[mm]
S lng gch vt cn dng:

nv = l c l g
[vin]
(6.10)
Trong : l g = c d l chnh lch dy hai u vin gch vt [mm]. S lng gch thng cn dng:
nt = n nv
[vin]
(6.11)
b) Tnh cho ton b nc l: Tng lng gch thng cn dng:

Nt = nt . L a+
(6.12)
Trong : L - chiu di nc [mm]. a- b rng vin gch [mm]. Tng lng gch vt cn dng:
Nv = nv . L a+
(6.13)
- 124 -
6.3. Khung l gi cho kch thc, hnh dng ca l n nh trong qu trnh l lm vic cng nh di tc ng ca ti trng bn thn cc th xy, ngi ta s dng b phn gi l khung l. i vi cc l c kt cu n gin khung l c kt cu dng khung gm c: ct tr, dm v cc thanh ging ch to bng thp hnh lin kt vi nhau. i vi cc l kt cu phc tp, hnh dng khung l rt khc nhau ph thuc kt cu l, ngoi khung l cn c v l bng kim loi. 6.3.1. Kt cu ca khung l i vi khung l n gin, theo phng php lin kt c chia thnh ba loi: Khung l lin kt ng (hnh 6.11). Khung l lin kt tnh (hnh 6.12). Khung l lin kt hn hp (hnh 6.13).
a) Khung l lin kt ng
4 6 2
1 5 3
Hnh 6.11 Khung l lin kt ng 1) Ct tr 2) Dm chn vm 3) Dm di 4) Thanh ging trn 5) Thanh ging di 6) ai c
Trong khung l lin kt ng (hnh 6.11), cc thanh ging trn (1) v di (2) lin kt vi tr (3) bng lin kt bu lng, cc ai c c th xit vo hoc ni ra khi th xy co gin di tc ng nhit. Khi s dng khung l lin kt ng, khng cn t mch nhit trong cc th xy, do n gin cho khu xy l. Tuy nhin, trong qu trnh l lm vic phi thng xuyn iu chnh ai c, gy kh khn cho vic vn hnh l, nht l khi kch thc l ln. - 125 -
b) Khung l lin kt tnh khung l lin kt tnh, cc thanh ging c hn hoc tn cht vi ct tr (hnh 6.12), kch thc khung l hu nh n nh khi l lm vic. i vi phn di ct tr c th c nh bng cch chn c nh ln nn b tng ca l. Do khung l n nh, khng th iu chnh theo s co gin ca l, nn khi xy l phi t mch nhit trong cc th xy.
4
1 3
Hnh 6.12 Khung l lin tnh 1) Ct tr 2) Dm chn vm 3) Dm di 4) Thanh ging trn
S dng khung l lin kt tnh, trong qu trnh vn hnh l khng phi iu chnh khung l, nn hin nay c s dng rt ph bin trong cc l c kch thc ln v c trong cc l c kch thc nh. c) Khung l lin kt hn hp Khung l lin kt hn hp (hnh 6.13), pha trn lin kt ng cn pha di lin kt tnh.
4 5 2
1 3
Hnh 6.13 Khung l lin hn hp 1) Ct tr 2) Dm chn vm 3) Dm di 4) Thanh ging trn 5) ai c
- 126 -
Dng loi khung l ny khng cn mch nhit pha trn ca l, cn phn di phi t mch nhit. Loi khung l ny kt hp c u im ca hai loi trn nn cng c s dng rng ri trong cc l luyn kim 6.3.2. Tnh ton khung l Vic tnh khung l nhm xc nh lc tc dng ln khung l, xc nh cc thng s cn thit chn cc chi tit chnh ca khung l. a) Tnh lc tc dng ln dm chn vm v khung l S tnh ton trnh by trn hnh 6.14.
s
`
P f
R
N H
Rtb
S
Hnh 6.14 S tnh lc tc dng ln dm chn vm
Vic tnh lc tc dng ln khung l c thc hin cho mt bc ct, gm on dm chn vm v hai ct nm hai u on dm . Chiu di trung bnh ca cung vm nc:
L ctb = R tb 180
[m]
(6.14)
Trong :
s R tb = R + , bn knh trung bnh ca cung vm nc [m]. 2
Trng lng gch nc ng vi mt bc ct:

Q = L ctb .s..a
[kG]
(6.15)
Trong : a - bc ct (khong cch gia hai ct lin tip) [m]. s - chiu dy nc [m]. - trng lng ring ca gch [kG/m3]. Lc thng ng tc dng ln gch chn vm: - 127 -
H=
Q 2
[kG]
(6.16)
Lc ngang tc dng ln gch chn vm:

P= H S . 4 f
[kG]
(6.17)
Trong : S - chiu rng vm nc [m]. f - chiu cao vm nc [m]. T hnh 6.14 ta c:

f 1 = tg S 2 4
Thay vo cng thc 6.17, nhn c:

P= H 2 tg 4
[kG]
(6.18)
Lc ngang thc t tc dng ln dm chn vm khi l lm vic:

Ptt = k.P
[kG]
(6.19)
Trong k l h s xt n nh hng ca s gin n ca th xy khi l lm vic, ph thuc nhit nc l ly theo bng 6.7. Bng 6.7 Gi tr ca h s k ph thuc nhit nc l Nhit nc l oC < 900 900 - 1200 > 1200 b) Tnh dm chn vm Coi dm chn vm chu lc tc dng phn b u v dm c hai im ta ti ct l, khi m men un cc i tc dng ln dm chn vm:
Md = max Pt .a 8
k 2,0 2,5 3,0
[kG.cm]
(6.20)
Trong : Pt - lc ngang thc t [kG]. - 128 -
a - bc ct [cm]. M men chng un cn thit ca dm:

Wud = Md max [ k ]
[cm3]
(6.21)
Trong [ k ] l bn ko cho php ca thp lm dm chn vm, ly theo bng 6.8. Bng 6.8 Gi tr ca h s k ph thuc nhit nc l Mc thp CT31, CT38 C20 C25 C45
[ k ] , kg/cm2
1200 1330 1500 2200
Bit c m men chng un cn thit ca dm, tra bng chn thp hnh c
Wu > Wud .
c) Tnh ct khung l - M men un cc i tc dng ln ct tr: Lc tc dng ln ct tr chnh l lc do dm chn vm truyn ra, do m men un cc i tc dng ln ct tr:
Mc = max Pt .h 1 .h 2 h1 + h 2
(kG.cm)
(6.22)
Trong : Pt - lc ngang thc t [kG]. h1, h2 - khong cch t dm chn vm n thanh ging trn v di [cm]. M men chng un cn thit ca ct tr:
Mc W = max [ k ]
c u
[cm3]
(6.23)
Sau khi xc nh c Wuc tra bng chn thp hnh (ch U hoc ch I) c Wu > Wuc . d) Tnh thanh ging Cc thanh ging thng l thp trn, c tnh theo bn ko v coi nhit nung nng thanh ging khng qu 200oC. - 129 -
Lc ko tc dng ln thanh ging trn:

P1 = Pt .h 2 h1 + h 2
[kG]
(6.24)
Tit din cn thit ca thanh ging trn:

F1 = P1 [ k ]
[cm2]
(6.25)
Lc ko tc dng ln thanh ging di:

P2 = Pt .h 1 h1 + h 2
[kG]
(6.26)
Tit din cn thit ca thanh ging di:

F2 = P2 [ k ]
[cm2]
(6.27)
Sau khi tnh c tit din cc thanh ging tra bng chn thp hnh (thp trn) c tit din ln hn tit din cn thit.
- 130 -
Chng 7
H thng thot khi, cp gi v thit b tn dng nhit khi l

7.1. H thng thot khi 7.1.1. Cu trc ca h thng thot khi Thng thng h thng thot khi cho l bao gm cc knh khi, cng khi v ng khi lm nhim v dn sn phm chy t l ra ngoi tri. Cu trc ca h thng thot khi rt a dng ph thuc cu trc l v v tr t h thng thot khi. Thng thng cc l c cng sut nh hoc khng dng thit b trao i nhit, hoc dng thit b trao i nhit hnh kim, thit b ng nhn kiu ng thng, ngi ta b tr h thng khi ngay pha trn nc l. Nhng l c cng sut trung bnh v ln, c thit b hon nhit, thit b trao i nhit bng gm ... thng b tr h thng thot khi i chm di nn phn xng. Cch b tr h thng thot khi i chm c u im gii phng c mt bng quanh l, thun tin cho vn hnh l nhng gy kh khn v tn km trong xy dng. a s cc l luyn kim, do mc ch s dng nhit trong l, thng b tr cc knh khi dn khi t bung l qua y hoc tng i xung pha di v tp trung vo cng khi ti ng khi. Trn hnh 7.1 trnh by cu trc in hnh ca mt h thng thot khi ca l nung lin tc.
A -A
6 2 3 4 5
Hnh 7.1 S h thng thot khi l nung lin tc 1) Khng gian l 2) Knh khi 3) Cng khi 4)Thit b trao i nhit 5) Van 6) ng khi
Knh khi thng c tit din ch nht, lm nhim v dn khi t khng gian l ti cng khi. Ming knh khi c th b tr trn y l hoc trn tng ty theo yu cu cng ngh. Khi b tr ming knh khi trn y, khong cch gia cch knh - 131 -
khng c nh hn mt vin gch m bo bn ca th xy, ng thi kch thc tit din cn chn sao cho khng vt nung ri xung knh. Khi b tr knh trn tng l th chiu dy tng l (khng k chiu rng knh) phi ln hn 460 mm. Cng khi thng c tit din ch nht ng, nh cun vm, t ngm di t, khong cch ti thiu t nh cng khi ti mt nn 300mm. Nhng ni c nc ngm cng khi c t trong lp b tng chng thm, khi cn cch nhit tt khng lm cho b tng b ph hy. Trn ng dn khi l c th t thit b trao i nhit (thng l phn cng khi) v t van iu chnh lng khi l i ra ng khi. ng khi l b phn to sc ht a sn phm chy t bung l thi ra mi trng. Ty theo cng sut l v nhit kh thi c th s dng ng khi xy gch, ng khi kim loi hoc ng khi bng b tng chu nhit. Khi thit k h thng thot khi cn lu cc nguyn tc sau: - B tr cc knh khi sao cho khi l t bung l vo cc knh u nhau khng c gc cht. - ng dn khi cng ngn, cng thng cng tt, hn ch cc gc ngot, gp khc, cc v tr t m, t thu t ngt lm tng tr lc trn ng dn, ng thi m bo thun tin cho vic xy th xy. - Nhng ni c nhiu l t gn nhau nn b tr h thng thot khi c chung mt ng khi gim chi ph xy dng. 7.1.2. Tnh h thng thot khi a) Tnh lng kh l i vo knh Lng kh l khi bt u vo knh khi:
VA = BVn V0 .
[m3/h]
(7.1)
Trong d: B - lng tiu hao nhin liu [m3/h] hoc [kg/h]. Vn - lng sn phm chy khi t chy mt n v nhin liu [m3/kg] hoc [m3/m3].
V0 .
- tng lng kh l mt qua ca thao tc v ca quan st [m3/h].
H i vi ca ng > 3 4 : B
- 132 -
V0 =
Vt 1 + t
(7.2)
2 Vt = BH 2gH( kk k ) 3 B i vi ca nm > 3 4 : H
Vt' V0 = 1 + t
(7.3)
Vt' = BH 2gH( kk k )
l h s thi gian m ca:

= mP 3600G f
(7.4)
Vi m l thi gian ra mt phi [s], P nng sut l [kg/h], Gf khi lng mt phi[kg]. b) Tnh tit din knh khi Din tch tit din knh khi xc nh theo cng thc sau:
Fk = VA 3600.Wk .N
[m2]
(7.5)
Trong : Wk - tc kh l i trong knh , chn trong khong 1 - 2 m/s. N - s knh. Knh khi c tit din ch nht nn ta c:
Fk = a.b
Bit Fk ta xc nh c cc kch thc a v b. c) Tnh din tch tit din cng khi
FC = VA 3600.WC
[m2]
(7.6)
Trong : Wc - tc kh l i trong cng, chn trong khong 1,5 - 3 m/s. Da vo tit din Fc tra bng chn cng khi c tit din F Fc. 7.1.3. Tnh tr lc trn ng dn khi Tng tn tht p sut h thng thot khi xc nh theo cng thc: - 133 -
h tt = h ms + h cb h hh
Trong : hms - tng tn tht do ma st trn ng dn. hcb - tng tn tht cc b trn dng dn. hhh - tng tn tht hnh hc trn ng dn. a) Tnh tn tht ma st Tn tht ma st trn ng dn xc nh theo cng thc:
0 k W02k L i T k ,i . D i T0 2
(7.7)
h ms = i .
i =1 n
Trong :
h ms
W02k L i . . 0 k (1 + t k ,i ) = i . 2 Di i =1
(7.8)
i - h s ma st trn on th i. 0k, W0k - khi lng ring v tc kh l iu kin tiu chun [kg/m3] v [m/s]. Li, Di - chiu di v ng knh thy lc ca on kho st.
Di = 4 Fi Ci
Vi Fi [m2] v Ci [m] l din tch tit din v chu vi ca dng chy ti on kho st. T0 - nhit iu kin tiu chun oK.
T ki - nhit trung bnh trn on th i:
T ki = Tk ( i 1) + Tki 2
Vi
Tki = Tk ( i 1) Ti .l i Ti - gim nhit trn mt n v chiu di ng dn[oK/m].
b) Tnh tn tht cc b Tn tht p sut do tr lc cc b xc nh theo cng thc:

0 k W02k Tk ,i . T0 2
h cb = i .
i =1
- 134 -
Trong :
h cb = i .
i =1
W02k . 0 k (1 + t k ,i ) 2
(7.9)
i - h s tr lc cc b ti mt ct i. Tk,i - nhit ti mt ct i. c) Tnh tn tht hnh hc Tn tht hnh hc xut hin khi kh l nh hn khng kh bao quanh chuyn ng t trn xung di hoc khi kh l nng hn chuyn ng t di ln trn. Cng thc xc nh tn tht do tr lc hnh hc khi kh l nh hn khng kh bao quanh chuyn ng t trn xung di:
T0 T ok 0 T kk ,i T k ,i
h hh = gH i okk
i =1 n
Trong :
h hh = gH i ( kk ,i k ,i )
i =1
(7.10)
Hi - cao ca on knh kho st [m].

0 kk , 0 k - khi lng ring khng kh v kh l iu kin tiu chun [kg/m3]. T kk ,i , T k ,i - nhit trung bnh ca khng kh v kh l trn on kho st [oK].
Trong trng hp ngc li, kh l nh i ln hoc kh l nng i xung, ct p hnh hc gim tn tht p trn ng dn (hhh mang du m). 7.1.4. Tnh ng khi Thit k ng khi nhm mc ch xc nh chiu cao ng khi v cc thng s c bn ca ng khi sao cho m bo lc ht ca ng khi ln hn tr lc trn ng dn ca h thng thot khi. S dng phng trnh Becnuly ta nhn c quan h gia p sut m chn ng khi vi chiu cao ca n, nhit sn phm chy v cc tn tht nng lng khi sn phm chy chuyn ng trong ng khi:
W 2 W02k ,1 T k T T 0 kk 0 0 k 0 0 k . 0 k ,2 p = Hg . T0 2 Tkk Tk 0 k W 0k T k H 0 k . . 2 T0 d tb
2
W02k , 2 Tk ,2 . T0 2
(7.11)
[N / m 2 ]
Trong : - 135 -
p - p sut m cn to ra chn ng khi [N/m2]: p = k. h tt
(7.12)
Vi k = 1,2 - 1,3 l h s k n s tng tr lc khi knh dn b bm bi v kh nng cng ha qu trnh.
h tt - tng tn tht trn ng dn n chn ng khi [N/m2].

T phng trnh (7.11) v (7.12), nhn c cng thc xc nh chiu cao ng khi:
k. h tt + 0 k H=
(W .
2 0 k ,2
W02k , 2 Tk ,2 W02k ,1 T k + 0k . . 2 T0 2 T0
2
T T W Tk 1 g 0 kk 0 0 k 0 + 0 k 0 k . . 2 T0 d tb Tkk Tk
[m]
(7.13)
Trong :
0 k , 0 kk : khi lng ring khi l v khng kh iu kin tiu chun [kg/m3]. W0 k ,1 , W0 k ,2 , l tc khi l ti chn, nh ng khi iu kin tiu chun
[m/s].
W 0 k l tc trung bnh ca khi l trong ng khi iu kin tiu chun: W 0k = W0 k ,1 + W0 k ,2 2
P (m) 420
Tkk - nhit khng kh xung quanh [oK]. Tk = Tk ,1 + Tk ,2 2

o
380 340 300
tk= 450oC
350 250 200 150
- nhit trung bnh ca khi
l trong ng khi [ K].

Tk ,1 , Tk ,2 - nhit khi l chn v nh ng
260 220 180 140 100 60 20 20 60 60 80 H (m) 100
khi [oK]. - h s ma st trong ng khi.

d tb - ng knh trong trung bnh ca ng khi: d + d2 d tb = 1 2
Vi d1, d2 ng knh trong chn v nh ng khi [m]. - 136 -
Hnh 7.2 Biu chn chiu cao s b ca ng khi
Cc thng s trong cng thc (7.13) c xc nh sau: Nhit kh l ti ming ng khi:

Tk ,2 = Tk ,1 t.H sb T k - nhit trung bnh ca khi l trong ng khi [oK].
Vi t l gim nhit trung bnh ca khi l ng vi 1 m chiu cao ng khi [oC/m], H sb l chiu cao ng khi s b, chn theo gin hnh 7.2. ng knh ra ca ming ng khi:
d2 = 4Vk .w 0 k ,2
[m]
(7.14)
i vi ngkhi xy bng gch th d2 800mm. ng knh chn ng khi bng gch v b tng chn:
d 1 = 1,5d 2
Tc kh l ti ming ng khi W0 k ,2 chn 3 - 4 m/s. Chiu cao ng khi H tnh c t cng thc 7.13 nm trong khong H sb 10 % th khng phi tnh li. Trng hp H < 16 m, ly H = 16 m m bo iu kin v sinh mi trng. 7.2. H thng cp gi v kh t
7.2.1. Cu trc h thng cp gi H thng cp gi gm thit b cp gi (qut gi) v cc ng dn gi lm nhim v dn khng khi t thit b cp gi n thit b t nhin liu. Trong trng hp dng gi nng, c thm ng dn khng kh i qua thit b trao i nhit trc khi n thit b t. Trn hnh 7.3 trnh by cu trc ca h thng cp gi ca mt l nung lin tc s dng gi nng. Cc ng dn gi c lm bng thp ng hn, chiu dy thnh ng t 3 - 6 mm. Nu ng dn gi nng m nhit tkk < 500oC bn ngoi c bc cch nhit, cn khi tkk > 500oC th ngoi lp bc cch nhit, bn trong ng cn phi lt gch chu la mc thp. i vi cc l dng nhin liu kh, ngoi cc ng dn gi cn c h thng ng dn kh t. Cc ng dn kh t cng ch to bng cc ng thp hn, chiu dy thnh - 137 -
ng t 5 - 8 mm, bn ngoi bc cch nhit nu tk <500oC v lt gch bn trong v bc cch nhit bn ngoi nu tk > 500oC.
3 5 5 4 2
Hnh 7.3 S cp gi cho l nung lin tc 1) Qut gi 2) ng dn gi lnh 3) ng dn gi nng 4) ng dn gi pha long khi l 5)Thit b t
Khi thit k h thng cp gi cn lu : - B tr ng dn kh sao cho chiu di ng dn cng ngn cng tt, hn ch gp khc v cc tr lc cc b khc lm tng tn tht p sut trn ng dn, ng thi khng gy tr ngi cho vic i li v thao tc xung quanh l. - Khi trong phn xng c nhiu l gn nhau th c th thit k mt h thng cp gi chung cho cc l. - Tnh ton tr lc trn ng dn chn qut gi cn tnh cho nhnh c tn tht ln nht. 7.2.2. Tnh kch thc ng ng dn gi v kh t - Din tch tit din ng dn gi:
Fkk ,i = Vkk ,i 3600.Wkk ,i
(m2)
(7.15)
Trong :
Vkk ,i - lu lng gi qua tit din on ng kho st [m3/h]. Wkk ,i - tc gi qua tit din on ng kho st [m/s], chn theo bng 7.1.
- ng knh ng dn:
d kk ,i = 4.Fkk ,i
(m)
(7.16)
- 138 -
Bng 7.1 Tc gi v kh t trong ng dn Dch th Khng kh lnh Khng kh nng Kh t lnh, p sut thp: - ng thng - ng c hnh phc tp Kh t nng, p sut thp: 7.2.3. Tnh tn tht p sut trn ng dn gi Tng tn tht trn ng dn gi xc nh theo cng thc tng t trong phn thit k h thng thot khi nhng lu cc thng s thit k (nh gim nhit , h s tr lc ) c chn theo khng kh hoc kh t. Tng tn tht: 12 6 4-6 W [m/s] 8 - 12 4-6
h tt = h ms + h cb h hh
Tn tht ma st:
(7.17)
h ms
Tn tht cc b:
W02kk L i = i . . . 0 kk (1 + t kk ,i ) 2 Di i =1
n
(7.18)
h cb
ghi l hg.
W02kk = i . . 0 kk (1 + t kk ,i ) 2 i =1
n
(7.19)
i vi l dng nhin liu rn, tr lc trn ng dn gi phi k n tr lc qua 7.3. Thit b tn dng nhit khi l 7.3.1. Phn loi tn dng nhit khi thi, trong cc l luyn kim thng s sng cc thit b thu hi nhit nung nng khng kh hoc kh t. Theo nguyn tc lm vic ngi ta chia cc thit b thu hi nhit thnh hai loi: - Thit b trao i nhit: hot ng lin tc, ch nhit n nh, khng kh v khi cng i qua thit b.
- 139 -
- Thit b hon nhit: hot ng theo chu k, ch nhit khng n nh, khng kh v khi l i qua thit b trong nhng khong thi gian khc nhau. Di y ch yu kho st thit b trao i nhit. 7.3.2. Thit b trao i nhit Thit b trao i nhit c hai loi: thit b trao i nhit kiu gm ch to bng vt liu phi kim (samt hoc cac b run) v thit b trao i nhit kim loi c ch to bng kim loi (gang xm, thp cc bon thp, thp hp kim chu nhit ). Ph bin l thit b trao i nhit kim loi. Theo cu to thit b trao i nhit kim loi c chia ra lm hai loi: loi ng kim loi nhn v loi ng c gai. Loi ng nhn c ch to t cc ng thp nhn c ng knh trong d = 15 100 mm, chiu dy thnh ng t 3 - 5 mm. Cc ng c b tr thnh chm ng theo kiu bn c hoc so le, khng kh i trong ng cn khi l i ngoi ng. Nhit khi l thng khng c vt qu 500oC. Loi ny c kt cu n gin, d ch to v lp t, h s truyn nhit vo khong 15 - 25 Kcal/m2.h..
KK nng KK lnh KK nng KK lnh
a)
b)
Hnh 7.2 S cu to thit b trao i nhit kim loi a) ng trn b) ng c gai
Loi ng mt c gai c ch to t gang chu nhit cha 1,5 - 30 %Cr, c gai hai mt hoc c gai mt trong, mt ngoi nhn. Do b mt c gai, nn loi ny c h s - 140 -
truyn nhit ln, khong 80 - 100 Kcal/m2.h., nhng kt cu phc tp, kh lp t v lng khng kh r ln. 7.3.3. Tnh ton thit b trao i nhit Mc ch tnh ton thit b trao i nhit l xc nh b mt trao i nhit cn thit ca thit b. Khi ch nhit n nh, lng nhit truyn t khi l qua thnh ca thit b n khng kh xc nh theo cng thc sau:
Q = K.t tb .F
[Kcal/h] hoc [W] [m2] (7.20)
F=
Q K.t tb
Lng nhit Q cn truyn t khi l n khng kh:

Q = Vkk C c .t c C d .t d = Vk C c .t c C d .t d . kk kk kk kk k k k k
(7.21)
Trong : Vkk - lng khng kh cn nung nng [m3/h]. Vk - lng khi l i qua thit b [m3/h].
- h s s dng nhit ca thit b 0,85 - 0,90.
C d , C c v C d , C c l nhit dung ring ca khng kh v khi l trc khi vo v kk kk k k
sau khi ra khi thit b.

t d , t c v t d , t c l nhit ca khng kh v kh l trc khi vo v sau khi ra kk kk k k
khi thit b. K - h s truyn nhit t khi n khng kh: Khi tng phng:
K= 1 1 S 1 + + k kk
(7.22)
Khi tng hnh tr:

K= 1 1 1 r 1 + . 2+ k .r1 r1 kk .r2
(7.22)
- 141 -
Hiu s nhit trung bnh t tb xc nh ph thuc nhit u v cui, hng chuyn ng ca khi v khng kh. Trn hnh 7.3 trnh by mt s trng hp thng dng v biu nhit s dng tnh t tb .
KK K KK Thun dng K K KK Ngc dng Giao nhau
K KK Chnh giao thun dng tC

o
K KK Chnh giao ngc dng toC
td k
tk tkk
tc k c t kk
td k tc kk
tk tkk
tc k td kk
L (m) Ngc dng
td kk
L (m) Thun dng
Hnh 7.3 Phn loi chuyn ng khi l v khng kh
Hiu s nhit trung bnh trong thit b xc nh theo nhit trung bnh logarit:
t tb = t d t c t 2,3. lg d t c
(6.23)
Trong :
t d - hiu s nhit ti u khi vo:
Thun dng: Nghch dng:
t d = t d t d k kk t d = t d t c k kk
t c - hiu s nhit ti u khi ra:
Thun dng:
t c = t c t c k kk
- 142 -
Nghch dng:
t c = t c t d k kk
Sau khi tnh c Fk, tra bng chn loi ng trao i nhit, s lng ng v b tr s lng ng trong mt hng v s hng cn thit m bo b mt trao i nhit ca thit b ln hn hoc bng gi tr tnh c.
- 143 -
Ti liu tham kho 1. Phm Vn Tr, Dng c Hng, Nguyn Cng Cn: L cng nghip . i hc Bch khoa H ni - 1996. 2. B mn Luyn kim: Nguyn l l luyn kim. i hc Bch khoa H ni - 1968. 3. E.I. Kazanxev: Prmslenni petchi. NXB Metalurghi , Moskva - 1975. 4. H.E. Xentruk, H. Dzmakin: Teplvi ratrit plachennx petchi dlia nagrepva i teplbrabtki metala. NXB Minxk -1974.
- 144 -
- 145 -
Mc lc Chng 1. Khi nim v cc c trng c bn 1.1. Khi nim 1.2. Phn loi 1.2.1. Phn loi theo ngun nhit s dng 1.2.2. Phn loi theo c im cng ngh 1.2.3. Phn loi theo ch cng tc nhit 1.2.4. Phn loi theo kt cu 1.3. Cc c trng c bn ca l 1.3.1. Ch nhit ca l 1.3.2. Ch nhit ca l 1.3.3. Cng sut nhit ca l 1.3.4. Nng sut ca l 1.3.5. Cc hiu sut ca l 1.3.6. Sut tiu hao nhin liu tiu chun Chng 2. Cng tc nhit ca l 2.1. Ch lm vic bc x 2.1.1. Mt s khi nim v nh lut c bn v truyn nhit bc x 2.1.2. Ch lm vic bc x phn b u 2.1.3. Ch lm vic bc x trc tip 2.1.4. Ch lm vic bc x gin tip 2.1.5. Tnh ton trao i nhit bc x 2.2. Ch lm vic i lu 2.2.1. Mt s khi nim v nh lut c bn v truyn nhit i lu 2.2.2. Ch i lu t nhin 2.2.3. Ch i lu cng bc 2.2.4. Trao i nhit i lu trong cht lng 2.2.5. Chn nhin liu v phng php t 2.2.6. Lnh vc ng dng 2.3. Ch lm vic theo lp 2.3.1. Khi nim v phn loi 2.3.2. Ch lp cht - 145 8 9 9 9 9 11 12 12 12 18 19 21 22 25 26 28 29 31 32 32 32 32 34 6 6 7 8 5 5
2.3.3. Ch lp si 2.3.4. Ch lp l lng 2.3.5. Chn nhin liu v phng php t Chng 3. Nung kim loi 3.1. Khi nim chung 3.1.1. Mc ch ca qu trnh nung 3.1.2. Cc hin tng xy ra khi nung kim loi 3.1.3. Ch nung khi nung kim loi 3.2. Tnh ton thi gian nung 3.2.1. Cc iu kin gii hn khi nung 3.2.2. Phng php tnh 3.3. V d tnh thi gian nung Chng 4. Nhin liu v s chy ca nhin liu 4.1. Nhin liu 4.1.1. Khi nim chung 4.1.2. Cc loi nhin liu 4.1.3. Thnh phn ca nhin liu 4.1.4. Nhit tr ca nhin liu 4.2. S chy ca nhin liu 4.2.1. S chy ca nhin liu rn 4.2.2. S chy ca nhin liu lng 4.2.3. S chy ca nhin liu kh 4.3. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu 4.3.1. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu rn v lng 4.3.2. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu kh Chng 5. Thit b t nhin liu 5.1. Thit b t nhin liu rn 5.1.1. Bung t th cng 5.1.2 Bung t c kh 5.1.3 Tnh ton bung t 5.2. Thit b t nhin liu bi - 146 -
36 40 41 43 43 43 43 44 45 45 46 53 57 57 57 57 62 64 65 65 66 68 70 71 78 79 79 79 81 82 85
4.2.4. Khi nim v chy hon ton, khng hon ton v h s d khng kh 69
5.2.1. Khi nim v t nhin liu bi 5.2.2 Cc thit b t nhin liu bi 5.3. Thit b t nhin liu lng 5.3.1. M phun p sut thp 5.3.2. M phun p sut cao 5.3.3. Tnh ton m phun 5.4. Thit b t nhin liu kh 5.4.1. M t t ht 5.4.2. M t lng ng 5.4.3. Tnh ton m t Chng 6. Vt liu xy, th xy v khung l 6.1. Vt liu xy l 6.1.1. Yu cu chung i vi vt liu chu la 6.1.2. Mt s tnh cht c bn ca vt liu chu la 6.1.3. Vt liu chu la thng dng 6.1.4. Vt liu cch nhit 6.1.5. Cc th gch xy 6.2. Th xy l 6.2.1. Khi nim chung 6.2.2. Cu trc ca cc th xy 6.2.3. Tnh ton gch xy nc l 6.3. Khung l 6.3.1. Kt cu khung l 6.3.2. Tnh ton khung l Chng 7. H thng thot khi, cp gi v thit b tn dng nhit khi l 7.1. H thng thot khi 7.1.1. Cu trc ca h thng thot khi 7.1.2. Tnh ton kch thc h thng thot khi 7.1.3. Tnh tn tht p sut trn ng dn khi 7.1.4. Tnh ng hki 7.2. H thng cp gi v kh t 7.2.1. Cu trc ca h thng cp gi - 147 -
85 86 87 87 88 89 96 96 98 99 107 107 107 107 110 112 112 114 114 116 123 125 125 127 131 131 131 132 133 135 137 137
7.2.2. Tnh kch thc ng ng dn gi v kh t 7.2.3 Tnh tn tht p sut trn ng dn gi 7.3. Thit b tn dng nhit khi l 7.3.1 Phn loi 7.3.2. Thit b trao i nhit 7.3.3. Tnh ton thit b trao i nhit Ti liu tham kho Mc lc
138 139 139 139 140 141 144 145
- 148 -

Giao Trinh Lo Luyen Kim

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Giao Trinh Lo Luyen Kim

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

i hc nng Trng i hc bch khoa

Hong Minh Cng

Nhng l c nhit khng thay i theo thi gian gi l l c ch nhit

Nhng l c nhit thay i theo thi gian gi l l c ch nhit khng n nh.

Nhng l c ph ti nhit khng thay i theo thi gian c gi l l c ch

Nhng l c ph ti nhit thay i theo thi gian c gi l l c ch nhit khng n nh.

Lng nhit cp cho l t ngoi vo xc nh theo cng thc: -9-

+ Q vl l lng nhit vt l do nung nng trc khng kh c xc nh theo kk cng thc:

nhi n liu = nhi n liu =

Suy ra Hay Trong :

b) Hnh 2.1 Mu vt en tuyt i

Trong : C1, C2 l cc hng s thc nghim.

+ nh lut Stphan-Bolzman: xc lp quan h gia kh nng bc x ca vt en tuyt i vi nhit tuyt i ca n:

Kcal ] hay [W/m2] (2-5a) 2 m .h

Trong : T l nhit tuyt i ca vt, [oK]. 0 l h s bc x ca vt en tuyt i:

Cng thc (2-5a) thng c vit di dng sau:

C 0 = 5,7 cng c gi l h s bc x ca vt en tuyt i, [

(m) Hnh 2.2 Quang ph bc x ca kh CO2 v H2O

en ca kh k xc nh theo cng thc:

Biu xc nh CO , H O v c dng nh trn hnh 2.3.

Chiu dy c hiu qu ca lp kh bc x tnh theo cng thc:

Hnh 2.3 Biu tra CO 2 , H 2 O v

Hnh 2.4 S tnh h s gc bc x gia hai b mt

- Trng hp (c): Mt cu rng v mt phng ct nhau.

- Trng hp (d): Hai mt chm cu to thnh mt cu.

ti vt nung cng ln, nu en ca ngn la N = 1 v tn tht nhit qua tng

Hnh 2.5 S trao i nhit trong l

+ Nhit mt tng v vt nung c gi tr ng nht l TT v TV. + en ca tng v vt nung cng ng nht l T v V.

nhit trn b mt vt nung ta c:

Qp ti vt = Q V + Q V K T Qi ra t vt = Q K V + Q T V + Q V PX PX BXR Vy Hay Vi: Trong : + Lng nhit t kh l p ti b mt vt nung:

+ Lng nhit t tng l p ti b mt vt nung:

Vi QT l tng lng nhit bc x v phn x ca tng l. + Q K V l lng nhit bc x t kh l n vt b vt phn x: PX

+ Q T V l lng nhit t tng p ti vt b vt phn x: PX

+ Q V l lng nhit bc x ring ca vt nung: BXR

+ Q T l lng nhit t kh p ti tng: K

+ Q T l lng nhit t tng p ti tng: T

+ Q K T l lng nhit bc x t kh l ti tng b tng phn x: PX

T = K .C 0 K .(1 T ).F T 100

+ Q V T l lng nhit t vt p ti tng b tng phn x: PX

Tk 4 TV 4 = C K T V .FV 100 100

Hnh 2.6 Biu tra h s K

Trong : Q - lng nhit trao i bng i lu [W].

l1, l2, l3 - cc kch thc ca b mt vt [m].

Thng thng ngi ta xc nh dl thng qua xc nh tiu chun Nuy-xen:

- h s gin n nhit ca mi cht [1/].

g - gia tc trng trng [m/s2].

Cng thc thng gp nht c dng:

Hnh 2.7 Xc nh kch thc vt nung khi tnh Gr

i vi tng nm ngang, mt trao i nhit hng ln trn:

i vi tng nm ngang, mt trao i nhit hng xung di:

Trao i nhit i lu t nhin trong cc l in tr:

Trong , cc thng s vt l tnh Re, Pr ly theo nhit trung bnh:

Hnh 2.8 ng dn kh un cong

Khi b tr kiu so le (hnh 2.9b):

P N u = 0,41.R 0,60 .Pr0,33 r' e P r

Hnh 2.9 B tr ng trong chm ng a) B tr kiu qun c b) B tr kiu so le - 30 -

2.3.1. Khi nim v phn loi

- h s trao i nhit b mt [W/m2.]

A 2 .T 0,3 .W00,9 d 0,75

.10 1,68f 3,56 f

Hnh 2.12 Trng thi ca lp si ng vi cc gi tr khc nhau ca ms

d - ng knh ht liu [m].

Ar - tiu chun achimed, xc nh theo cng thc:

Khi Fe = 100 200 :