COMMERCIAL FISHING AND MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

Steve Gerlach Lisa Boudeman Steve Eckert Lauren Diebel

Environmental Resource Management 413W Malcolm Taylor April 12, 2012

COMMERCIAL FISHING AND MARINE PROTECTED AREAS TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction2 The Environmental Impacts of Commercial Fishing.5 Steve Gerlach Factors Influencing Marine Commercial Fishing Trends...10 Lisa Boudeman Protecting Global Marine Fisheries: Individual Fishing Quotas (IFQ), Fishing Seasons, and Technological Restrictions.......15 Steve Eckert Protecting Global Marine Fisheries: Marine Protected Areas (MPA)...21 Lauren Diebel Conclusion26

INTRODUCTION Historically, marine fisheries have provided communities and nations around the world with open access to a renewable, invaluable food and revenue resource. However, since the mid 1900s, advancing fishing technology, globalization, and the rapidly growing global population have exploited fishing populations beyond ecological reproductive recovery. In turn, new exploitive fishing trends have disrupted entire marine communities and have lead to an annual increase in low productivity fishery areas (1). If this exploitation continues, there will be dire consequences for the oceans and its inhabitants around the planet. Despite the long-term negative implications of overfishing, each fishing vessel has an incentive to maximize todays catch to reap maximum economic benefits now. In this economic phenomenon known as tragedy of the commons, individuals remove a resource fully with knowledge that any non-extracted resource may be extracted by competitors (2). In recent years, the rapidly increasing fish demand (fueled by growing human population and per capita consumption) and supplying capacity (fueled by advancing technology and access to global markets) have pushed fishing vessels to exploit fish populations beyond recovery. As a result of these intensive fishing methods, global fishing catch has declined since it peaked in the 1990s. (1). To prevent further exploitation and protect global fishing ecological communities, the international community has developed fishing policies which include individual fishing quotas (IFQ) (limiting total catch), fishing seasons (limiting fishing time), technological limitations (limiting fishing ability), and marine protected areas (MPA) (limiting fishing space). By limiting various fishing aspects, the many challenges of regulationthe vast fishing area, the dynamic

fish migration patterns, and complex marine ecosystemscan be addressed to create an increasingly effective globally sustainable marine fishery system. This paper will first discuss the many ecological impacts that marine fishing patterns have on marine communities. After detailing the ecological impacts of marine fishing, the second section will uncover the complex economic forces driving marine fishing trends. In the third section, one set of solutions to overfishing, policies that restrict individual fishing patterns such as IFQ, fishing seasons, and technological limitations, will be discussed. Finally, the fourth section will discuss the details and effectiveness of a policy form known as marine protected areas (MPA), a policy which restricts entire areas to a specified level of fishing conducive to long-term sustainable yields.

References (1) Barange et al. (2011) Predicting the Impacts and Socio-Economic Consequences of Climate Change on Global Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries World Fisheries: A SocialEcological Analysis (eds R. E. Ommer, R. I. Perry, K. Cochrane and P. Cury). WileyBlackwell: Oxford, UK. (2) Harris, Jonathan. Environmental and Natural Resource Economics: A Contemporary Approach. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 2006. Print.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF COMMERCIAL FISHING By Steve Gerlach The biggest and most common problem associated with commercial fishing is overfishing. According to a study conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organization, over 70 percent of the world's fisheries are either fully exploited, over exploited or significantly depleted (1). As time goes on, the situation has only been getting worse due to both increasing technologies to harvest fish and an increasing demand for more/different types of fish. According to an article published in Nature Magazine, if current trends continue, the world will run out of wild caught seafood by 2048 (5). Overfishing is a global problem, and can be best defined as depleting our oceans fish populations beyond the point of sustainable yield, which can cause numerous environmental issues such as trophic cascades, chemical imbalances, and even species extinction. The first area of concern with overfishing is the extreme fluctuations it can cause in the populations of individual species. Fish can be drastically overexploited in an area, and sometimes it can even threaten entire species populations. The science behind it can best be explained as a population bottleneck phenomenon: overfishing will essentially reduce the gene pool to a significantly smaller size, meaning there will be less genetic variability within the population. This could have catastrophic consequences for the future of the species because one or several of these genes may be needed to be positively selected at some point in time. If the genes arent available in the instance when needed, the only option for the species is to be weeded out of existence by natural selection. Fishing down the food web is the term used to describe the current practice for commercial fishing. It is referring to the idea that the over exploitation of large fish at certain trophic levels has resulted in their disappearance, so fisherman must revert to the next trophic
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level down in order to meet the consumers needs- thus the name Fishing down the food web(8). The problem with this is that a negative feedback scenario is created: as lower and lower trophic levels are targeted, the higher levels are greatly affected because their food source is being depleted. To demonstrate the severity of this tactic, studies have shown that 90% of big fish populations (tuna, marlin, cod, etc) have been depleted since 1950 (1). The next issue with overfishing is that entire trophic levels can be removed from communities, and this can result in what is best described by the concept of trophic cascades. Trophic cascades occur when a trophic level is removed from the food chain (such as a primary predator); as a result of the change in predator/ prey interactions, the other trophic levels will fluctuate drastically. Commercial fishing boats generally seek the largest fish, which are generally predators in some way, shape, or form. By exploiting these large fish populations, fishermen essentially remove a trophic level, resulting in detrimental effects on the aquatic ecosystem. Populations in an ecosystem are generally dynamic and balance by one another. By removing part of the ecosystem, the balance is disrupted and there are consequences, such as dramatic change in ecosystem structure and changes in the chemical/nutrient properties of the water (2). Even if a species of fish isnt completely exhausted, overfishing serves as a type of unnatural selection process, which negatively effects the phenotype expression within fish populations, which results in less desirable traits to be expressed more frequently. For example, if commercial fisherman and constantly going after fish with a desirable trait (such as body size), this will leave only the smaller undesirable fish to reproduce, which will in turn create more undesirable fish. In fact, studies have shown that there has been an overall reduction in reductions in age and size at maturity in many commercially exploited fish (3). This reduction

results in an overall depletion of the species harvestable biomass as a whole (3). Also, drastically decreasing a fishs size can effect predator/ prey dynamics, turned the hunter into the hunted. This can have negative effects on the environment, such as trophic cascades and nutrient imbalances, which leads to a degradation of the ecosystems quality and structure (3). Overfishing is further strengthened by what is known as Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing (9). This type of fishing is dangerous for marine ecosystems because there is no regulation of how much/ what kinds of fish are taken, so the entire process will generally reduce the biodiversity of an area. IUU could have extremely negative side effects on fragile marine ecosystems that have already been damaged by overfishing because damaged or recovering fish populations may be entirely depleted by this illegal practice. Not only does IUU fishing eliminate the protection that conservation efforts attempt to establish on the ocean, but it damages the global economy, racking up an estimated loss of ten to 23.5 billion dollars per year. (9) In addition to targeted fish population exploitation, many noncommercial species such as dolphins, turtles and sharks are also caught in nets (10). These non-targeted species, known as by-catch are killed and discarded by fisherman because they serve no economic value to them. In fact, sometimes up to 80% of the catch is discarded (10). Therefore, not only are targeted populations adversely impacted by marine fishing patterns, but non-targeted fish communities are also greatly affected as well. Over 20 million tons of fish and other marine animals, equating to roughly one-fourth of the global catch, is killed and discarded annually, resulting in a major loss of biodiversity in the worlds oceans. (12) Loss in biodiversity significantly impacts aquatic ecosystems because every species, no matter how small or large, plays an important functional role. One well-known tool used to

measure an ecosystems health is its biodiversity, and, because overfishing can remove entire species from an ecosystem, overfishing often weakens marine system health. Studies indicate that recovery potential, stability, and water quality all decrease with a loss in diversity (11). It is important to understand that there is a delicate balance equilibrium within nature, created by organisms and their respective niche, and by disrupting the balance, the equilibrium will shift to new, un-favorable conditions for supporting life. Reducing the biodiversity of any ecosystem will jeopardize it and put it at risk of collapse. Aside from fish populations, humans would be greatly affected by a collapse of the oceans ecosystems. Fishing not only serves as a source of food for many, but also as a source of income. With fish currently being the most traded food market item, Destruction of wild fish populations would greatly alter the lives of many (4). Overfishing and exploitation of fish populations clearly negatively impacts the environment. Without policy implementation, the health and future of the worlds oceans may be depleted beyond recovery. Several solutions to deter overfishing include social measures: encouraging consumers to avoid certain fish at seafood markets and only eating sustainably certified catch. However, without stricter, enforceable policies such as individual fishing quotas (IFQ) and marine protected areasexplained in sections 3 and 4market demands and short term economic factorsdetailed in section 2will continue to motivate overfishing practices and further deplete the oceans ecological capacity.

References (1) "Big-Fish Stocks Fall 90 Percent Since 1950, Study Says." National Geographic. National Geographic Society. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. <http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/05/0515_030515_fishdecline.html>. (2) Carpenter, Stephen. "Trophic Cascade (ecology)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1669736/trophiccascade>. (3) "An Eco-evolutionary Perspective on Overfishing." Nicholas School WordPress Network. Duke University. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. http://sites.nicholas.duke.edu/ericpalkovacs/2011/10/14/an-ecoevolutionary-perspective-on-overfishing/ (4) "Fish Consumption Reaches All-time High." FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, for a World without Hunger. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. <http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/50260/icode/>. (5) Ledford, Heidi. "Sayonara, Sushi..." Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, 02 Nov. 2006. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. <http://www.nature.com/news/2006/061030/full/news061030-10.html>. (6) "Overfishing - Emptying Our Seas." Greenpeace UK. Greenpeace. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. <http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/oceans/problems/overfishing-emptying-our-seas>. (7) "Overfishing." See-The-Sea.org. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. <http://see-thesea.org/topics/commerce/overfishing.htm>. (8) "SeaWeb - Ocean Briefing Book." SeaWeb.org. Sea Web. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. <http://www.seaweb.org/resources/briefings/fishdownweb.php>. (9) "Welcome to Illegal-Fishing.info." Illegal-Fishing.info. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. <http://www.illegalfishing.info/>. (10) "Why Is Overfishing a Problem." Overfishing.org. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. <http://overfishing.org/pages/why_is_overfishing_a_problem.php>. (11) Worm, Boris, and Edward Barbiar. "Impacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosystem Services." Science Magazine. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. <http://www.sciencemag.org/content/314/5800/787.abstract>. (12) "Overfishing, Bycatch and Marine Habitat Loss - by the National Coalition for Marine Conservation." National Coalition for Marine Conservation. Web. 07 Apr. 2012. <http://www.savethefish.org/about_ocean_fisheries_overfishing.htm>

FACTORS INFLUENCING MARINE COMMERCIAL FISHING TRENDS By Lisa Boudeman As a common good, marine fisheries have two properties: rivalry (if anyone removes a fish from the global fisheries, no other person can consume that fish), and non-exclusiveness (no one can be excluded from fishing in international waters). In the fishing market, therefore, each participant has an individual incentive to catch and sell as many fish as possible todaywith little incentive to preserve fish for the futurebefore others capture this valuable resource (1). Prior to the mid 1900s, the marine fisheries reproductive capacity outpaced the demand and the technological harvesting abilities of the fishing industry. Here, relatively small-scale operations functioned within natural ecological systems to meet domestic demand (2). In recent years, however, population growth, international fads, globalization, and technological advancements have developed new fishing trends that often lead to overharvesting beyond ecologically sustainable levels. The rapid growth in human population and per capita fish consumption considerably contributes to recent fishing trends. In developing nations, for example, both the fish consumption rate per capita and the population doubled in the past 30 years. As a result of increased demand to the current consumption rate of 16 kg (about 35 lb) of fish per person per year, more fishing operations want to contribute to the global fishing harvestnow at approximately 90 million tons annually. To meet the demand today, fishing vessels capitalize on current fish populations and, as a result, deplete local marine fisheries. When an area becomes depleted, in turn, fishing operations move to another location, compounding the ecological stress on the newly extracted areas. As a result of this pattern, the low productivity areas in the ocean expand every year (2).

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In addition to increased fish demand, the market price and availability of specific species considerably influences marine fishing patterns. Here, fishing operations first target the highly demandedand highly valuedcomponents of the fishing community. In general, the large, slow-growing, late-reproducing fish at the highest trophic level (such as haddock and cod) are the most highly valued; due to their low and late fecundity (reproductive rates), these fish are highly susceptible to overexploitation and depletion. In addition to slow reproductive and growth rates, these species have low tolerance to warm, low-oxygen waters. Hence, the increase in 1.5o C in the upper 50 meters of ocean since 1970 compounds the stress felt by these populations, resulting in lower survival rates and migration to colder waters deeper and towards the poles. As the highly valued fish population decreases (in size, age, and number) and migrates to colder waters, the population of the lower trophic level (such as anchovy and mackerel) increases, leading to an increase in catch of these lower trophicand lower valued species. To compensate for lower market value, more of these fish must be caught to be profitable, resulting in exploitation of these species. As a result, the proportion of catch of small, fast growing, and lower trophic species has increased since the mid-1900s (3). In the future, warming waters will continue to compound fishing pressures on the global marine fisheries by altering viable fishing water locations and available species; predictions estimate increasing net primary production (and harvesting potential) near the poles, but lack of nutrient cycling and oxygen will decrease primary production (and harvest potential) around the equator and continental shelves (4). In addition to the overall increase demand for fish influencing fishing trends, rapid globalization and technological advancements drive current fishing patterns. Prior to globalized open-access markets, fisheries fished off of their own shores to fulfill domestic demand.

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However, with increased globalization and new international markets, fisheries fulfill the demand for the entire international market. For example, when the international demand (and price) for shrimp greatly increased in the 1970s, Kerala, India switched its harvesting pattern from a rotational fish and rice cycle (which traditionally satisfied domestic demands), to a monoculture shrimp industry (5). Locally, individuals exploited regional resources to maximize their own profit; here, land owners maximize their land value while wage-earners gained economic opportunities that greatly exceeded the monetary value of subsistence agriculture (3). With the monoculture, the harvesters inadvertently destroyed the native vegetation and tidal flushing patterns, resulting in salt accumulation, shrimp disease, and an eventual ecological collapse (5). Despite the long-term ecological and economic failures of this system, individuals exploit these resources to sustain their livelihood and, due to lack of the protection of a governmental safety net, to protect themselves against future uncertainty (6). In addition to localized adjustments to meet international demands, fishing fleets also seek new waters and use updated technology to maximize catch. For example, fishing vessels from developed nations exploit the resource rich waters surrounding less fiscally capable nations. The foreign nation, known as the distant water fishing (DWF) nation, pays the developing nation for access to fish in their waters (7). At the national level, the developing nation sees DWF as an opportunity to create foreign exchange, boost their economic development, and stimulate the export of high value products such as shrimp (5). While the short-term economic prosperity boosts the national income temporarily, DWF exploit resources excessively over the long run because the technological and equipment advancementssound navigation and ranging (SONAR), global positioning system (GPS), large engines with 480,000 horse power (compared

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to 44,000 in 1970), and broadcast trawler netsallow DWF nations to find and catch fish schools quickly and efficiently (8). Roving bandits, mobile fleets that travel around the world, also explore resource-rich waters in response to global market trends. The rapid movement and high-speed exploitation by these fleets gives local markets little time to respond before the fleets move-on to the next location. In response to increased sushi popularity in the 1980s, for example, roving bandit fleets exploited concentrated sea urchin areas throughout the world, depleting stocks, which resulted in peak sea-urchin catch in the mid-1990s. As open-access to international waters increases as seen with DWF and roving bandits, total stocks temporarily increase and competition increases, which drives prices of fish down and leads to further exploitation (5). Over the past fifty years, the global fishing industry has grown extensively in response to rapid increase in fish demand internationally. Rapid population growth, per capita fish consumption increases, and globalization drive exploitation of the marine fish supply. At the national level, globalization gives developing nations an opportunity to create foreign exchange, enhance economic development, and increase international exports. At the local level, fishing provides landowners and wage earners an opportunity to earn money to enhance their livelihood. Unfortunately, the driving forces behind current fishing trends focus on the short-term economic benefits, with little consideration of long-term economic and ecological implications. As total catches continue to decline, low productivity areas in the ocean increase, and global ocean warming limits species availability, new fishing and conservation methods will be needed to fulfill the increasing demand for fish by the growing human population.

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References (1) Harris, Jonathan. Environmental and Natural Resource Economics: A Contemporary Approach. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 2006. Print. (2) Barange et al. (2011) Predicting the Impacts and Socio-Economic Consequences of Climate Change on Global Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries World Fisheries: A SocialEcological Analysis (eds R. E. Ommer, R. I. Perry, K. Cochrane and P. Cury). WileyBlackwell: Oxford, UK. (3) Thbaud, O. and Blanchard, F. (2011) Fishing the Food Web. World Fisheries: A SocialEcological Analysis (eds R. E. Ommer, R. I. Perry, K. Cochrane and P. Cury). WileyBlackwell: Oxford, UK. (4) Pauly, Daniel, et al. "Large-Scale Redistribution Of Maximum Fisheries Catch Potential In The Global Ocean Under Climate Change." Global Change Biology 16.1 (2010): 24-35. GreenFILE. Web. 13 Mar. 2012. (5) Berkes, F. (2011) Restoring Unity. World Fisheries: A Social-Ecological Analysis (eds R. E. Ommer, R. I. Perry, K. Cochrane and P. Cury). Wiley-Blackwell: Oxford, UK. (6) Buchary, E et al. (2011) Unaccounted Values. World Fisheries: A Social-Ecological Analysis (eds R. E. Ommer, R. I. Perry, K. Cochrane and P. Cury). Wiley-Blackwell. Oxford, UK. (7) Miller, K. et al. (2011) Fleets, Sites, and Conservation Goals. World Fisheries: A SocialEcological Analysis (eds R. E. Ommer, R. I. Perry, K. Cochrane and P. Cury). WileyBlackwell. Oxford, UK. (8) Cheong, So-Min Depleting Fish Resources, Declining Fishing Communities, and the State Revitalization Project in Korea. Environmental Management (2003) 32:3: 382-390.

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PROTECTING GLOBAL MARINE FISHERIES: INDIVIDUAL FISHING QUOTAS, FISHING SEASONS, AND TECHNOLOGICAL RESTRICTIONS By Steve Eckert Massive overfishing is a growing concern throughout the world as valuable fish stocks and other marine life forms are currently being depleted at an alarming rate. According to the World Wildlife Foundation, the global fishing fleet is two to three times larger than what the oceans can support (1). As a result 53% of the worlds fisheries are fully exploited and 32% are overexploited, depleted, or recovering from depletion (1). In addition, up to 90% of the entire oceans large fish have been removed from the ocean, which leaves fish populations to the point where their survival is threatened (1). Estimates prove that unless changes are made to the current system stocks of all species currently fished for food are predicted to collapse by 2048 (1). This large, global scale overfishing is a result of a lack of policies to prevent access to fish communities. Simply, this is a global scale tragedy of the commons where fishermen are all trying to maximize their catch without concern for future generations welfare. This can be prevented through policies, which include individual fishing quotas, fishing seasons, fishing and technology limitations. Individual Fishing Quotas (IFQs) are a prevalent form of fishery management throughout the world. Currently, there are greater than 100 major fisheries managed under IFQs. IFQs work by setting a total allowable catch (TAC), usually in pounds, for a given fish species or entire fishery for a period of time. The TAC is regulated by government agencies and is subject to change based on estimated fish populations. A portion of the TAC is allocated toward individual fishermen who have three options: fish to the quota allowed, sell the quota for a lifetime, or lease the quota for a fishing season. Basically, IFQs privatize fisheries making it economically logical to allow fish stocks to remain strong since open access to the fishery is

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restricted. With knowledge that there will be fish again in the next season, the fishermen have an incentive to protect the stock for future seasons. One benefit often associated with IFQs is their ability to increase populations of individual fish and entire fisheries if used correctly. However, setting the correct IFQ can be challenging since it is very difficult to measure exact number of fish and the interaction relationships in IFQs for multispecies fisheries. According to James Sanchirico, an environmental science and policy professor at UC Davis, In designing multispecies IFQ programs, managers will need to find the right balance between risks of overexploitation, economic benefits of the fishery, preserving the social structure, and administrative costs (2). If done properly however, IFQs have shown some improvements to fish stocks. Nearly a third of open access fisheries have failed while IFQ fisheries are twice as likely to stay productive (3). On the Pacific Coast of Canada, the sablefish fishery previously had a 14-day fishing season (4). This resulted in poor economic revenue for the fishermen as well as severe overfishing of the sablefish during the season. To counter this, IFQs were put in place and over the course of a few months the fishing season increased to 12 months. These IFQs caused an increase in revenue for the fishermen as well as an increase in stock size of the sablefish fishery. In this example, the right IFQ was set at the beginning and the population recovered because of it. Although successful in some areas, IFQs can be damaging to migratory fish populations. In Sharing the Fish the authors argue that IFQs can be difficult to assess because some resources, such as migratory fish that range far from land and such resources may cross multiple jurisdictions. (5) Basically, fishes that migrate large distances from protected areas with IFQs to

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open waters with no regulations are subject to changes in stock size and thus inaccurate results. In some cases, quotas can be set to high or low based on the migratory fish communities. Another popular fishery control is Fishing Seasons. Fishing seasons are usually imposed during breeding periods of species in the belief that a higher yield of individuals will survive to the next season. The length of the season is species specific as larger populations have a longer season than smaller populations. In theory closed fishing seasons would imply an increase in population but that is not always the case. One of the most famous fisheries under seasonal fishing regulations is the Alaskan red king crab. The fishery dates back to the 1930s and saw massive increases in fishing efforts in the 1970s. By 1980, crab catch reached 130 million pounds, the largest catch in the fisheries history (6). This caused populations to drop to extremely low numbers in the next two decades and only after years of short fishing seasons the population responded and grew again. The population currently remains relatively stable because of a short season from November 1st to mid January and can support a large amount of fishing (7). However there are many problems associated with fishing seasons. One issue is the economic problems associated with short seasons. A short season between a week and a month causes large stocks of fish to be removed from the oceans in a short time. This causes an increase in the supply of fish on the market, which in turn drives the price down. Another problem with fishing seasons is technological advancements. As fishing seasons decreased in length, fishermen averted this problem by investing in larger boats, more advanced nets and better fish finding equipment. In addition, shorter fishing seasons crowded fisheries with boats as every boat tried to maximize catch in the shortened amount of time. In scenarios like this, fish stocks are allowed to grow during the closed season but as soon as the season

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opens the increased effort and technology in fishing knocks the population back down to a dangerously low level. In addition, short seasons result in a danger to the fishermen. In an effort to maximize catch, fishermen will fish in all conditions, which increases the risk of injury or death while fishing. One way to solve the issues that arise from technological improvements is to ban certain practices. Certain technologies such as encircling nets, which are used to surround schools of fish and remove large populations from the ocean, are used commonly and can devastate large populations. However, as local fisheries realize the dangers that these technologies can cause action has been taken to preserve marine fisheries. For example, the state of Hawaii banned many types of fishing nets in order to prevent overfishing. According to the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources, there are restrictions currently on thrownets; gill, draw, and drag nets; and many different types of traps (8). These restrictions are designed to allow certain fish species to pass through nets as well as reduce the capture of small fish that are not yet mature and ready for catch. Although technology limitations could be useful, these policies run into similar difficulties as fishing seasons with increased effort. If technologies are limited, fishermen will simply increase their efforts and time fishing resulting in similar catches because the ocean is a global commons. In conclusion, there is no one solution to the global depletion of fish stocks. The problem of open access in addition to fish migrating throughout the ocean presents a difficult situation to solve. In addition, there is such a vast number of fish species throughout the world and trying to regulate all fisheries under one individual policy is not possible. In some cases fishing seasons resulted in a population increase, like the Southeastern Bering Sea and the Alaskan king crab.

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However IFQs worked best in the North Pacific in the sablefish fishery. This issue of global fish stock decline will continue to evolve but a solution must be made soon. Species-specific policies must be put in places that combine IFQs, fishing seasons, and technology limitations to strengthen the stock of the worlds fisheries before they are fished beyond repair.

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References (1) World Wildlife Foundation. "Unsustainable Fishing." Wwf.panda.org. 2010. Web. 21 Feb. 2012. <http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/problems_fishing/>. (2) Sanchirico, James N., Daniel Holland, Kathryn Quigley, and Mark Fina. "Catch-Quota Balancing in Multispecies Individual Fishing Quotas." Nov. 2005. (3) "A Rising Tide Scientists Find Proof That Privatising Fishing Stocks Can Avert a Disaster." The Economist (Sept. 2008). Print. (4) Leal, Donald R., Michael D. Alessi, and Pamela Baker. Building a Coalition for IFQs: Governing U.S. Fisheries With IFQs. Boezamn Monatana, 2006. Print. (5) Committee to Review Individual Fishing Quotas. Sharing the Fish: Toward a National Policy on Individual Fishing Quotas. Washington, D.C.: National Academy, 1999. Print. (6) "FishWatch." NOAA. Web. 04 Apr. 2012. <http://www.fishwatch.gov/seafood_profiles/species/crab/species_pages/red_king_crab.htm>. (7) Alaska Department of Fish and Game. "Commercial Fishing Seasons in Alaska." Web. <http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/static/fishing/pdfs/commercial/fishingseasons_cf.pdf>. (8) "Hawaii Division Aquatic Resources." Gear Restrictions. 2009. Web. 04 Apr. 2012. <http://hawaii.gov/dlnr/dar/regulated_gear.html>.

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PROTECTING GLOBAL MARINE FISHERIES: MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPA) By Lauren Diebel Legislative action is often an effective method for controlling the fishing industry; however, alternative solutions can be incorporated for this situation as well. Organizations such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the National Marine Protected Areas Center, and various state environmental agencies have the power to conserve fishing resources. One effective solution to the negative, ecological impacts from commercial fishing is through the designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPA) throughout the world by these organizations and agencies. IUCN defines an MPA as any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment (1). The IUCN further classifies marine protected areas as a type 1a Strict Nature Reserve. Category 1a reserves are strictly protected no-take areas set aside to protect biodiversity where human visitation, use, and impacts are strictly controlled and limited to ensure protection of valuable ecosystems (2). Under this classification, the National System for Marine Protected Areas in the United States identifies four types of Marine Protected Areas. The first is a Marine Reserve where fishing is strictly prohibited. Marine Conservation Areas and Marine Recreational Management Areas are two types that are similar in their management goals since they both limit commercial and recreational fishing with strict regulation. Lastly, a Marine Park prohibits commercial fishing but permits recreational fishing (3). It is important to identify amongst the different types of MPAs because each carries a very different ecosystem management objective. This is influential in the commercial fishing industry, and how scientists and researchers around

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the world improve population numbers and biodiversity. Preserving marine biodiversity is critical to the sustainable management of coastal and marine resources. Genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity are key aspects to identifying global fisheries health and sustainability (4). When habitats are saved from the degradation of human impacts, fish populations, in addition to other marine species, thrive on the opportunity of these protected environments. Marine Protected Areas are influential in protecting key spawning and nursery areas, maintaining age structure, and defending natural habitat (5). In addition to promoting high species richness, MPAs are also beneficial by creating spillover effects. Similar to many population studies and ecosystem management analyses, modeling how fish populations will react to their environment contains many variables and is quite dynamic. A safe assumption to make, however, is that an increase in the abundance of fish within a protected area will result in the mobility of a greater amount of fish into and out of the area (6). These spillover effects are what many commercial fisheries rely on to reach quotas. The driving market demand for fish keeps fishermen pressing to maximize their catch. Ecosystem managers find this particularly challenging as replenishing fish stocks is increasingly harder to accomplish. Although marine reserves are placed in degraded commercial fish population sites globally, the reserves take time for fish abundance to accrue (7). As a result, ecosystems are still managing to improve the ecological conditions and develop a sustaining spillover effect. Once a spillover effect has been established, an overall improvement to both the commercial fishing industry as well as improving ecological balance is achieved. In 2008, a group of researchers studied the decrease in the leopard grouper population in Loreto Bay National Park and Carmen Island from overexploitation. Leopard groupers are brightly colored fish, roughly one meter in length, heavily sought after by commercial fishermen.

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Every year, adult leopard groupers congregate to spawn in particular reefs around Carmen Island, and are easily targeted by fishers during this time (8). This issue has become serious enough to classify this fish on the World Conservation Unions list as vulnerable. To improve the number of fish in the area, researchers studied the effectiveness of designating a marine protected area and the economic benefits. The study collected ecological data on the leopard grouper by gathering fish abundance data at various depths. Population viability analyses were then calculated and analyzed for juveniles and adults at Carmen Island for a two-habitat model (8). This analysis could be used to determine potential fluctuations in fish populations over time. This study implemented reserve simulations to calculate possible impacts on leopard grouper populations. To better understand the commercial fishing economic impacts, researchers took into consideration factors such as the average weight of a leopard grouper, the price per weight, and the average dollar amount of fish caught during a typical fishing trip (8). They also took fishing expenses into consideration. When the ecological data and projects were completed, an assessment incorporated the fish abundance data into the economic data. The results of this study can be beneficial in modeling future ecological and economic impacts of no-take reserves on commercial fishing. This study showed that commercial fishing needs to be prohibited in all leopard grouper spawning areas as well as 50% of the adjacent areas. For fishermen, benefits would only occur with a minimized no-take area (8). One of the biggest challenges to this issue is that marine species benefit immensely from the designation of marine protected areas; however, commercial fishermen need smaller no-take reserves in order to maximize the area they can fish. Although new, no-take areas are often perceived to

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negatively impact commercial fishers, the long-term effects can improve the commercial fishing industry. The commercial fishing industry can reap the benefits from marine protected areas throughout the world, too. No-take zones near Georges Bank, located between Cape Cod, Massachusetts and Nova Scotia, as well as other areas, are seeing increases in the biomass of a number of commercially important fish species as well as sharp population increases in haddock and yellowtail flounder (9). Also, a recent study from the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary found, that after only five years, fished species were significantly larger and more abundant (10). It has been scientifically shown that commercial fishing has a large impact on global fisheries, but the implementation of no-take reserves and various Marine Protected Areas are helping to offset the damage. Given time, Marine Protected Areas can benefit both marine ecosystems as well as the commercial fishing industry.

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References (1) Kelleher, G. 1999. Guidelines for Marine Protected Areas. IUCN Best Practice Protected Areas Guidelines Series 3. Page xvii. (2) 2009. Category 1a Strict Nature Reserve. IUCN. http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/pa/pa_products/wcpa_categories/pa_catego ry1a/ (3) 2011. MPA Classification. National Marine Protected Areas Center. http://www.mpa.gov/aboutmpas/classification/ (4) Kenchington, Richard, Ward, Trevor, and Hegerl, Eddie. 2003. The Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. IUCN World Parks Congress. http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mpa/publications/wpc-benefits-technical.html (5) Auster, Peter and Shackell, Nancy. 2002. Marine Protected Areas for the Temperate and Boreal Northwest Atlantic: The Potential for Sustainable Fisheries and Conservation of Biodiversity. Northeastern Naturalist. 7(4): 419-434. (6) Garrison, T.M. 2012. Research Results from National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration Update Knowledge of Fisheries Research. Ecology, Environment & Conservation. http://find.galegroup.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/ (7) Halpern, Benjamin, Lester, Sarah, and Kellner, Julie. 2010. Spillover from marine reserves and the replenishment of fished stocks. Environmental Conservation. 36(4): 268-276. (8) Wielgus, Jeffrey, Sala, Enric, and Gerber, Leah. 2008. Assessing the ecological and economic benefits of a no-take marine reserve. Ecological Economics. 67(1): 32-40. http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/science/article/pii/S0921800908 002073 (9) Fogarty, Michael and Murawski, Steven. 2005. Do Marine Protected Areas Really Work?. Oceanus: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=3782 (10) University of California - Santa Barbara (2010, February 21). Marine reserves in the spotlight: Meeting both conservation and fisheries goals. ScienceDaily. Retrieved April 4, 2012, from http://www.sciencedaily.com /releases/2010/02/100221200904.htm

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CONCLUSION Clearly, commercial fishing and the increasing occurrence of over-exploitation creates and exacerbatesmany environmental problems. Overfishing impacts range from the extinction of single species to the destruction of entire ecosystems, and as aforementioned, overfishing may become a significant threat to our ocean as a whole if preventative and proactive action is not taken. The driver behind the issue is none other than humanity itself. With rising demands in seafood as well as the ever-advancing technology that fuels a fierce competition between commercial vessels, it should be no surprise that fish stocks are being depleted on a global scale. Despite current regulations and potential solutions to the issue (such as quotas, protected areas, and limiting the use of certain technologies), the risk is still present for a lifeless ocean in the future. Like many environmental problems, this one boils down to the issue of what is more important- the environment or the economy? According to Dan Fiorinos book The New Environmental Regulation, there is not a single correct answer. Rather, there is a middle ground that must be reached: both the environment and the economy can exist together. With cooperation, the fishing industry would be able to continue to thrive and fish stocks could be restored to a stable state, ensuring the future of our oceans and economy. Although correct steps are being taken in the direction of saving this vast aquatic ecosystem, it is still unfortunately heading for an untimely demise (1). By establishing more marine protected areas and other regulations, the worlds oceans can be assured it will be embodied with life both now and for many, many years down the road.

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References (1) Fiorino, Daniel J. The New Environmental Regulation. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2006.

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