6. Theorem of Ceva, Menelaus and Van Aubel.

Theorem 1 (Menelaus). If A1 , B1 , C1 are points on the sides BC, CA and AB of a triangle ABC, then the points are collinear if and only if |A1 B| |B1 C| |C1 A| . . = 1. |A1 C| |B1 A| |C1 B| Proof Assume points are collinear.

First drop perpendiculars AA , BB and CC from the vertices A, B, C to the line A1 B1 C1 . Then since AA , BB and CC are perpendicular to A1 B1 , they are parallel (Figure 1). Thus we get the following equalities of ratios |A1 B| |BB | = , |A1 C| |CC | and |B1 C| |CC | = |B1 A| |AA | |C1 A| |AA | = . |C1 B| |BB |

Figure 1:

Multiplying these we get the required result. Conversely, suppose |A1 B| |B1 C| |C1 A| . . = 1. |A1 C| |B1 A| |C1 B|

Now suppose lines BC and B1 C1 meet at the point A . Then |A B| |B1 C| |C1 A| . . = 1. |A C| |B1 A| |C1 B| |A1 B| |A B| Thus = , |A1 C| |A C| 1

and so we conclude that the point A on the line BC coincides with the point A1 . Thus the points A1 , B1 and C1 are collinear. Denition 1 A line segment joining a vertex of a triangle to any given point on the opposite side is called a Cevian. Theorem 2 (Ceva) Three Cevians AA1 , BB1 and CC1 of a triangle ABC (Figure 2) are concurrent if and only if |BA1 | |CB1 | |AC1 | . . = 1. |A1 C| |B1 A| |C1 B| Proof First assume that the Cevians are concurrent at the point M. Consider the triangle AA1 C and apply Menelaus theorem. Since the points B1 , M and B are collinear, |B1 C| |M A| |BA1 | . . =1 |B1 A| |M A1 | |BC| . . . (a)

Now consider the triangle AA1 B. The points C1 , M, C are collinear so |C1 A| |CB| |M A1 | . . =1 . . . (b) |C1 B| |CA1 | |M A| Multiply both sides of equations (a) and (b) to get required result.

Figure 2:

Conversely, suppose the two Cevians AA1 and BB1 meet at P and that the Cevian from the vertex C through P meets side AB at C . Then we have |BA1 | |CB1 | |AC | . . = 1. |A1 C| |B1 A| |C B| By hypothesis, |BA1 | |CB1 | |AC1 | . . = 1. |A1 C| |B1 A| |C1 B| |AC1 | |AC | Thus = , |C1 B| |C B| and so the two points C1 and C on the line segment AB must coincide. The required result follows. 2

Theorem 3 (van Aubel) If A1 , B1 , C1 are interior points of the sides BC, CA and AB of a triangle ABC and the corresponding Cevians AA1 , BB1 and CC1 are concurrent at a point M (Figure 3), then |M A| |C1 A| |B1 A| = + . |M A1 | |C1 B| |B1 C| Proof Again, as in the proof of Cevas theorem, we apply Menelaus theorem to the triangles AA1 C and AA1 B. In the case of AA1 C, we have |B1 C| |M A| |BA1 | . . = 1, |B1 A| |M A1 | |BC| and so |B1 A| |M A| |BA1 | = . |B1 C| |M A1 | |BC| For the triangle AA1 B, we have |C1 A| |CB| |M A1 | . . = 1, |C1 B| |CA1 |M A| and so |C1 A| |M A| |CA1 | = . |C1 B| |M A1 | |BC| Adding (c) and (d) we get |B1 A| |C1 A| |M A| + = {|BA1 | + |A1 C|} |B1 C| |C1 B| |M A1 ||BC| as required. Examples 1. Medians AA1 , BB1 and CC1 intersect at the centroid G and then |GA| = 2, |GA1 | since 1= |A1 B| |B1 C| |C1 A| = = . |A1 C| |B1 A| |C1 B| 3 = |M A| , |M A1 | . . . (d) . . . (c) Figure 3:

2. The angle bisectors in a triangle are concurrent at the incentre I of the triangle. Furthermore, if A3 , B3 and C3 are the points on the sides BC, CA and AB where the bisectors intersect these sides (Figure 4), then |A3 B| c |B3 C| a |C3 A| b = , = and = . |A3 C| b |B3 A| c |C3 B| a |C3 A| |B3 A| |IA| = + Then |IA3 | |C3 B| |B3 C| b c b+c = + = . a a a

Figure 4: 3. Let AA2 , BB2 and CC2 be the altitudes of a triangle ABC. They are concurrent at H, the orthocentre of ABC (Figure 5.) We have |A2 B| |AA2 | cot(B) = |A2 C| |AA2 | cot(C) = and similarly tan(A) |B2 C| = , |B2 A| tan(C) tan(B) |C2 A| = . |C2 B| tan(C) 4 tan(C) tan(B)

Figure 5: Multiplying the 3 ratios, we get concurrency of the altitudes. Furthermore, |HA| |HA2 | = = = = Lemma 1 that |C2 A| |B2 A| + |C2 B| |B2 C| tan(A) = tan(B) tan(A) + tan(C) tan(A)

tan(B) + tan(C)

sin(B + C). cos(A) cos(B) cos(C) sin(A) sin(180 A) cos(A) cos(B) cos(C) sin(A) = cos(A) cos(B) cos(C) .

Let ABC be a triangle and A1 a point on the side BC so |A1 B| = |A1 C|

Let X and Y be points on the sides AB and AC respectively and let M be the point of intersection of the line segments XY and AA1 (Figure 6). Then ( |XB| |Y C| |A1 M | ) + ( ) = ( + )( ). |XA| |Y A| |M A|

Proof First suppose that XY is parallel to the side BC. Then |XB| |Y C| |M A1 | = = , |XA| |Y A| |M A| 5

Figure 7:

Figure 6: and so result is true for any and . Now suppose the lines XY and BC intersect at a point Z. Consider the triangle AA1 B (Figure 7). Since M, X and Z are collinear, |Y C| |M A| |ZA1 | . . = 1. |Y A| |M A1 | |ZC| Then = = = |XB| |Y C| ) + ( ) |XA| |Y A| |M A1 ||ZB| |M A1 ||ZC| ( ) + ( ) |M A||ZA1 | |M A||ZA1 | |M A1 | {|ZB| + |ZC|} |M A||ZA1 | (

|M A1 | {|ZA1 | |BA1 | + |ZA1 | + |A1 C|} |M A||ZA1 | |M A1 | .|ZA1 |, = ( + ) |M A||ZA1 | |BA1 | since = , |A1 C| |M A1 | = ( + ) , as required. |M A| 6

Theorem 4 Let ABC be a triangle with three cevians AA1 , BB1 and CC1 intersecting at a point M (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Furthermore suppose |A1 B| |B1 C| |C1 A| = , = and = . |A1 C| |B1 A| |C1 B| If X and Y are points on the sides AB and AC then the point M belongs to the line segment XY if and only if ( Proof |XB| |Y C| ) + ( ) = . |XA| |Y A| |C1 A| |B1 A| + |C1 B| |B1 C| + = + = . = |A1 M | |M A| ) = , = ( + )( + = ( + )

By van Aubels theorem: |AM | |A1 M |

Now suppose M belongs to the line segment XY. Then by the previous lemma ( |XB| |Y C| ) + ( ) |XA| |Y A|

as required.

For converse, suppose XY and AA1 intersect in point M . We will show that M coincides M. By the lemma, 7

|XB| |Y C| |A1 M | ) + ( ) = ( + )( ). |XA| |Y A| |M A| |XB| |Y C| ) + ( ) = . |XA| |Y A|

By hypothesis, we have ( Thus

|A1 M | = , |AM | + and so M and M coincide. Thus M must lie on the line segment XY. Corollary 1 If G is the centroid of the triangle ABC and so = = = 1, then G belongs to the line segment XY if and only if |XB| |Y C| + = 1. |XA| |Y A| Corollary 2 If I is the incentre of the triangle ABC then the values of , and are given in terms of the sidelengths of the triangle as = a, = b and = c. Thus I belongs to XY if and only if b( |XB| |Y C| ) + c( ) = a. |XA| |Y A|

Corollary 3 If H is the orthocentre of the triangle ABC then the ratios on the sides are given by = tan(A), = tan(B) and = tan(C.) Then we get that H belongs to the line segment XY if and only if (tan(B))( |XB| |Y C| ) + (tan(C))( ) = tan(A). |XA| |Y A|

We also get the following result which was a question on the 2006 Irish Invervarsity Mathematics Competition. Theorem 5 Let ABC is a triangle and let X and Y be points on the sides AB and AC respectively such that the line segment XY bisects the area of ABC and the points X and Y bisects the perimeter (Figure 9). Then the incentre I belongs to the line segment XY . 8

Proof Then x+y =

Let x = |AX| and y = |AY |.

a+b+c 2

. . . (a)

where a, b and c are lengths of sides. Furthermore, 1 area(AXY ) xy sin(A) = = , 2 area(ABC) bc sin(A) so xy = bc 2 . . . (b). Figure 9:

Consider

|XB| |Y C| ) + c( ) |XA| |Y A| by cx ) + c( ) = b( x y 1 1 = b( + ) b c x y a+b+c 2 = bc( . )bc 2 bc = a. b(

Thus by Corollary 2, incentre I belongs to the line XY. Theorem 6 Let ABC be an equilateral triangle and X, Y and Z points on the sides BC, CA and AB respectively (Figure 10). Then the minimum value of |ZX|2 + |XY |2 + |Y Z|2 is attained when X, Y, Z are the midpoints of the sides.

Figure 10: Proof Consider 1 {|ZX|2 + |XY |2 + |Y Z|2 } 3

We have

1 {|ZX|2 + |XY |2 + |Y Z|2 } 3 |ZX| + |XY | + |Y Z| 2 ( ), 2 by Cauchy Schwarz inequality, |A1 B1 | + |B1 C1 | + |C1 A1 | 2 ), ( 3

where A1 B1 C1 is the orthic triangle of ABC. (This result was proved in chapter 5 on orthic triangles.) If l is the common value of the sides of ABC then the orthic triangle A1 B1 C1 l is also equilateral and sidelengths are . Thus 2 ( |A1 B1 | + |B1 C1 | + |C1 A1 | 2 ) = |A1 B1 |2 3 |A1 B1 |2 + |B1 C1 |2 + |C1 A1 |2 = . 3

The required result follows.

10