AP US HISTORY REVIEW

AP US HISTORY REVIEW
1. Kathryn Kaltenmark 2. James Smith/William Hicks 3. Ed Koesters 4. Michael Scott 5. Matthew Almazan/Kayla Morgan 6. Sohom Manna 7. Karissa Jhangiani 8. Danielle Borgerding 9. Ethan Bailey 10. Peter Lindsley 11. Sarah Ahles 12. Sayan Manna 13. Claire Watts 14. Tiger Cheng 15. Scott Gscheidle 16. Vinaya Gogineni 17. Marina Hoggan 18. Katie Clark 19. Cami Jones 20. Tony Bailey 21. Jack Oswald 22. Lazette Carter 23. Sahana Venkatesh 24. Mahentikaa Gunasekera 25. Spencer Lewis 26. Anmol Nigam 27. Becca Heading 28. David Gaisford

Kathryn Kaltenmark

1. Pre-Columbian Societies
Early inhabitants of the Americas
Early inhabitants of the Americas came by crossing over the Bering Strait (in what is now Alaska) close to 14,000 years before the first Europeans arrived. These Native Americans were nomadic peoples and spread across the continent to follow food sources and had tools such as spears and other new stone tools for hunting.

American Indian empires in Mesoamerica, the Southwest, and the Mississippi Valley
Early American Indian empires in Mesoamerica included the Incas, Mayans, and Aztecs. The Mayans: located on the Yucatan Peninsula and had a sophisticated culture with written language, numerical system (close to that of Arabic and superior to Roman), an accurate calendar, and an advanced agricultural system The Incas: located in Peru Created a powerful empire of an estimated 6 million people Developed a complex political system Large network of paved roads welding together the population and connecting many tribes under single rule The Aztecs: ruled much of central and southern Mexico Built elaborate administrative, educational, and medical systems Criticized by Europeans for harsh religious sacrifices

American Indian cultures of North America at the time of the European contact
Agricultural revolution- farming techniques designed to exploit the land quickly, cleared lands with forest fires, planted pumpkins, corn, beans, squash Growing more sedentary, resulting in population increase Many gods worshipped: sun, moon, forest, rivers, game Women take care of children, preparing meals, and sometimes farming Lineage traced back matrilineal New sources of food, clothing, and shelter

James Smith & William Hicks

2. Transatlantic Encounters and Colonial Beginnings

First European Contacts with American Indians
Spain had one of the first contact with native Americans in early 16th century Cortes led a small military expedition of 600 men into Mexico to search for the great treasures he had heard about He met resistance from Montezuma and the Aztec Indians The first Spanish assault on Tenochtitlan failed but a smallpox epidemic decimated the Indian population, making it possible for the Spanish to conquer the Aztecs The Conquistadores exterminated the Native Americans and established a vast Spanish empire in the New World The Pueblo Revolt in 1680 nearly destroyed a Spanish missionary colony after the Spanish tried to convert the Indians The Spanish exploited the Pueblos and tried to get them to stop their religious rituals. In response the Indian religious leader named Pope led an uprising that killed hundreds of European settlers Despite disease and war, the majority of the Spanish Empire consisted of natives which means that the Spanish imposed a small ruling class upon a larger existing population-instead of creating a self-contained European society in the New World as the English did later

Spains Empire in North America The Spanish empire in the sixteenth century was one of the largest in the history
of the world The Spanish Fort St. Augustine, Florida was the first permanent European settlement in the present day U.S Most of the Spanish leaders in America attempted to control the native population by military force which was unsuccessful They began to stop commandeering Indian labor and tactfully tolerated the tribal religious practices The Spanish were far more successful in extracting surface wealth (gold) than the later English colonies The government established restrictive regulations to protect against piratesrequiring all trade with the colonies to go through a single Spanish port and only a few colonial ports. This system severely stifled economic development The first permanent French settlement in America was at Quebec in 1608 The population grew slowly and French Protestants were excluded from the colony They forged a close, direct relationship with the Native Americans through missionaries and Coureurs De Bois

French Colonization of Canada

The fur trade helped open up the way for other elements of the French presence in North America such as the agricultural estates and the development of trade and military centers in Quebec and Montreal

English Settlement of New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the South

The first new English settlers were Separatist Puritans Even though they came to America seeking religious freedom they did not grant it to others They couldnt grow cash crops because the soil was too rocky The first Mid-Atlantic settlers were Dutch and settled near the Hudson River Quakers also settled in Pennsylvania Mid-Atlantic colonies had better relationships with Native Americans The soil was also more fertile and cash crops could be grown The Southern colonies were started by the English at Jamestown in 1607 John Rolfe promoted the growth of tobacco as a quick way to make money First used indentured servants to meet the labor demand but eventually turned to slaves Sugar was the main, and very labor intensive crop, in the Chesapeake region The Native American population was now too small to use Used indentured servants from England, but the hard work discouraged white laborers (hard to adapt to harsh climate) Turned to slave labor By mid-century there was a huge gap between the large number of slaves and few slave owners Main religions in America were Catholic, Puritans, Quakers, Baptists, and later the Lutherans Depended on Colony for religion, there was no widespread accepted religion New England colonies were generally Puritans (strict, escaped persecution to persecute others) Middle Colonies was a mixed bag of Quakers, Catholics and Lutherans Southern colonies was mainly Baptists and Anglicans

From servitude to slavery in the Chesapeake region

Religious diversity in the American colonies

Resistance to colonial authority: Bacon's Rebellion, the Glorious Revolution, and the Pueblo Revolt
Nathanial Bacon, who represented the Backcountry, led Bacon's Rebellion. Bacon led unauthorized raids against the Indians. (BR) was the largest and most powerful insurrection against established authority until the Revolution Glorious Revolution was when James II fled England to France because a small army led by William and Mary (Mary being one of his daughters) arrived in England to take the throne. (GR) led to the Bostonians overthrowing of the viceroy in New England (Andos)

Most natives practice their own religious rituals, so when the Spanish (in 1680) tried to suppress the rituals the Pueblos revolted under the leadership of Pope Killed hundreds of European settlers, captured Sant Fe, and drove the Spanish temporality out of what is now New Mexico.

Ed Koesters

3. Colonial North America

Population growth and immigration
The non-native population in America grew through immigration and natural population increase The reproduction rate in New England rose during the second half of the seventeenth century due to increased longevity caused by the cool climate and the absence of large cities that normally spread diseases. Three-Fourths of the immigrants in the Chesapeake were indentured servants, who worked as servants in exchange for free passage to the colonies from England. As indentured servants became a less attractive option, more planters started using slaves from Africa. African Chieftains would sell By 1800 11 million Africans had been sent to the new world French Huguenots fled France and travelled to the British colonies Germans, who were displaced by war in Europe, fled to Pennsylvania due to the similar beliefs of the Quakers, and soon became known as the Pennsylvania Dutch. The Scotch-Irish immigrated to South Carolina after facing hardships in Northern Ireland. The south depended heavily on cash crops like tobacco, rice, and indigo The colonies relied on manufactured goods to come from England in exchange for the colonists raw materials The transatlantic trade created a strong shipbuilding economy in New England and led to a growth of northern cities like New York or Boston These cities housed a growing merchant class which flourished under British protection from foreign competition while trading with colonies of other countries. The growth in trade led to a rise in consumerism since many colonists wanted to show off their wealth by buying the fancy things that were becoming available The back country consisted of small farmers who were overshadowed by the aristocrats in the east Conflict with Native Americans was common, due to the close proximity of the settlers with the natives.

Transatlantic trade and the growth of seaports

The eighteenth-century back country

Growth of plantation economies and slave societies

Plantations grew from small plots of land worked by indentured servants into large estates that rivaled those of England and were worked by numerous slaves Tobacco, rice, and indigo were the main cash crops that were produced by plantations African slaves became more popular for plantation owners because of their resistance to many diseases, and they were better suited for the hard labor that the crops called for Slave culture formed as a mixture of native African culture and the culture of their master Slaves formed their own religion, which mixed Christianity with a mixture of African religions, along with their language that combined English with African languages. The slaves culture helped to preserve an African identity

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening

The Enlightenment was a period where thinkers promoted the challenging of traditional beliefs and the use of reason and rationality to make decisions

The Enlightenment caused an increase in the challenging of established religions, who claimed that all humans needed to know would come from god. The Great Awakening was caused by concerns about the growing secularism in society. Evangelists like George Whitefield and John Edwards spread their faith throughout the colonies with powerful speeches that drew large crowds. John Edwards challenged the puritan ideas of predestination and salvation by Gods grace alone and terrified audiences with his fire and brimstone speeches about hell Existing churches split between the old lights who followed tradition, and the new lights who followed the ideas of the enlightenment. Colonial governments were run by governors that were chosen by the King. The colonies also had representative assemblies that they used to govern themselves In order to regulate colonial trade, King Charles II passed the navigation acts, which restricted the colonies to trade with England Because of the large distance between the colonies and England, the British government followed a policy of not being very involved in colonial affairs.

Colonial governments and imperial policy in British North America

Michael Scott

4. The American Revolutionary Era, 1754-1789

The French and Indian War
Fort Necessity was the start of the French and Indian War. In 1754 the governor of Virginia sent a militia force led by George Washington, into the Ohio Valley to challenge French expansion. Washington built a crude stockade close to a French outpost where they were surrounded and Washington soon surrendered. The Iroquois Confederacy and other Indian tribes of the area either played the English and French off each other, or fought alongside the French. This led to a major decline in strength in the aftermath of the war due to losing its only ally against the ever growing English colonists. Beginning in 1757, William Pitt, English secretary of State began to transform the war effort in America by bringing it for the first time fully under British Control. Pitt himself began planning military strategy for the North American conflict, appointing military commanders, and issuing orders to the colonists. He created policies of enlistment and impressment and turned the tide of the war for the British. The Siege of Quebec marked the beginning of the end of the American phase of the War. This fort had been known as impregnable atop a towering cliff but was attacked by General James Wolf in the cover of darkness which led to their defeat and the death of both major generals on either side. The Peace of Paris was signed in 1763. The French ceded to Great Britain some of their West Indian islands and most of their colonies in India. They also transferred Canada and all other French territory east of the Mississippi, except New Orleans.

The Imperial Crisis and Resistance to Britain

The Boston Massacre occurred on March 5, 1770, when Captain Thomas Preston had a British regiment line up outside the front of his building to protect it. The crowd outside began throwing snowballs and rocks until one of the soldiers were knocked down and firing began. This led to the death of 5 people, one being a mulatto by the name of Crispus Attucks. The Townshend Program was a series of acts passed by Charles Townsend. The first challenge was the Mutiny Act which required colonists to provide quarters and supplies for troops in America. He also disbanded the New York Assembly and forced both Internal and External taxes on the colonists. The Tea Acts became an issue due to the widespread support for no taxation without representation. This led to many boycotts and even the Boston Tea Party which was a attack on the East India Companies by local Boston Patriots who sieged a couple tea ships at night dressed like Native Americans. The Sons of Liberty were groups of men who would terrorize stamp agents and burn the stamps. This caused many stamp agents to resign or refuse to collect taxes. They were radicals who were responsible for causing violence and creating propaganda to make the British Government seem corrupt and evil.

The Coercive Acts, also known as the Intolerable Acts, were the last straw of punishments that the American colonists were willing to put up with. It made Massachusetts a martyr to residents of other colonies and sparked new resistance up and won the coast. This led to many boycotts and the First Continental Congress.

The War for Independence

Lexington and Concord was the famous location known for the shot heard round the world, otherwise known as the beginning of the American Revolution. It was a battle between General Thomas Gage and the british regulars against the local minutemen who used guerilla warfare tactics. Declaration of Independence was approved of on July 4, 1776 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Written by Thomas Jefferson, it expressed a list of wrongdoing by the King and talked about the connection between Great Britain and the colonies to be totally dissolved. General George Washington was our first president, but originally head of the American Revolution Army. Due to his tactical genius, and perserverance, he was able to take his small militia of troops and overcome obstacles to win the war. York was the location in which Cornwallis was cornered and forced to surrender. He was unable to flee due to the French navy, and the American militia standing completely surrounding him. This was the last official battle of the American Revolution. Saratoga was a major turning point in the American Revolution. The victory in Saratoga led directly to French intervention, which in turn leads to America winning the war.

State Constitutions and the Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation had many weaknesses, but its most significant weakness was its inability to tax its citizens. This led to its eventually dissolution and being replaced by the Constitution which was stronger and more balanced. The Articles of Confederations biggest strength was the Northwest Ordinance which was the method in which we accept territories to become states. This method was transferred from the Articles to the Constitution due to its effectiveness. The first state constitutions were from Connecticut and Rhode Island, that were mainly based on a republic. The constitutions written after the Revolution were forced to be less vague than Englands had been due to the belief that it led to corruption The agreement nationwide was that the states should have republican governments. They believed that the King was far too corrupt and that one unelected ruler was far too powerful. The event the triggered an end to the Articles of Confederation was Shays Rebellion. Shays rebellion showed the politicians and citizens that the Articles were too weak to protect them from problems such as rebellions.

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The Federal Constitution

The federalists were a group who were in support of ratifying the constitution. They were important for spreading propaganda and winning over public support for a stronger government. The anti-federalists were a group who were against the ratification of the constitution because they felt it was too strong and would become corrupt. They were mainly responsible for the creation of the Bill of Rights. The federalist papers were a series of articles printed in the newspaper and written by Hamilton, Madison, and John Jay to help sway the public opinion. This was the most effective reason that caused the ratification of the Constitution. The great compromise was created by Henry Clay who merged the Virginia plan and the Connecticut Plan together to form a House of Representatives and a Senate. The house of Representatives was based on population and the Senate has equal representation for each state. The separation of Powers plays a key part in the Constitution. It makes sure no one branch has too much power and they keep each other in line through a system of checks and balances.

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Matthew Almazan & Kayla Morgan

5. The Early Republic (1789-1815)

The First U.S National Government
George Washington supported a strong federal government, quietly egging on his Federalists supporters Alexander Hamilton was Washingtons Secretary of the Treasury o envisioned a government run by an enlightened ruling class Hamiltons Agenda o Create a federal bank o Draw the support of the wealthy and powerful o Assume and pay off state debts by: Taxing whiskey distillers Tariff on imports Hamilton eventually won passage by winning over Virginians o He promised to move the nations capital to their Potomac River In the end, Hamilton was able to restore public credit, protect domestic manufacturing from foreign competition, and give the merchants a national bank

Federalists VS. Republicans

Federalists: led by Hamilton o Strong federal government o Drew support from New England city areas o More genial to the British (Jays Treaty-a commercial relation. With Brits) (Democratic-)Republicans: created by J. Madison and T. Jefferson o Limited fed. Gov. with power invested in states o Drew support from agrarian areas in the south and west o Applauded the French (favored American support to the revolutionaries) Near the end of the 1790s, Federalist power began to dwindle in the face of the Republicans o Became divided under the Presidency of fellow Federalist John Adams o Would never again win an election after 1796 In his farewell address, Washington warned of the dangers of a country divided along partisan lines as well as the risks of foreign relations During the Quasi War with France, the Federalist crossed the delicate line of preserving stability and protecting liberties o Federalists passed the Alien Sedition Acts to silence any Republican opposition to Federalists war effort Alien Act- placed new requirements for naturalization Sedition Act- allowed gov. to jail those who published anything bad about the gov. o Republicans attempted to arouse sentiments against the policies by backing the states right to nullify with the Virginian Kentucky Resolutions it never did work as they ran out of support o Although they failed, the Republicans succeeded in bringing the matter to the national stage It triggered outrage and embitterment towards the Federalists

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The result: Revolution of 1800Federalist lost support and the Republicans elevated to power with T. Jeff. at helm o However, the Federalist still had the Judiciary Adams midnight appointments of Federalist judges Judiciary Act of 1801 (it reduced the number of judges to give the Federalist judges a majority)

Womens Education and Republican Motherhood

Beginning in the 1770s, there was a push for the education of women in order to allow them to raise their children free of ignorance 1789, Massachusetts requires public schools to serve women as well as men 1784, Judith Sargent Murray advocates that women have the same professional education as men and opportunities to earn their own living Still, many believed that the objective of women was to be a caretaker of the household and that education serve to make them better housewives and mothers

Second Great Awakening

Catalyzed by the efforts of conservatives in the 1790s to fight rationalism and revitalize the church Aspects of the Great Awakening: o Formation of new religious sects and denominations o Spread evangelism into every area of the nation o Equal participation of men and women Spread to blacks and Indians in the form of open camp revivals Most famous revivals meeting: Cane Ridge in Kentucky where over 25,000 attended over a period of several days Basic message: the individual must bring God back into their daily life

Significance of Jeffersons Presidency

Tried to easy party tensions between the Republicans and Federalists o Pleased the Federalists by maintaining the National Bank and Hamiltons debt-repayment plan. Limited the central government o Reduced the size of the military o Cut many federal jobs o Repealed the excise taxes o Lowered the national debt Accepted the Louisiana Purchase o The land acquired from the Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States o Officially extended the western frontier of the U.S. past the Mississippi River Attempted to keep the U.S. neutral in the Napoleonic Wars o Chesapeake-Leopard Affair- The British ship Leopard fired on the American ship Chesapeake, killing 3 Americans and impressing 4 into the British NavyJefferson used diplomacy and economic pressure to resolve this issue without going to war

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o Embargo Act- Ultimately a failure, Jefferson attempted to use the Embargo Act as an alternative to war by prohibiting U.S. ships from sailing to any foreign port in hopes that it would pressure Britain to accept U.S. neutral rights of the sea

Expansion of Trans-Appalachian West; American Indian Resistance

Americans began to move west for several reasons: o The population continued to rapidly grow due to immigration and natural increase which led to overcrowding and the search for more farm lands o The west became more attractive to settlers due to less opposition from Native Americans in the area Native American Resistance o Native American resistance was weakened by a series of treaties they signed with the U.S. government in 1815 giving up much of their land claims in the west o The Factor System made Native Americans easier to control in the west by making them dependent on goods supplied to them by the U.S. government at cost

Growth of Slavery and Free Black Communities

Planters began to settle further Southwest (Alabama and Mississippi) in search of more fertile soil for cotton as areas in the uplands of the Old South became unfertile. As planters began to move further south, they expanded slavery as more slaves were now needed to work their large plantations

The War of 1812 and its consequences

Fought between the U.S. and Britain due to Britains continued violation of U.S. neutral rights of the sea and their support of Native American resistance in the west Fighting mainly included a U.S. invasion of Canada and a series of naval battles on the Great Lakes Treaty of Ghent ended the war in 1814 leading to: o End of all fighting o Return of all conquered territory to prewar status o Recognition of prewar boundary between U.S. and Canada Consequences of war: o Stimulated the growth of manufacturing o Led to creation of second Bank of the United States to stabilize the national currency o Protective tariff was passed in 1816 to limit foreign competition o Led to improvements in transportation National Road was constructed Steamboats were invented making transportation on rivers easier and more efficient o Surge of westward expansion

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Sohom Manna

6. Transformation of the Economy and Society in Antebellum America

The transportation revolution and creation of a national market economy The larger rivers such as the Mississippi and the Ohio had been important in
transportation.

It was during this time (1820s) that steamboats grew in number and improved in design. It maid traveling upstream much easier. Canals were also prevalent during this time. Canal building were economically advantageous. Canals did not provide a satisfactory route for many. Thus, the age of railroad was beginning. Railroad emerged from a combination of technological and entrepreneurial innovations such as steam engines and tracks. Railroads soon started to expand even though there was not a true railroad system. Railroads and canals soon began to compete bitterly. In the mid-1850s railroad construction burst and the amount of trackage tripled. Many short lines consolidated into long ones forming a cohesive network. The railroad explosion united the nation and allowed transportation of material goods to become much faster.

Beginnings of Industrialization and changes in social and class structures By mid-19th century U.S. had developed beginnings of modern capitalist economy and an
advanced industrial capacity.

American business grew rapidly in the 1820s and 1830s. Retail distribution and growing population allowed distribution to become systematic and efficient. Modern corporation emerged during this time as it was becoming much easier to secure corporate charters. This time period showed the rise of the factory. Industry experienced a massive boom as the total value of manufactured goods rose from $48 million in 1840 to $2 billion in 1860. The industrial revolution while making parts of the U.S. dramatically wealthier also increased the disparity between rich and poor. The inequality between rich and poor rose to unprecedented levels during this time. In Boston, 4 percent of citizens owned more than 65 percent of wealth. In Philadelphia 1 percent of population possessed more than half the wealth and in the nation overall, 5 percent of families possessed over 50 percent of wealth.

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The rich got richer, the poor got poorer. Genuinely destitute people began to emerge and growing industrial urban areas. Among the worst victims of urban poverty were free blacks who had access to very menial jobs and were treated very unequally. Social mobility was quite limited and relatively modest. A few workers managed to go from rags to riches. Even though this number was VERY small, it encouraged the rest of the labor population. Also during this time was the rapid expansion of the American middle class, due to the growth of the industrial economy and the increasing commercial life accompanying it. Classes of societies were now making growing distinctions with one another as middle class homes began to differentiate themselves. Family structure changed and economic role of the family declined as farm owners had farmhands and workers to do all the work instead of children and wives.

Birth rates fell. Immigration and nativist reaction Immigration surged during this time. In 1840, an estimated 84,000 immigrants entered
the U.S. In 1850, 2.5 million immigrants entered.

Surging influx of immigrants caused surging urbanization. Although immigrants came from many countries, the overwhelming majority came from Germany and Ireland. In Germany, economic dislocations of industrial revolutions caused poverty and the collapse of a liberal revolution caused many Germans to flee to America. In Ireland, the oppressiveness of English rule along with the devastating Irish potato famine of 1845-1849 caused over a million Irish to immigrate to U.S. Americans who feared the sudden influx of the foreign born populations caused the rise of nativism. They believed that they were native born Americans and showed hostility to the foreign born. Desired to stop or slow immigration. Ironic, because all Nativists were themselves ancestors of immigrants. They were all prejudiced and racist to a degree and derided the immigrants poor living conditions. Out of tensions created by Nativists rose the Native American Party in 1845. Other group was the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner which endorsed a list of anti immigration demands. They eventually became known as the Know-Nothings. The Know-Nothings later turned their attention to party politics. In some areas like Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New York, they were extremely successful. In other places such as the West, their gains were modest. After 1854, their strength declined.

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Planters, yeoman farmers, and slaves in the cotton South. Planter aristocracy (cotton magnates, sugar, rice, and tobacco nabobs) exercised power
and influence far in excess of their numbers.

They determined the political, economic and social life on their regions. All other economic groups deferred to this powerful, exuberant aristocracy. The typical white southerner was not a great planter and slaveholder, but a simple yeoman farmer. They owned a few slaves, and worked with them, most owned none at all. Some devoted largely to subsistence farming; others practiced staple farming such as cotton growing. Upward social mobility of yeoman farmers was very limited and they knew they had little prospect. They had limited educational opportunities as education was mostly reserved for upper class. There was limited class conflict during these times. Slavery was an institution established and regulated in detail by Southern law. Many blacks lived in almost prisonlike conditions while others lived with some flexibility; there was much variety. Life under slavery was harsh. They slaves has high mortality rates, families were separated and female household servants were sexually abused. Slavery in the city was limited as many white southerners generally considered slavery to be incompatible with city life. Slave trade developed during this time, and there were slave auctions in central markets such as Natchez, New Orleans, Mobile, and Galveston. Slave trade separated families, one of its most horrific aspects. Foreign slave trade also grew during this time. During this time, slavery culture formed, and enabled blacks to sustain a sense of racial pride and unity. Black slaves developed Pidgin English. Musical patterns and slaves spiritual emerged in the slave class. Slave religion grew much during this time. They developed their own version of Christianity by infusing Christian and voodoo ideologies. Slave family began to develop during this time. Slave marriagesthough unrecognized by the governmentbecame common and lasted lifetimes. Kinship networks grew and a sense of family grew amongst all slaves. Slavery had a paternal naturesometimes harsh, sometimes kindly, but almost always important. Slaves were dependent on them for food, clothing and shelter.

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Karissa Jhangiani

7. The Transformation of Politics in Antebellum America

Emergence of the second party systen

The emergence of the new party was starting to pick up the pace around the late 1820s. It began in New York with the election of Jackson in 1828, which seemed to legitimatize the idea of the party of a popular democratic institution that would gain many supporters. Beginning in the 1830s, the two-party system finally began to see life as it operated at a national level. Both parties were aware that there were two legitimate parties operating at that time and accepted they had competition. Those opposing Jackson were the Whigs and those for Jackson were the Democrats.

Federal authority and its opponents: judicial federalism, the Bank War, tariff controversy and states rights debates

During this time period, the Marshall Court began to emerge, which gave the federal government more power than in previous years. The federal government now had more power than the states over the economy. Also allowed private institutions to flourish without government interference. The Bank War was a was between Jackson and the bank when he was unwilling to lay power in the hands of the banks. Jackson was eventually victorious in ridding the United States of the banks by 1836, but the country lost its valuable financial institution and left with a broken banking system that would have a horrific effect on the US economy for years to come. Southerns believed that the tariffs of abominations was responsible for its floundering economy. So Calhoun developed the theory of nullification which gave states the right to pass a law unconstitutional if it believed it was unjust. In response to the nullification theory, a controversy over states rights began. Webster, a Whig, attacked Hayne and Calhoun for supporting the nullification theory, claiming it challenged the integrity of the Union. Calhoun responded by supporting the tariff, but Hayne was unwilling to budge from his opinion. Jackson believed the federal union must be preserved and Calhoun responded by saying liberty comes before the Union. After the opinions of Jackson and Calhoun had been expressed, there were sharp lines drawn between the two leaders on what they believed. Jacksons election marked the triumph and the democratic party. Number of people who were allowed to vote was increasing throughout the country. New ideas began to emerge throughout both parties, which contributed to the overall world of the democratic America. Jackson wanted to limit the tole of the federal goverment in economic affairs because he feared it would rest all power in the hands of the wealthy.

Jacksonian democracy and its successes and limitations

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He destroyed the bank of the United States, which ended up hurting the economy instead of helping it. He confronted one of the greatest controversies of American history- the nullification crisis which a strong support of the Union. All of his strong positions one him wide popularity. Jackson celebrated the common man more so than any other stand in politics Sought out for equality in politics and the economy for all white males. Overall an extremely successful president

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Danielle Borgerding

8. Religion, Reform, and Renaissance in Antebellum America

Evangelical Protestant Revivalism
The philosophy of reform arose partly from the Protestant revivalism. The movement began with the Second Great Awakening and by the 1820s became a powerful source for social reform. One of the most influential revival leaders of the 1820s was Charles Finney. He preached that each person held the ability to experience spiritual rebirth and achieve salvation. Finney had many successes in New York, especially in mobilizing women. Women found his message liberating and they also gave Finney an access to mobilizing their husbands. The temperance crusade first began during this time period. Many of the women that followed the protestant revivalism also found a need to prevent drunkenness. Alcohol caused crime, disorder, and poverty an many women were burdened by their husbands that often abused them and their family due to the effects of alcoholism. The movement did gain strength but divisions within the reform kept legislation from passing. Also during this time, there was one of the most outstanding reform movements for education. Horace Mann believed that in order to protect democracy, an educated electorate was essential and this began with the public school system. In Massachusetts, Mann reorganized the school system, extended the school year, doubled teachers salaries, enriched the curriculum, and introduced professional training for teachers. Even with his efforts, however, education continued to vary widely. Another powerful movement included the creation of asylums for criminals and the mentally ill. The old facilities crowded the debtors, criminals, and mentally ill all in one place. With the creation of penitentiaries and asylums, states began to recognize those that were mentally ill and attempted to help them. Dorothea Dix helped create this movement of providing more adequate treatment for the mentally ill. Reformers began to apply similar beliefs in their dealings with the Indians. Instead of relocation, some argued that reservation would be best because it would give the Indians a place where they would be protected from whites and allowed to develop to a point where assimilation might be possible. There was an important shift in the middle-class familys concept of the womans place. The womans role as mother became even more important and centralized. A high value was now placed on keeping a clean, comfortable, and well appointed home. Women began to create their own separate sphere; friendships among women became more intense and valued through their new social networks. Their own culture began to appear and so did a distinctive feminine literature.

Social Reforms

Ideals of Domesticity

Transcendentalism and Utopian Communities

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The transcendentalists embraced a theory of the individual that rested on a distinction between reason and understanding. Reason was the individuals innate capacity to grasp beauty and truth through giving full expression to the emotions. Understanding was the use of intellect in the artificial ways of society. Ralph Waldo Emerson was a popular transcendentalist that portrayed his beliefs in his poetry. Henry David Thoreau believed that individuals should work for self-realization by resisting pressures to conform to societys expectations. He is known for his civil disobedience which he argued as the proper response to government violating the morality of person. Utopian communities were an experiment of the time period that allowed individuals to create of new form of social organization, one that would permit every member of the community full opportunity for self-realization. All residents would share equally in labor and leisure. However, these communities failed. Literature began to take on a quest for liberation. The most popular novels explored the American frontiersmans experience with Indians, pioneers, violence, and the law. Others focused on the unleashing of human emotions and the search for the essence of the human spirit. Popular writers included James Fenimore Cooper, Walt Whitman, Herman Melville, and Edgar Allen Poe. The most popular American paintings set out to evoke the wonder of the nations landscape. Painters set out to portray some of the nations most wild and spectacular areas. The first great school for American painters was the Hudson River School where the painters recreated the rugged landscapes of the Hudson Valley.

American Renaissance: Literary and Artistic Expressions

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Ethan Bailey

9. Territorial Expansion and Manifest Destiny

Forced Removal of American Indians to the trans-Mississippi West
Native American opposition was one of the main deterrents of westward expansion. The War of 1812 helped to diminish opposition in the west, opening the way for white settlers to occupy more land in the west. After the War of 1812, the federal government resumed its policy of pushing remaining Indian tribes as far west as possible. It used a series of treaties to take land from the Indians. The government also set up defense forts to protect from an attack. The government established the Factor System, in which government agents sold supplies to Indian tribes. The factor system helped remove Canadian traders from the region, and gave the government more control over the Native Americans. The United States Supreme Court, headed by Chief Justice John Marshall, sided with the government in court cases involving Native American land rights. In the cases of Johnson v. McIntosh and Worcester v. Georgia , the court determined that while states and individuals could not buy or take land from Indians, the federal government could. Under the belief of Manifest Destiny, America continued its westward expansion, forcing the Native Americans past the Mississippi River and further. Between 1840 and 1860, hundreds of thousands of white and black Americans migrated west, to areas like Texas and Oregon. People from all across the east flocked to the west in search of new opportunities. Many men travelled to California in search of gold, and some religious groups such as the Mormons established communities in the west. Migrants consisted mostly of middle class families, until the gold rush, which attracted mainly men. While most left searching for economic opportunity and a new life, relatively few found it. Many ended up returning to the east or establishing farms. The journey was expensive and dangerous. Many people died from disease and other dangers along the way. Family tasks were divided by gender, with men driving and hunting while women cooked and cared for the children. The caravans moved at a very slow pace of about 15 miles a day, making the journey last on average 5-6 months. After the presidential election of James K. Polk, outgoing President John Tyler won congressional approval for the annexation of Texas in 1845. Texas became a state later that year. Expansionist President James Polk secured the acquisition of Oregon in a proposal to the British government. Because it was initially rejected, both sides saw the possibility of war and wanted to avoid it. In 1846, Oregon was acquired and its boundary fixed to the 49th parallel.

Western Migration and Cultural Interactions

Territorial Acquisitions

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After the U.S. defeated Mexico in the Mexican War, Mexico ceded California and New Mexico to the United States in the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. After the acquisition of Oregon and Texas, expansionists focused their interests on New Mexico and California. Texans claimed that their border was much farther west than the Mexican government claimed. Expansionists also wanted California, as it had developed prosperous trade and provided access to the ocean. President Polk was granted a declaration of war on Mexico after Mexican troops attacked American troops under General Zachary Taylor. Polk said War exists by the act of Mexico herself. The United States easily defeated Mexico, leading to the acquisition of California and New Mexico under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Polk was not satisfied, he and other imperialists demanded the annexation of All Mexico.

Early U.S. Imperialism: The Mexican War

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Peter Lindsley

10. Crisis of the Union

Pro and antislavery Arguments and Conflicts
Many in the North were against slavery on a moral level, but were not willing to take action. Southern slavers said that slavery helped culture slaves, and the economic problems from eliminating slavery scared them. The Missouri Compromise had drawn a line at the Southern border of Missouri, among other concessions. Debates over this raged with every new state admitted. The Wilmot Proviso attempted to outlaw slavery in the newly settled lands, but it did not pass Congress. Northern abolitionists refused to uphold the fugitive slave act, making Southern slave-owners whose slaves had run to the North furious The Ostend Manifesto was a document from Pierce's ambassadors which advocated an attack on Cuba. Northerners feared a new slave state, and the South feared a new free state, which also blocked Hawaii from becoming a state. Shortly after the Kansas-Nebraska Act, a marshal gathered a group of men and assaulted the men against slavery in high positions. In response to this, John Brown commits acts of violence against men who wanted slavery in Kansas. This leads to many random acts of violence across Kansas, and North and South both blamed the other for the violence. A staunch abolitionist, Charles Sumner, gave a speech where he made vicious sexual remarks against the South. In response, Preston Brooks attacked Sumner with his cane, beating him severely. This led to accusations of violence on both sides. The Free-Soil movement was a Republican movement against slavery that brought the Republicans together, and in response the South united. The Dred Scott case involved a slave suing for his freedom, and the court decided that Scott could not sue because he was not a citizen. This pleased Southerners, but made Northerners furious. John Brown staged a second attack on slave-owners, this time taking an arsenal in Harper's Ferry, Virginia. He stayed there for several days, before being captured by a militia headed by Robert E. Lee. He was hung, making the North very angry, and the fact he attacked made the South furious, and ready to secede. Henry Clay came up with a plan he believed would settle all arguments between North and South. His plan included admitting California as a free state, admitting land from Mexico as slave states, outlawing the slave trade in Washington D.C, and creating a new, stronger Fugitive Slave Act. This sparks a huge debate in Congress John C. Calhoun argued against Clay in that the South had as much of a claim to power as Northern politicians, so the South should get a veto to itself. He also said that the North needed to stop trying to prevent slavery, and obey the fugitive slave laws.

Compromise of 1850 and Popular Sovereignty

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After more debating younger men took over the arguing, with Stephen A. Douglas trying to provide a Compromise. He broke up the bill, and had Congress vote on each part separately. This got it passed, providing some relief to tensions between the North and South. Popular Sovereignty is introduced in the Kansas Nebraska Act, which gives the states the choice of whether or not to allow slavery by means of a vote. This fails, because people from other states come over to vote, defeating the purpose. Created a new state above the 36:30 parallel, and made it decide the issue of slavery with a vote. Was passed through Congress, but upset many. The Kansas-Nebraska Act divided almost every political party there was at the time, and most of them died. Two new parties were created, however. The AntiNebraska Democrats and the Anti-Nebraska Whigs joined together to create the Republican party, which soon became a major force against slavery. To dissuade people from voting for slavery, John Brown gathered a posse and killed people who argued for slavery. This angered Southerners, and made them fearful. Lincoln was an accomplished Illinois politician, and to gain national prominence he debated fellow politician Stephen A. Douglas. The debates made him nationally famous, and cemented his position against slavery. Before the election of 1860 the Democratic party split along sectional lines, forming the Southern and Northern Democrats, who nominated J.C. Breckinridge and Stephen A. Douglas, respectively. Ex-Whigs in Tennessee formed the Constitutional Union Party, which stayed away from the topic of slavery and focused on keeping the country together Lincoln took the vast majority of the electoral votes, and a good percentage of the popular vote. His election drove the South to secession, starting the Civil War.

Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Republican Party

Abraham Lincoln, Election of 1860, and Secession

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Sarah Ahles

11. Civil War

Two societies at war: mobilization, resources, and internal dissent
The idea of Southern Nationalism grew widespread throughout the south after the election of Abraham Lincoln. And men known as fire- eaters started to call for an end to the union of the North and South. South Carolina was the first to secede from the union as it had been a breeding area of southern patriotism. At a convention held on December 20th, 1960, the state withdrew from the union. Following South Carolina were Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. In February 1861 they formed the Confederate States of America. President Buchanan decided that the government had no authority to stop a state from leaving the union. As they seceded the states took hold of all the previous union owned forts with exception of Fort Sumter and Fort Pickens. President Buchanan refused to surrender Fort Sumter and sent an unarmed merchant ship to the fort, causing the first shots of the war to be fired. The Crittenden Compromise was created to allow for sentiments to clear between the states. It called from the permanent existence of slavery and re-establishment of the Missouri Compromise. Although the southern states were willing to accept the compromise, but the Republicans were not. The compromise offended the Republicans because it was against their moralistic belief that slavery should not be allowed to expand. When Lincoln was inaugurated he set down the ideals of the union: that the union could not be separated, that acts of violence to support secession were an act of revolt, and that the government could hold and access its property (referring to Fort Sumter). In order to keep his support of his previous statements, Lincoln decided not to evacuate Fort Sumter despite their desperate need of supplies. In order to not seem submissive to the Union, the Confederacy called for an evacuation of the Fort. Its commander, Anderson, refused and the Confederates under the command of P. G. T. Beauregard bombarded it for two days, April 12- 13, 1861. April 14th Anderson surrendered. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina seceded from the Union promptly after. The material advantages lay with the North in its high population, more railroad mileage, farms, wealth produced, and factories. The Souths advantages lay in the fact that most of the war was fought as a defensive war, and in that the South was committed to their cause. Congress passed the Homestead Act of 1862 (which permitted any citizen to claim 160 acres of land to purchase and for a small fee and buy after living on it 5 year) and the

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Morrill Land Grant Act (which gave land to state governments) to increase the prosperity of the Union economy. Congress created the Union Pacific Railroad Company (that built railroads westward from Omaha) and The National Banking Acts (created a new banking system). The Union government tried to support the war through levying taxes, issuing paper currency, and borrowing. Congress levied taxes on most goods and services, and created the first income tax. The biggest asset to the economy was the loans from the American people. Originally the Union army depended on volunteers, but after the excitement of the war declined, Congress had to call for a draft. But if a man hired someone to go in his place or paid a government fee of $300 he did not have to be enlisted. Drafts caused violent riots because of democratic opposition to the war. Many of the white rioters blamed blacks for the war and thought that freeing slaves would cause blacks to take their jobs for lower wages. The rioters lynched a number of African Americans, burned down homes and businesses, and even destroyed an orphanage. The high death rate of the war can largely be a cause of the new technologies. The most important of which is the repeating weapons which can fire more than once without reloading. Because of these new weapons the warfare change whereas opposing lines could not march towards one another but had to use cover and hills to gain an advantage. The railroad and the Telegraph grew important as they increased the speed of communication and supply trains. The first battles of the war consisted of Bull Run, in which the Union almost overcame the Confederacy, but suddenly panicked and ran. Next came Wilsons creek, where the Union overcame the South. In the West the Union was having significantly more victories. They were able to capture New Orleans, and eventually all of the Mississippi River cutting off large amounts of trade. The battle of Shiloh was also a Union victory after the Confederate forces took Union troops under Grant by surprise. Thinks to know primarily about the battles were that although the Union had more resources, the Confederacy was more motivated by their cause. In the slightly more important Virginia Front, the Union was having a more difficult time as opposed to the Western front where they succeeded in many small victories. 1863 turned out to be the year of decisions. Because of the Union victories at Vicksburg, Gettysburg, the Battle of Chattanooga, the Capture of Atlanta, and Shermans march to the sea. At the beginning of the war the ruling classes of both England and France were sympathetic to the Confederacy. They supported the South because of the cotton it produced, and that they admired the aristocratic social order of the South. While the South argued that their cotton production was important to their textile industry, many people in Brittans working class were anti- slavery. Brittan, France, and several other

Military strategies and foreign diplomacy

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nations proclaimed themselves neutral which infuriated the Union. During the course of the war, Brittan upset the United States by selling six ships to the confederacy.

Emancipation and the role of African Americans in the war

The republicans disagreed sharply on the issue of slavery. Some wanted to end slavery immediately after the war ended, while others thought that slowly ending slavery over a period of time would be better. In 1861, Congress passed the Confiscation Acts which said that any slave used to fight for the Confederate cause was freed. Later they passed a second law which claimed any slave owned by persons supporting the confederates was free. On September 22, 1862 Abraham Lincoln freed all slaves in the confederacy using an executive order in the Emancipation Proclamation. The Emancipation was important because it made clear that not only was the war being fought to preserve the Union, but also to end slavery. In 1865 congress passed the 13th amendment, forever abolishing slavery in the United States. Around 186,00o emancipated slaves working for or in the union forces. In the first few months of the war African Americans were no allowed to enlist, but a few black regiments eventually formed in Union occupied areas. Once slaves were emancipated, black enlistment increased dramatically. Most black soldiers were assigned menial tasks behind the lines of battle. The black mortality rate was higher than that of whites because so many African Americans died of disease or overwork. Black soldiers were paid less than white soldiers until mid- 1864. The war slowed growth of the industrial society in the North by cutting manufacturers off from their Southern markets, sources of raw material, and their labor supply. ON the whole, the war sped up economic development in the North because of the Republican dominance over the economy. The war had a devastating effect on the economy of the South. The war robbed the farms of the manufacturers in the North and overseas, while taking away the slave labor supply. The Souths railroad was destroyed, many plantations were burned or destroyed, and the union blockade cut off the south from much of its trade. All of the western states with exception of Texas remained loyal to the Union. There were Guerrilla Wars between pro and anti- slavery groups. Some Confederates (in what is now Oklahoma) tried to recruit civilized Indian tribes to their cause. Indians fought with both the Union and the Confederacy, but no tribes allied themselves with either side.

Social, political, and economic effects of war in the North, South, and West

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Sayan Manna

12. Reconstruction
Presidential and Radical Reconstruction
The terms by which the southern states rejoined the Union had important implications for both major political parties. Readmitting the South would reunite the Democrats and weaken the Republicans.. Even Republicans were split on the issues of Reconstruction. Conservatives: wanted the South to accept the abolition of slavery, proposed only a few other conditions for readmission. Radicals: (led by Thaddeus Stevens, Charles Sumner) were a lot more forceful. They urged that Confederate leaders should be punished, large numbers of the Southern white population should be disenfranchised (lose the ability to vote) legal rights of blacks be protected, and wealthy Southern landowners who assisted Confederacy should have their land federally confiscated and distributed among the freedmen. He believed that the federal government should be lenient and rapid in its admission of the South. President was willing to bypass questions and concerns over the future of the newly freed blacks in order to expedite reunification. Lincoln proposed a 10% plan in December 1863. It stated that if 10 percent of voters in a seceded state pledged loyalty to the government. Lincoln also hoped to extend suffrage to educated blacks, landowners, and servicemen in the Union army. Radical Republicans were appalled by the mildness of Lincolns judgment. Their first effort in Reconstruction was the Wade-Davis Bill, passed in July 1864. This authorized president to appoint a provisional government for each state. These states would only be readmitted when a MAJORITY of the white males of each state pledged allegiance. States had to additionally pledge never to borne arms against Union. They had to abolish slavery, disenfranchise leaders, and repudiate state war debts. Vetoed by Lincoln. Later, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth Presidential Reconstruction then fell under the hands of President Andrew Johnson, who was not suited to take such a task. He called his version of Reconstruction Restoration. His amnesty plan (swearing allegiance) was similar to Lincoln. In addition, any Southerner who owned 20,000 dollars worth of land would have to apply for individual pardons. Radicals were not satisfied. They refused to recognize Johnsons regimes as they had Lincolns. In December 1865, Congress reconvened. They refused to seat representatives of state readmitted by the Presidents. They created a new Joint Committee on Reconstruction to oversee Reconstruction policy. Congress first tried to pass an act lengthening the life of the Freedmens Bureau to counter the racist Southern Black Codes. Then, it passed the first Civil Rights Act in 1866. Johnson vetoed both bills, but was overridden by Congress.

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In April of 1866, Congress proposed the Fourteenth Amendment, which offered the first constitutional definition of citizenship: anyone who had been born on US soil and everyone who had become naturalized, regardless of race, religion, or creed. Also prohibited Confederate officials from holding any office unless they were pardoned by 2/3rds of the Congress. In 1886, Senate constituted 42 Republicans and 11 Democrats, and the House comprised 143 Republicans to 49 Democrats. Congress was now dominated by Radical Republicans and now they could enact their agenda. They passed a coherent, wide-reaching Reconstruction program. TN admitted for ratifying 14th amendment. 0ther 10 states divided into 5 military districts. Qualified voters defined as all adult blacks males and white males who had not participated in the rebellion. Voters elected conventions to prepare new state constitutions that had to ratify the 14t amendment. By 1869, states also had to pass 15th amendment which forbade states from denying suffrage due to race. Vetoed by Johnson, overruled by Congress. Radical Republicans prevented presidential interference by passing the Tenure of Office Act, which prohibited Pres. from removing officeholders without Senatorial consent (used to protect Edward M. Stanton, the Radical Secretary of War) and the the Command of Army Act which prohibited the President to issue military orders except thru general of army who also had to have Senatorial consent. Congressional Radicals also proposed several bills to weaken Supreme Court. Southern white Republicans were called scalawags. They were Republicans for various reasons. White men from the north also served as Southern Republican leaders. They were called carpetbaggers. Freedmen constituted the largest number of republicans. There was widespread Construction in the Reconstruction governments. Officeholders in many states gained money through graft and other activities. State debts soared as many governments became lavish and extravagant. Rapid economic expansions put strains on elected officials everywhere. The large financial expenditure of the states represented their need to provide the South with desperately needed services such as educations, infrastructure, relief, etc. There was corruption, but Reconstruction governments also worked to gain positive and permanent accomplishments. Black freedmen made up the majority of the Southern Republicans. Many created colored conventions sprang up. Blacks such as Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce became officeholders and black activity in governmental positions strengthened. Freedmens schools also sprang up and public education became more available to blacks. Segregation began developing however and any attempt at integration was abandoned as new Southern Democratic regimes came into power.

Southern state governments: aspirations, achievements, failures

Role of African Americans in politics, education, and the economy

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Black in the Freedmens Bureau attempted to make Congressional Reconstruction a vehicle for tenant reform. They had some successes but many failures. 25 percent of agricultural black laborers at this time worked for wages, the rest worked for white landowners owning and working on a plot of land and paying their crops or rent to landlords. Blacks earned 56 percent of income during Reconstruction. Their per capita rose 46 percent. Many blacks fell victim to the crop lien system in which they had to give merchant a claim on their crops as collateral for loans. Many merchants set high interest rates and eventually took much land from the blacks. The Compromise of 1877 refers to a purported informal, unwritten deal that settled the disputed 1876 U.S. Presidential election, regarded as the second "corrupt bargain", and ended Congressional ("Radical") Reconstruction. During a presidential deadlock between Samuel J. Tilden and Rutherford B. Hayes, Democratic leaders met with Republican leaders in secret to work out the terms by which Democrats would allow the election of Hayes. Republicans pledged that Hayes would withdraw the last of the federal troops and permit the overthrow of the last Republican government there. But many more concessions were made to the Southern Democrats in order for their cooperation. These included the appointment of at least one Southerner to the Hayes cabinet, control of federal patronage in their areas, generous internal improvements in the South, and federal aid for the Texas and Pacific railroad. Hayes won the election. While many viewed Reconstruction as a failure, it had many ideological and concrete legacies that remain to this day. South became industrialized as textile manufacturing grew ninefold. Tobacco processing, iron and steel industry burgeoned as well. Railroad development in the South more than doubled. Employment increased as urbanization began to occur in the south. Tenantry increased in the South as well. The crop-lien system form of sharecropping transformed the Southern backcountry. Subsistence farming was once the norm in these parts, but farmers now had to grow cash crops. Fence laws were also common in the backcountry. Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments passed during this time. They were both extremely significant in defining citizenship and franchising all races respectively. During this time a black middle class formed for the first time. They believed in progress and education for all blacks. Booker T. Washington was involved in this new movement to increase educational opportunities of blacks. Not all the legacies of Reconstruction were successes. It was during this time that Plessy v. Ferguson was passed (separate but equal).

Compromise of 1877

Impact of Reconstruction

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Literacy and other poll tests became common and their use rose during this time period. The infamous Jim Crows laws were passed. These restricted the franchising and segregated schools by a network of state statues. They greatly increased segregation and discrimination and stripped blacks of many gains they had made during Reconstruction. All in all, even though Reconstruction was viewed as a failure for many, it made modest gains. The main problem was that attempts to produce solutions ran up against conservative obstacles so deeply embedded in the nations life that they could not be dislodged. Many Americans venerated the Constitution and were afraid to infringe on state and individual rights and they respected private property and free enterprise. Both these factors prevented much federal intervention and any result on Southern economic privilege. Probably the most significant was the pervasive belief among the majority of whites (even liberals) that blacks were intrinsically inferior that whites. Given the context of the American ideology at the time, one should not be surprised that it did not do so little, but perhaps that it did even as much as it did. The gains made during Reconstruction (such as 14th and 15th amendments) would serves as a basis for the Second Reconstruction (The African American Civil Rights Movement).

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Claire Watts

13. The Origins of the New South

Reconfiguration of southern agriculture: sharecropping and crop-lien system
Growing minority of whites and most of the black population still did not own their own land during reconstruction. Some people had acquired land in the 1860s but by the 1990s had lost it. These people were forced to work for others in any way that they could such as working for wages (as many African American laborers did) or becoming tenants of white landowners. These tenants worked their own plots of land-the landlords were paid a fixed rate or a share of their crop production. System represented a refusal of the antebellum gang-labor system where slaves worked under the direction of a master. Sharecropping allowed African Americans some physical independence from the landlords and gave them the feel of working their own land although in most cases, none of them would ever be able to buy it. Sharecropping also benefited the landlords-this relieved them of the responsibility for the physical well-being of the workers. In some ways postwar years showed a great amount of economic progress for African Americans-received material benefits-the per capita income of southern blacks rose 46 percent between 1857 and 1879 while the per capita income of southern whites declined 35 percent. (significant redistribution of income) Black share of profits were increasing but the profits of southern agriculture were declining-result from dislocations of the war and a reduction in the world market for cotton. Blacks were earning a greater return on each hour of labor than they had in slavery but they worked fewer hours-about one-third fewer hours during reconstruction. Many blacks still lived and suffered in poverty. New system of credit emerged-crop lien system Allowed farmers to receive commodities such as food, supplies, seeds, etc. on credit or loans and pay the debt back once their crops were harvested and sold. The amount of credit received was based off the estimated value of the crop. Most local stores had no competition which allowed them to set interest rates as high as 50 or 60 percent. More often than not, farmers who suffered a few bad years in a row became trapped in a cycle of continuous debt with little hope of escaping it.

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Blacks who had acquired land during the early years of reconstruction gradually lost it as debt consumed them due to the system, as well as some while small landowners. Souther farmers became almost wholly dependent on cash crops (mostly cotton) southern agriculture became more one dimensional. Relentless planting of cotton exhausted the soil-system was ultimately leading to a general decline in the southern agricultural economy. Literature and art illustrated how different southerners felt the New South should be New South enthusiasts helped southern industry expand dramatically in the years after reconstruction-became an important part of the regions economy. Textile manufacturing grew Usually they shipped their cotton out of the region to manufacturers in the North or in Europe-now textile factories emerged in the South Many were drawn to the abundance of water power, the ready supply of cheap labor, the low taxes, and the conservative governments American Tobacco Company virtually had a monopoly over the processing of raw tobacco into marketable materials In lower South the iron industry grew rapidly By 1890, the Southern iron and steel industry represented nearly a fifth of the nations total capacity Railroad development increased substantially Railroads in the South more than doubled by 1880-1890 South wanted to integrate its transportation system with that of the rest of the country Changed the width of its trackage to correspond with the standard of the North South essentially only gained what it had lost during the war (southern share of national manufacturing doubled in the last 20 years-to 10% of the total) Regions per capita increased 21% By the end of the century, average income in the south was only 10% of that in the North (In 1860 it had been more than 60%) South was developing a colonial economy Growth of industry forced the South to recruit a substantial industrial work force for the first time High percentage of the factory workers were women Heavy casualties in the war led to large numbers of unmarried women who desperately needed employment Factories also hired families-many moved into towns from failed farms

Expansion of manufacturing and industrialization

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Long hours (up to 12 hours a day) and wages were far below the Northern equivalent Industrialists were drawn to the South because they could pay workers there as little as half what northern workers received Owners and managers at factories controlled mill towns-suppressed attempts at protest or union organization Company stores sold goods to workers at inflated prices and issued credit at incredibly high rates Some industries (textiles) offered essentially no opportunities for blacks Others (tobacco, iron, lumber, etc.) provided the most menial and lowest paid positions for blacks Convict-Lease system-southern states leased gangs of convicted criminals to private interests as a cheap labor supply-denied employment in railroad construction and other projects to the free labor force Jim Crow laws-laws restricting the franchise and segregating schools were only a part of a network of state statutes Blacks and Whites could not ride together in the same railroad cars, sit in the same waiting rooms, use the same wash rooms, eat in the same restaurants, or sit in the same theaters Blacks had no access to many public parties, beans and picnic areas-they couldnt be patients in many hospitals Ugaistructure essentially confirmed what had already been widespread social practice in the south Also stripped blacks of many of the modest social, economic, and political gains they had made in the late 19th century Laws served as a means for whites to retain control of social relations between the races in the newly growing cities and towns of the south (traditional patterns of deference and subjugation were more difficult to preserve than in the countryside) 1890s experienced an increase in white violence against blacks which served to inhibit black agitation for equal rights. Lynchings became common-in the 1890s there was an average of 187 lynchings each year (more than 80% of them in the south) Small white farmers began to demand complete black franchisement (because of racial prejudice and they objected to the black vote being used against them by the barbarous) Southern states had to evade the 15th amendment

The Politics of segregation: Jim Crow and disfranchisement

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Pal tax/some form of property qualification-few blacks could meet such requirements Literacy test-required voters to demonstrate an ability to read and to interpret the constitution-even those who could read had trouble passing the difficult test Tests were often unequal-literacy tests for whites were often easier Laws affected poor whites as well as blacks

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Tiger Cheng

Development of the West in the Late Nineteenth Century (18471906)

West originally dubbed Great American Desert unfit for civilization until decided as last frontier by farmers finding fertile land ranchers finding open grasslands for cattle/sheep miners rushing for gold 1848-49

Western Tribes and Hispanics

Population before the whites: Indians. 300,000 lived in Pacific coast before Spanish decimated them to 150,000 by the mid-19th century, some living with Spanish and Mexican settlers. Complex interactions between Pueblos of the Southwest (Indians) created a caste system in which Spanish/Mexicans on top owning large estates, then Pueblos, then other Indians such as Apache and Navajos were at the bottom known as genizaros Indians without tribes. Plains Indians most widespread Indian group. Warrior class, proud, aggressive. Tribes within dependent on buffalo. Most formidable foe to white settlers but suffered from the inability of the tribes to unite against the whites and eastern diseases. Taos Indian Rebellion occurred when General Stephen Kearney tried to establish a territorial govt that excluded the established Mexican ruling class. Widespread fear among Hispanics and Indians led to the rebellion. Us Army subdued the Indians and eventually broke the power of the Navajo, Apache, and other tribes that harassed New Mexico, something the Hispanic residents failed to do for 200 years. Defeat let to Hispanic migration and resistance towards white encroachment. Anglo-American presence in SW grew rapidly as railroads became established in the 1880-90s, With railroads came new ranching, farming, mining, and expansion of the economy. This resulted in a new wave of Mexican immigrants (~100,000) to come in, but subordinate to the whites from the very beginning (as opposed to the older generation of Mexican Americans). The new wave of Mexicans were usually restricted to the lowest paying and least stable jobs. Anglo American migration created new wealth opportunities for some Hispanics but ultimately destroyed Mexican American authority and forced many Hispanics into an impoverished working class. Chinese Americans were resented for industriousness and success. 12,000+ When gold depleted, Chinese found employment building the transcontinental railroad and constituted 90% of work force. Preferred for their lack of experience in labor organizations. 1866- 5,000 went on strike but failed. Transcontinental railroad completed in 1869 resulting in Chinese flocking to cities where they formed Chinatowns, largest being in San Francisco.

Chinese

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Tongs secret organizations that included violent criminal organizations involved in the opium trade and prostitution. Worked as common laborers, servants, unskilled factory hands. 2/3 Calis Laundromats were Chinese. Sex ratio very unbalanced, virtually all of the few Chinese women that came over were because they were sold into prostitution. Prostitution was only effectively combated when the sex ratio evened and the Chinese men were more likely to seek companionship. Anti-coolie clubs formed due to resentment of cheap Chinese labor. Sought boycotts against goods produced by Chinese labor. Violence caused Congress to put the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) that prevented existing Chinese to become naturalized citizens and made Chinese immigration illegal for the next 10 years (eventually made permanent in 1902.) Chinese in America were shocked by the actions and insisted that they were descendants of a great and enlightened civilization, but protests produced no significant effects. Postwar (Civil War) migration to the west scaled in millions and dwarfed earlier migrations. Most were from established Anglo American societies of Eastern US but a significant amount were foreign born European immigrates. Homestead Act of 1862 farmers buy plots of 160 acres for small fee if occupied for 5 years Intended to be a progressive measure to give relief to those that needed it, but was discovered to be insufficient to support a farm family. Govt extended Homestead with the Timber Culture Act (1878): +160 acres if they planted trees in 40, Desert Land Act (1877) and Timber and Stone Act(1878.) Fraud ran rampant in the administrations of the acts allowing companies to seize large amounts of govt land. Utah accepted as state when Congress was convinced that Mormon leaders abandoned the practice of polygamy.

Migration

Western Economy and Labor

West had the highest percentage of singles (10%) Social mobility was limited and differed little with Eastern counterparts. West working class - highly multiracial but upper tiers of management were almost always white and lower tiers nonwhites. Life Cycle of Mining Boom: news start stampede individual prospectors come to mine out the surface companies come in deplete deeper reserves ranchers and farmers moved in to form a more permanent economy collapse and desertion if the area sucked otherwise Comstock Lode notable for rich silver deposits William Clarks great Anaconda mine would remain to be important to Montana for decades as a producer of copper. Other resources mined included tin, quartz, and zinc.

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Gender imbalanced with male severely outnumbering females. Cattle industry was Mexican and Texan by ancestry. Cattle industry started using railroads to feed the booming beef market in the east. Competition between sheep herders, cattle ranchers, and farmers (from fencing and other conflicts) resulted in significant loss in life and extensive property damage. Mark Twain wrote books featuring the Far west: Roughing It (1872) Earlier frontier of the Mississippi valley: Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Rocky Mountain School painters that celebrated western romanticism. Frederic Remington most notable painter and sculptor of the west. Theodore Roosevelt romanticized the West as a place of physical regeneration (due to personal childhood experience) and published a 4 volume history The Winning of the West Frederick Jackson Turner The Significance of the Frontier in American History said end of the frontier marked the end of one of the most important democratizing forces in American life. The settlement of the West by white people the existence of an area of free land, its continuous recession, and the advance of American settlement westward was the central story of American history. It had continually renewed American ideas of democracy and individualism and had, therefore, shaped not just the west but the nation as a whole. Closing of the west left a psychological loss as the chance of starting anew was diminishing as fertile land and opportunities were already taken by others. Wild West Show first popularized by P.T. Barnum. Wild Bill Hickok became famous. Organizer of real Wild West shows William F. Cody aka Buffalo Bill. Annie Oakleys known for pistols, rifles, and horses in the shows. Tribes are regarded as independent nations and under the guardianship of the president. Whites often extracted illegitimate treaties with unauthorized representatives of the tribes 1850 US regarded a Concentration policy to arbitrate an area to group all Indians to live. Indian Peace Commission move al the Plain Indians into large reservations in Oklahoma and the Dakotas. Management went to highly incompetent and dishonest men within the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Indiscriminant slaughter of buffalo also destroyed the Indians way of life. Sand Creek Massacre - Arapaho and Cheyenne attacking stagecoaches to regain lost land. Local govt threatened retribution and army posts were supposed to be protection for friendly Indians. Black Kettles band of Indians camped near Fort Lyon on Sand Creek and was massacred by local militia force. 133 people, 105 women and children died. Black Kettle survived but was eliminated along with what was left of his people 4 years later by Col. George A. Custer. Red Cloud leader of western Sioux who attacked the construction of the Bozeman Trail (an intrusion into the heart of their buffalo range)

Cattle Kingdom

Western Romanticism

Indians

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Local violence eventually led to Indian Hunting as whites become committed to extermination, believing coexistence was not possible. Little Bighorn - Perhaps most famous Indian-white conflict. Sioux rose and left reservation under leaders Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull. They formed one of the largest Indian armies ever (2,500). Custer and his 264 troops were surprised, surrounded, and killed. Lack of political organization led to the breakdown of Sioux power and the Indians were sent back to the reservations defeated. The two leaders were then killed after being taunted/tricked into a last pathetic show of resistance. Chief Joseph - Leader of the relatively peaceful Nez Perc. Several young, drunk, and angry members killed 4 white settlers causing them to flee from retribution. It was long great chase in which Indians covered 1,321 miles in 75 days, but the army caught them right before they reached the Canadian border. Weary and discouraged, they surrendered in exchange for their return to their reservation on Idaho. The government refused to honor the promise and the Nez Perc were shipped around for several years, killing several as result of malnutrition and disease. Last Indians to maintain organized resistance Chiricahua Apaches Mangas Colorados leader killed after being tricked into surrender Conchise leader agreed to peace in exchange for reservation but died Geronimo succeeding leader unwilling to bow to white power and fought for a decade until he surrendered with his dwindled band of 30. Marked the end of formal warfare between white and Indians. Wovoka Prophet who lead a religious revival that emphasized a coming of a messiah. Visions among them include a reversal of white encroachment and restoration of the buffalo herds. Characterized by mass emotional Ghost Dance that confused whites into fearing that the Indians were becoming hostile. Wounded Knee Round up of starving Sioux that turned deadly when 40 white soldiers and 200 Indians including women and children died. Cause of conflict is unknown, but whites used machine guns to mow them down in the snow. Dawes Severalty Act (1887) Gradual elimination of tribal ownership of land and allotment of tracts to individual owners. Adult owners were given citizenship but could not claim full title to property for 25 years (to prevent selling them to land speculators.) Act of forced Indian assimilation.

Rise and Decline of Western Farmer Railroads crucial in the settlement of the west, especially the Transcontinental Railroad. Joseph H. Glidden & I. L. Ellwood Barbed Wire. Solved fencing problem. Great Plains experienced a temporary change in climate which caused a great surge of
white agricultural expansion, but devastated them when series of dry seasons began around 1887. Farmers that obtained easy credit during the good years were forced to abandon their farms as crop prices fell and production were becoming expensive. Marked a reverse migration. Cash farmers faced a volatile market due to international overproduction. Farmers Grievances

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 Railroads charging higher freight rates for farm goods than other goods. Railroads
controlled elevator and warehouse facilities in buying centers and charged arbitrary storage rates. Institutions controlling credit bank, loan companies, insurance corporations. Prices they receive and pay for. They believe it was middleman shenanigans and the East was conspiring to keep the farm goods low. Farmers are lonely being isolated. Many lacked Adequate education for children Proper medical facilities Recreational or cultural activities Anything to give them sense of community Many children went back to the cities.

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Scott Gscheidle

15. Industrial America in the Late Nineteenth Century

Corporate consolidation of industry
The idea of consolidating corporations who had previously been competing in the same industry was beginning to become popular during the tail end of the nineteenth century. The first large industry that began to consolidate their businesses was the railroad industry. They began to attempt to increase profits by forming pools, in which competing companies agreed secretly and informally to fix rates and share traffic. With competition eliminated, the railroads could stabilize rates and reduce debts, as well as creating a more efficient rail system. The success at the time of this system captured the imagination of local communities, states, and the federal government as they all began to invest in railroads. The downside to this plan, though, was that the customers and small investors felt as though they were victims of slick financial schemes and ruthless practices. These feelings escalated in the 1880s as the trusts came under widespread scrutiny and attack because the citizens feared their unchecked power and how it put so much influence in the hands of only a few people. This fear was even strong enough to move through Congress the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890 which prohibited any contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce. This law had minimal success against monopolies due to the fact that it was too vaguely worded to stop their development. The Supreme Court case of United States v. E. C. Knight Co. ruled that the Sherman Antitrust Act could be applied only to commerce, not to manufacturing.

Effects of technological development on the worker and workplace New technological developments of the late nineteenth century were vital to
the increased productivity in the workplace that the time period saw. A few examples of these advances were better forms of communication like the telephone, more efficient forms of transportation and the transformer that produced high-voltage alternating currents. The transformer was monumental in that it allowed for the operation of electrically powered machinery in factories and even the lighting of cities. These advances did have somewhat of a negative effect in that they began to make jobs much easier therefore making companies require less employees.

Labor and Unions The workplace for many Americans was radically changing during the late
nineteenth century. In most cases, these changes were not happening for the better with working conditions becoming unhealthy or dangerous. Another new development was that with the increase of the price of consumer products that went with the time period, the wages of most workers was not rising accordingly. These laborers were becoming increasingly agitated and began to form more and more unions that would negotiate with the employers on behalf of the workers. This led to the late 19th century witnessing the most

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violent labor conflicts in the nations history. So common were the reports of striking workers battling police and state militia that many feared the country was heading toward open class warfare between capital and labor. Most of the time, the employers had the power when it came to strikes for two main reasons. One was that they would be able to scare the employees back to work by threatening to replace them with some of the virtually unlimited supply of unemployed people who would work for very small pay. The other reason the employers had the upper hand was that they had the assistance of the federal and state governments. The governments almost always sided with the employers due to the fact that these companies had such a large influence on the politics at the time. A few of the most prominent labor organizations of the time were the National Labor Union, the Knights of Labor, and the American Federation of Labor. Some of the most important strikes of the timer were the Homestead strike and the Pullman strike.

National politics and influence of corporate power The nature of the American political system in the late nineteenth century
appears in many ways paradoxical. The two political parties enjoyed a strength and stability that they would never have again. And at the same time the federal government was doing relatively little of importance. In fact, most Americans in those years engaged in political activity not because of interest in particular political issues but because of broad regional, ethnic, or religious sentiments. The remarkable stability of both parties was thanks to the fact that the public was divided pretty much evenly between them. Most elections in the electorate came down to a few different states every time, and the result generally depended on voter turnout. Even though it appeared that the politics of the time were without flaw, it was really the exact opposite. Party bosses of the time had a huge effect on the power of the presidency. The presidents were very limited in various areas like making appointments to office because they did not want to upset the bosses within their own parties.

Migration and immigration: the changing face of the nation During the last half of the nineteenth century the population of the country
increased nearly three-fold, which was significantly fueled by the arrival of some 16.2 million immigrants. These immigrants were in large part coming from areas in Southern and Eastern Europe that America hadnt seen much immigration from before, mainly Italy and Russia. These immigrants were giving the country a new feeling of diversity compared to anything that it had had before. For many citizens though these new immigrants were a big problem. Not only was there a rise in the discrimination by race, but many Americans were angered because the people coming over were taking their jobs from them. The new immigrants, especially the Italians, were coming over without a penny to their name and would work for anything that they possibly could. This made them an easy source of employment to use for a company that was cheaper than before and was especially helpful when a company might have issues with strikes and fights with unions. These feelings were beginning to be expressed in laws like the Chinese Exclusion Act of

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1882 which placed a ban on all new immigrants from China. Even though these early attempts were widely supported, they by no means stopped the flow of newcomers.

Proponents and opponents of the new order, e.g., Social Darwinism, and the Gospel of Wealth Social Darwinism was the application of Charles Darwins laws of evolution
and natural selection among species to human society. Just as only the fittest survived in the process of evolution, only the fittest individuals would survive and flourish in the economic marketplace. Supporters of Social Darwinism like Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner said things such as the concentration of wealth in the hands of the fit was a benefit to the future of the human race, and that help for the poor was misguided because it interfered with the laws of the nature and would only weaken the evolution of the species by preserving the unfit. The idea of Social Darwinism did not last very long because at the same time that businessmen were celebrating the virtues of competition and the free market, they were actively seeking to protect themselves from competition and to replace the natural workings of the marketplace with control by great combinations. The Gospel of wealth was the growing idea that God gave the rich their riches and therefore they had the duty to carry out projects of civil philanthropy in order to spread their wealth out for the benefit of the public. The most well known proponent of the Gospel of wealth was Andrew Carnegie who distributed $350 million of his fortune to support the building of libraries, universities, and various public institutions. Meanwhile, some people like John D. Rockefeller argued that God gave him and only him his riches and therefore he had no duty to give it to others. So overall the theme of the Gospel of wealth unlike that of Social Darwinism was that the rich were rich because of God.

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Vinaya Gogineni

16. Urban Society in the Late Nineteenth Century

Urbanization and the lure of the city
Urban population of America increased sevenfold in half-century following Civil War Cities attracted people from countryside due to conveniences, entertainments, and cultural opportunities that were unavailable in rural areas Offered people private social space to live lives unlike small town places that lacked privacy Gave women opportunity to act freer without feeling judged by others Gave gay men and lesbian women space to build a culture and experiment sexually Offered more and better-paying jobs than were available in rural America or in foreign economies many immigrants were fleeing Fire and disease: fires destroyed large downtown areas where buildings made of wood; tremendous earthquake produced catastrophic fire; encouraged construction of fireproof buildings and development of professional fire departments Environmental degradation: improper disposal of human an industrial waste contributed to pollution of rivers and compromising of citys drinking water; poor air quality caused respiratory infections and other such diseases; new sewage and drainage systems created to protect drinking water from sewage disposal Urban poverty: sheer number of new residents ensured that many would be unable to earn enough for decent subsistence; resulted in charitable organizations like Salvation Army; many tried to restrict aid to deserving poor Crime and violence: caused by poverty and crowding; encouraged cities to develop larger and more professional police forces; resulted in urban national guard groups building imposing armories on outskirts of affluent neighborhoods and storing supplies of weapons/ammunition to prepare for uprisings Boss rule: owed existence to power vacuum created by chaotic growth of cities; product of potential voting power of large immigrant communities; principal function of political boss was to win votes for his organization; included winning loyalty of constituents by providing them with occasional relief; machines were vehicles for making money but were often corrupted; ex. William Tweed, boss of Tammany Hall, whose excesses landed him in jail; reasons for boss rule included power of immigrant voters, link between political organizations and wealthy, prominent citizens who profited from dealings with bosses, and structural weakness of city governments Public leisure became viewed as valuable thing; people flocked to amusement parks, like Coney Island, movie theaters, dance halls, concert halls, etc.

City problems and machine politics

Intellectual and cultural movements and popular entertainment

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Spectator sports: major league baseball became American pastime; increased popularity of college football and basketball; gambling and horseracing attracted many crowds; boxing became particularly popular among working-class men Mass entertainment: movies were most important form of mass entertainment; The Birth of a Nation among few that introduced serious plots and elaborate productions to filmmaking; most notable due to its racist messages which indicated that audiences were overwhelmingly white Music, poetry and novels: people amused themselves by reading dime novels-cheaply bound books with tales of Wild West, detective stories and science fiction sagas; public performances of music attracted large crowds; increase in nightclubs and dance halls as other forms of public entertainment Importance of Saloon: important setting for leisure time of working-class men; became place where worker could be sure of encountering regular circle of friends; ethnically specific and became political centers

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Marina Hoggan

17. Populism and Progressivism

Agrarian discontent and political issues of the late nineteenth century
Reasons for frustration: o Rise of an urban-industrially dominated society o Long economic decline Populism: one of the most powerful movements of political protest in American history. The Grange: first major farm organization; a social and self-help association o Purposes: o o o Bring farmers together to learn new scientific agricultural techniques Create a feeling of community to relieve the loneliness of a rural life Had an elaborate system of initiation and ritual and a strict code of secrecy. Membership rapidly increased after a major decline in farm prices stimulated by the depression of 1873. Strongest in the South and Midwest. Purposes (after high membership growth): Organize marketing cooperatives to allow farmers to circumvent middlemen Urged cooperative political action to curb railroad and warehouse monopolies The Farmers Declaration of Independence: proclaimed that the time had come for farmers, suffering from long continued systems of oppression and abuse, to use all lawful and peaceful means to free [themselves] from the tyranny of monopoly. Set up cooperative stores, creameries, elevators, warehouses, insurance companies, and factories that produced machines, stoves, and other items. 400 enterprises in operation Montgomery Ward and Company: emerged to meet the needs of the Grangers. First mail order business. Most enterprises failed because of inexperience and because of middlemen opposition (they didnt like the competition). The Grangers worked to elect state legislators pledged to their program. Independent party labels: Antimonopoly

Reform o Granger laws: imposed strict regulations on railroad rates and practices Eventually destroyed by the courts.

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Farmers Alliances: o Purposes/Objectives: Principally concerned with local problems. Formed cooperatives, marketing mechanisms Established stores, banks, processing plants, and other facilities for their members To free them from dependence on the furnishing merchants who kept so many farmers in debt An effort to build a society in which economic competition might give way to cooperation. Argued for a sense of mutual, neighborly responsibility and ultimately a resistance to oppressive outside forces

o Women played a prominent role. Full voting members in most local Alliances. Many held offices and served as lecturers

Mary E. Lease: Populist orator raise less corn and more hell

Advocated sobriety (anti-drinking)

o Problems faced by Alliances: Mismanagement and disagreements among cooperatives Strong opposing market forces

Ocala Demands: party platform issued by the Alliances at a national convention o A proposed system of subtreasuries which would replace and strengthen the cooperatives with which both the Grangers and Alliances. o Government established network of warehouses, where farmers could deposit crops. o Abolition of national banks o Direct election of US senators o Regulation and government ownership of railroads, telephones, and telegraphs.

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o Remonetization of silver Creation of the Peoples Party (or the Populists) o Dreamed of creating a broad political coalition but appealed principally to farmers o Economically and culturally marginal. o Gave many geographically isolated farmers an outlet for grievances, a social experience, and a sense of belonging to a community. o Rejected laissez-faire orthodoxies They believed that progress and growth should continue but should be more strictly defined by the needs of individuals and communities.

Origins of Progressive reform: municipal, state, and national

Reform impulses: o Antimonopoly o Importance of social cohesion o Faith in knowledge Muckrakers: crusading journalists who directed public attention toward social, economic, and political injustices. o Targeted trusts, railroads, government, and urban political machines and exposed corruption, scandal, and injustice to the public view Municipal reform: motivated by desire to remove city government from the hands of political parties. o City-manager plan: a professionally trained business manager or engineer takes charge of government so as to remain untainted by politics. o Election of nonpartisan mayors and strengthening of power of mayors. State reform:

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o Initiative and Referendum: allowed reformers to circumvent state legislatures (submitting new legislation directly to voters) and return legislature decisions to the electorate. o Direct Primary and Recall: limited the power of party and improved quality of elected officials. o Laws restricting lobbying by business interests o Robert La Follette: most celebrated state-level reformer. Turned state into laboratory of progressivism

National reform: o Decline in voter turnout o Parties declining and being replaced by interest groups o Individual interests organized to influence government directly rather than party structures.

Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson as Progressive presidents

Roosevelt: Believed reform to be a vehicle for protecting America against more radical changes. o Square Deal: Focused on regulation of industries and rates. Enacted Pure Food and Drug Act to restrict sale of dangerous or ineffective medicines. o Aggressive policies concerning conservation and preservation. o Launched a progressive party after his presidency called the Bull Moose: committed to a wide range of progressive causes including regulation of industry and trusts, government reforms, and compensation for injured workers on the job, pensions for elderly and widows with children, and women suffrage. o New Nationalism: much less conservative than Square Deal Taft: Generally passive about the issue of reform.

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o Attempt to lower protective tariff rates. Payne-Aldrich tariff: barely did anything and only served to earn him resentment for his passivity from the progressives. o Established a federal Childrens Bureau: for investigation of the welfare of children Wilson: o Successfully managed to lower protective tariffs. Underwood-Simmons Tariff. o Approval of graduated income tax o Federal Reserve Act: reform of the American banking system o Regulatory commission for the strengthening of the governments ability to break up trusts o New Freedom after it was practically complete, he stopped pushing for reform measures. Sponsored measures that expanded role of national government in many ways like regulation.

Womens roles: family, workplace, education, politics and reform

Most women still oversaw domestic function of the home. There were fewer children and many educated women who didnt marry at all and were actively involved in reform activities. Factory and office work womens jobs More womens colleges and coeducational public universities. Clubwomen: worked to support measures to regulate woman and child labor, government inspection of workplaces, regulation of food and drug industries, reformed policies toward the Indian tribes, and that outlawed the manufacture and sale of alcohol. WOMEN SUFFRAGE YEAH. 19th amendment, equal rights and all that. The last two were widely opposed by women but strongly supported by Alice Paul and followers. W.E.B. Dubois: most influential advocate of demanding civil rights. o Founded NAACP Great Migration: migration of hundreds of thousands of African Americans from the rural South into northern industrial cities o Causes: poverty, indebtedness, racism, and violence. Prospect of factory jobs, community living with more freedom o Effects: race riots, growth of black communities

Black America: urban migration and civil rights initiatives

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Katie Clark

18.The Emergence of America as a World Power

American Imperialism: Political and Economic Expansion
Beginning in 1890s, United States began acquiring island territories A major cause for imperialism was the supposed need for new markets. This perception was caused by a depression in 1893 and the increasing importance of foreign trade to the American Economy Also stemmed from fear that other European countries would acquire all territories, making them stronger than America Reflected Social Darwinism on a larger scale: Some races were supposedly more dominant than others, justifying imperialism as natural. Strongly advocated by Alfred Thayer Mahan as necessary to the greatness of America (to serve as naval bases and provide raw materials) James Blaine, secretary of state in Republican administrations, began expandinh influence into Latin America and organized a Pan-American Congress Grover Cleveland supported Venezuela in a boundary dispute with Great Britain Hawaii: 1. Important way station for American ships in trade with China. 2.Coveted by Americans who wanted Pearl Harbor as a permanent US base. 3.Dominated both economically and politically by Americans who settled there 4.Faced American disease that killed half of the native population, threats to undermine religion, and unstable reliance on sugar trade 5. Eventually annexed in 1898 Samoa: 1. Important way station in American trade with Pacific 2. 1878, a naval station at Pago Pago was negotiated 3. Allowed US to arbitrate any differences between Samoa and other nations 4. Germany, Great Britain, and the US all struggled for dominance in Samoa, until a three way arrangement was created, and the US and Germany ultimately split the islands 1898- Spanish American War resulted in far flung imperial empire and further expansionism; George Deweys victory in Manila and seizure of the Philippines led to continued American occupation after the war; American landing in Puerto Rico without opposition led to Spanish cession of the land and its annexation; American destruction of a Spanish fleet evacuating Santiago led to Spanish recognition of Cuban independence; Spanish also cede Guam United States forces Cuba to add Platt Amendment to their constitution, giving US control of Cuban foreign policy and leaving Cuba nominal political independence; Americans take over islands economy and the sugar production makes Cuban economy dependent on America Bloody war with Philippines results from native resentment and ends with secure American possession Secretary of State John Hay creates Open Door Policy of trade in China, which forced nations with sphere of influences to respect each other and was favorable to protecting American interests in China

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War in Europe and American Neutrality

Began after assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and a long-lasting rivalry between Britain and Germany Many Americans first believed the conflict in Europe was not relevant to them and favored isolationism heavily Wilson called for neutrality in thought and action Sympathy for Germany: German Americans who loved Germany and Irish Americans who hated the British Sympathy for Britain: Much more widespread among Americans (including Wilson) who admired Britains tradition, culture, and moral quality; also stemmed from heavy propaganda about German atrocities in Belgium British naval blockade of Germany intruded on US right as a neutral country to trade with belligerents equally; US cannot end trade with Britain in response (due to its much more extensive trade with Allies) Germans sink British passenger liner Lusitania, killing 128 Americans; Germany agrees to end unrestricted submarine warfare to prevent American intervention in war Growing tensions with Germany result in Preparedness, a rapid increase in nations armed forces in case of war Germany, believing Allied defenses would collapse before Americans could intervene, resumed unrestricted submarine warfare against both American and British ships Zimmerman Telegram, intercepted by the British, proposed that in the event of a war between Germany and the US, Mexico would join against the US in exchange for the return of its former territories, including Texas and other southwestern states Wilson requests a declaration of war, and America enters on April 6th, 1917 Fleet of American destroyers aided British navy in sinking of submarines, drastically reducing number of Allied ships sunk by Germany Russias withdrawal from the war following the Bolshevik Revolution resulted in the addition of German troops to the western front; this made clear that American ground forces would be necessary in addition to naval assistance Not having a sufficient ground force in 1917 to aid the Allies, Wilson passed the Selective Service Act which drafted about 3 million men; Another 2 million men volunteered; These men together formed the American Expeditionary Force New weapons technology led to trench warfare; shelling of each others muddy, wet, uncomfortable trenches and occasional bloody charges across the land in between New technology included tanks, flamethrowers, poisonous gas, motorized vehicles, airplanes (first significant role), battleships and new submarines; responsible for appallingly high casualties The fresh American troops tipped the stalemate in the Allied favor, allowing the Allies to advance against Germany

The First World War at Home and Abroad

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The Allies halted the German offensive July 18 and began an advance against the Germans in the Argonne Forest on September 26; The Germans were pushed back to their own border and their supply lines to the front were cut Germany asked for an armistice to avoid an invasion of their own country US Government used the sale of Liberty Bonds, loans from the American people, to raise $23 billion for the war effort; New graduated income and inheritance taxes brought in $10 billion Government separated the economy into sectors supervised by War Boards; One handling food elevated Herbert Hoover to prominence for his role; the War Industries Board under Bernard Baruch determined which factories would convert to the production of which war materials and who they should go to; WIB was plagued by inefficiency and corruption National War Labor Board gave workers significant yet temporary gains including: eight hour days, recognition of unions, minimal living standards, and equal pay for women; 39 people are killed following a strike at underground coal mines in an event called the Ludlow Massacre Hundreds of thousands of African Americans migrated to northern industrial cities to find factory jobs and escape violence and poverty in the south; Some race riots resulted After the US entered the war, the largest womens organization supported the war fervently; Carrie Chapman Catt calls for suffrage as a war measure; Other women like Jane Addams and Charlotte Perkins Gilman refused to support the war The Government creates a giant propaganda campaign headed by the Committee on Public Information, directed by George Creel; Reporters were encouraged to exercise self-censorship and not criticize the war effort The Espionage Act of 1917 created stiff penalties for spying, sabotage, or obstruction of the war effort; allowed a ban on material in the mail insulting the government or Socialist writings The Sabotage Act and Sedition Act in 1918 made any public expression of war opposition illegal The American Protective League were citizens who pried into the activities of neighbors in order to root out disloyalty

Treaty of Versailles Negotiated by Lloyd George of Britain, Wilson of the US, Clemencau of France, and
Orlando of Italy

Wilson was unable to win approval for many of his Fourteen Points, especially: Freedom of the Seas, Free Trade, Open Covenants, impartial mediation of colonial claims, and national self determination Germany would pay reparations of $56 billion to the Allied Leaders Germany was meant to be kept weak and unable to rise up again Created a League of Nations to meet and resolve disputes Created Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia

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Battle for Ratification; Faced intense opposition from Republicans in Congress led by Henry Cabot Lodge; Wilsons unwillingness to compromise on minor things led to its rejection and the public eventually lost interest Lack of US Membership in League of Nations or means of enforcement within it allowed Germany to rise up again Unfavorable terms led to German bitterness that would be a major cause for Hitlers rise to power American economy experienced a severe post-war depression due to the cancellations of contracts and severe inflation Labor lose their wage gains due to inflation; 5 million Americans lose their jobs; Employers used the wars end to retract benefits for the workers and union recognition Governor of Massachusetts, Calvin Coolidge, ends a police strike in Boston with a claim that there is no right to strike against public safety anywhere Conditions for returning black soldiers are no better than before; black workers hired during the war are laid off for returning veterans; Chicago race riots erupt The Red Scare erupts following the Russian revolution, creation of American Communist Party, and a series of bombings; Fear of communism and radicals caused the enactment of peacetime Sedition laws, the execution of anarchists Sacco and Vanzetti, and the Palmer Raids which led to the arrest of 6000 people Republican Candidate Warren Harding wins in a landslide after promising a retreat from reform and a return to normalcy

Society and Economy in Post-War Years

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Cami Jones

19. The New Era: 1920s

The business of America and the consumer economy
Technology, Economic Growth, and Labor *National manufacturing output increased 60% from 1920-1930 with only a mild recession in growth in 1923 which led to an even greater economic expansion when it ended. *The Boom was the result of a crippled European economy after WW1, and the rapid technological growth in the automobile industry, radio, television, better transportation (trains, planes, cars), telephones. *Big business organized and consolidated (especially steel and other large-scale mass production industries) and with the consolidation emerged new forms of business management that split up jobs to focus on specific tasks, starting with General Motors. *Other organizations decided to cooperate and form trade associations to work on fixing prices and regulating competition between similar businesses. (FEAR OF OVERPRODUCTION) *Labor Unions were pacified by welfare capitalism in which the management of companies gave members fringe benefits in exchange with an agreement to cooperate (not go on strikes). Consumerism *Mass production= mass consumption. *More Americans became middle class and could afford to purchase both needs AND wants, including: electric refrigerators, washing machines, vacuum cleaners, cigarettes, fashion, and CARS. *Automobile allowed farmers to escape isolation, city workers to live in suburbs, vacations to become possible, teenagers to develop their own social lives. *Advertising bombarded the consumer culture and mass-circulation publications. *Magazines target women *Hollywood, talkies like The Jazz Singer, radio

Republican politics: Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover

Harding
*Elected in 1920, appointed capable men to key offices, but recognized that he was not really fit to hold the office of President. *His big weaknesses (besides not really doing anything productive in office) were gambling, illegally drinking, and pretty women. *He put party bosses into federal positions of power which eventually led to the Teapot Dome scandal over oil reserves in Wyoming. *Died while on a speaking tour

Coolidge
*Took over after Harding died *Very honest man, did not tolerate corruption, still took a passive approach to his office. *Won a second term but still did nothing of interest.

Hoover

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*8 years of work in the Commerce Department encouraging voluntary cooperation in the private sector to ensure stability. (Associationalism formed from this idea that there should be national organizations of businessmen in particular industries.) *Won Presidency in 1928 promising bold new efforts to solve the nations economic problems, but had little time to do so before the Great Depression began.

The culture of Modernism: science, the arts, and entertainment

Science
*An expanded need for good education and training = more people going to school than ever before. *Schools began teaching engineering, management, and economics = new products and production techniques to make/use in factories to promote consumerism.

Art
*Lost Generation: wrote novels critiquing the modern material society for personal alienation. Their disillusionment had strong roots in WWI. (Writers included Ernest Hemingway and H.L. Mencken, ect.) *Harlem Renaissance: in New York where there was a newly created African-American culture flourishing. Great jazz musicians, theater productions, literature, poetry, and artwork that drew from rich African backgrounds. *Showed African-American pride in their culture, and whites enjoyed it too. (Alain Locke, Langston Hughes, Jelly Roll Morton, etc.

Entertainment *Mass-Circulation magazines went out across the country and became heavily targeted at
WOMEN. *Movies became great vehicles of mass-communication as more and more people went to see them and Hollywood became a major movie industry. *Films began to have sound as well as a review board (headed by Will Hays). *The Radio began broadcasting not just locally, but nationally as well for all Americans with a radio set to listen to (public radio). *Dance halls sprang up all around the country which in turn promoted both the jazz and blues music industries and the separate youth culture that was forming. *Flapper fashion for middle class women.

Responses to Modernism: religious fundamentalism, nativism, and Prohibition

Religious fundamentalism
*Defended traditional faith as provinciallargely rural men and women who fought to keep religion central in American life. *Insisted the Bible was for literal interpretation and opposed the teaching of evolution. *EVANGELICAL MOVEMENT (Billy Sunday) *Tennessee actually banned the teaching of evolution in schools, leading to the Scopes Monkey Trial in which John T. Scopes was arrested for teaching evolution and was prosecuted by William Jennings Bryan who was ultimately made to look like a fool by Darrow when he agreed that the Bible should not always be taken literally.

Nativism
*Wanted to curb foreign immigration to the United States, even if at high costs. *Supported by middle-class progressives because, especially in older generations, immigrants were associated with radicals. *Congress passed National Origins Act of 1924 (banning all Asian immigration) and others establishing a quota system and cut immigration by 500,000 people in one year alone.

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*Other Nativists wanted African-Americans out. (KKK) *Ku Klux Klan, led by William J. Simmons, wanted to purge the country of impure and alien influences (Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and blacks). *Claimed to defend traditional Christian values and went around burning homes and fields and lynching innocents. o Prohibition *Supported by most members of the middle class and those who considered themselves progressivesespecially women. *Nobel Experiment that didnt go too well because there were not enough agents to enforce the law. *Did significantly reduce drinking in some regions of the country *Alcohol and organized crime now went together on a large (and illegal) scale *Many middle-class supporters quickly changed their minds on the law but it was not repealed until the Great Depression in 1933. *Mainly a struggle for older Americans to maintain political dominance that they no longer had.

The ongoing struggle for equality: African Americans and women

African Americans
*Still largely unrepresented by labor unions because they worked mainly as unskilled workers (janitors, dishwashers, garbage men, ect.) *A. Philip Randolph DID organize them in the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters which won higher wages, shorter working hours, and other benefits for blacks. He also helped to battle for civil rights.

Women
*Most served in low-paying service jobs (pink-collar) and were not in industrial jobsAFL didnt want them in their union. (They would have also, the AFL argued, lowered the power of the union by driving down wage prices.) *Women became more educated in the 1920s than before and were, in some cases, becoming professionals in fashion, education, social work, and nursing. *Motherhood became less time consuming and many women wanted to have jobs outside the home. *The Flapper image allowed an outlet for physical and emotional fulfillment and a release from repression and inhibition. *The National Womens Party (under Alice Paul) worked for the ERA and continually worked to organize female political activists to gain full equality as American citizens. *Won passage of Sheppard-Towner Act (protective legislation for women and children in healthcare). *Did not yet gain full and equal rights.

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Tony Bailey

20.The Great Depression and the New Deal

Causes of the Great Depression
The stock market crash signified the beginning of the Depression Leading up to 1929, the stock market experienced increasing growth This was due to Brokerage Firms that would offer stocks to poorer people on credit Created a false sense of success because there was not any money that was going to companies using credit. Despite efforts of Wall Street tycoons to keep the market alive, on October 29, 1929, known as Black Tuesday, the DOW dropped 43 points. The DOW continued to plunged in the following days. Many companies lost almost all of their value in a months time There were other factors that contributed to the Great Depression: a. Lack of Diversification i. The American economy in the 1920s relied on few major industries, the biggest being the auto and construction industries ii. When these companies began to lose sales, there were not enough other industries to fill the void that their failure created. b. Disproportionate Wealth i. Big business and large plantation agriculture owners concentrated a majority of the nations wealth at this time. ii. A majority of people did not fit into this group and many lived below the poverty line. iii. These families did not provide a big enough demand for the massive amounts of products that factories were producing and surpluses in many areas began to form. c. Declining Exports i. Economies in Europe were beginning to recover from World War One and they were able to sustain their own nations without the need for international trade. ii. Countries with growing financial difficulties dropped out of oversea American trade because they couldnt afford it. d. Inability to Pay Off Debts i. Germany and Austria suffered severe economic downturn after WWI and they could not pay the reparations that were forced on them. ii. The U.S. and its allies were forced to give loans to these countries, but it only perpetuated the level of debt

Progress of the Depression & Domestic Effects on the U.S.

After Stock Market Crash, over 9000 banks defaulted People hurriedly tried to withdraw their life savings from banks, but many still lost everything

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The little purchasing power led to increasing amounts of product that couldnt be sold Unemployment froze the progress of many cities across America. Rates of unemployment reached 60% to even 80% in a few cases The homeless flocked to breadlines and soup kitchens to try and get enough food to survive Groups like Red Cross and Salvation Army contributed greatly to this cause The Midwest suffered an extremely unfortunate ecological disaster that, when coupled with the financial crisis, crippled agriculture even further. Poor crop rotation and excess cattle grazing destroyed the grass that kept the dirt stuck to the ground. Overplanting weakened the soil. When the above conditions combined with unnaturally strong winds, massive dust storms were created. They ripped up crops and destroyed houses and fields. Swarms of locusts followed and ate the remaining crops, leaving the farmers with nothing. This disaster that stretched from Texas to the Dakotas became known as the Dust Bowl Farmers who lost everything sold the rest of their property and attempted to travel to California, where they believed that there was plentiful jobs. They became known as Okies African Americans suffered even more than they normally did during this period. Many whites believed that they had priority over blacks for jobs. Many were kicked out of their livelihood, sometimes by force. Racist views remained strong during the depression. The Scottsboro Boys were a perfect example of this. They were tried in court for accused rape of two white women. Even though there was no conclusive evidence to convict them, an all white jury still did. Depression Cultural views: Success Ethics were still being followed by the remaining businessmen Many unemployed believed that their failure was their own fault and they would try their best to hid in shame from the rest of society. Escapism programming became very popular during the depression Almost every household owned a radio and would listen to programs as a family every night. Movies also became a popular way to get away from the difficulties of life. Cheap admission that showed multiple movies at once made it easy to get away Literature reflected a critical view of American culture. Authors like Dos Passos, Conroy and Steinbeck openly challenged everyday norms. Hoovers first policy to deal with the depression was called Voluntarism.

Hoovers Response

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He tried to negotiate a deal with labor unions to cease their strikes to encourage production He also asked corporations to not lay off anymore workers. He implored churches and charity organizations to contribute to their communities Conditions were so bad that this strategy had little effect on the dismal economy Even $423 million in federal spending could not turn the economy around Hoover passed two pieces of legislation to try to improve conditions The Agricultural Marketing Act called for the government to control farm prices so that farmers could make a profit and raise prices. He also tried to tack on the Hawley-Smoot Tariff with it as a protective tariff on farming goods so that American agriculture would be protected from international trade. Neither of these could turn the farming situation around His second attempt was the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) It allowed the Federal government to give money to struggling banks and corporations. The $30 million in put into these institutions did not help much Hoovers popularity had sunk tremendously so that when FDR challenged him in the next election, FDR demolished him. Within the first 100 days of his inauguration, FDR passed many different pieces of legislation in an attempt to combat the Depression. Called for an immediate 4 day bank holiday During this time he passed laws to protect larger banks with federal assistance. His fireside chats gave confidence to the American public when he personally spoke to them via radio every night. Repealed prohibition with the 21st amendment in order to stimulate that part of the economy and reduce crime rate. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) would give farmers prices on their goods and pay them to not grow at certain times of the year. This was later struck down by the Supreme Court with the ruling that government couldnt control production Rural Electrification (RE) gave utilities to poor rural areas. Resettlement Administration (RA) helped move poor farmers to urban areas to try and get them jobs National Recovery Administration (NRA) called for every company to accept a minimum wage and maximum hours Section 7(a) gave workers the right to form unions and participate in collective bargaining Supreme Court overturned this administration as unconstitutional Public Works Administration (PWA) created to administer NIRA programs and give out immediate jobs.

Roosevelt and the New Deal

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Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) designed to create hydroelectric dams and provide work to the Tennessee Valley. Glass-Stegal Act created the Federal Deposit Insurance Commission (FDIC), which guaranteed all bank deposits up to $2500 Helped put public confidence back in banks Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) policed the stock market to look out for potential dangers Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) provided immediate relief money to banks and corporations Civil Works Administration (CWA) created immediate, temporary jobs to over 4 million people Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) created camps that issued jobs to city men that couldnt find any FDR rose tax rates to the highest in peacetime history Social Security Act gave money every month to elderly citizens Works Progress Administration (WPA) provided jobs in the arts and construction

Labor Unions
Section 7(a) made the formation of unions constitutional After it was struck down by the Supreme Court, FDR passed a similar law through the National Labor Relations Act This made workers become more assertive in demanding fairer working conditions AFL still only accepted craft workers The Congress of Industrial Organization (CIO) rose as a rival to the AFL and accepted only industrial workers Allowed women and blacks More militant than the AFL New techniques emerged for efficient protesting. The most effective of these was the sit-down strike, which began with autoworkers, but soon spread to many areas of industry Memorial Day Massacre Union workers from Republic Steel gathered in a peaceful protest of the Little Steel companies. The companies hired police who fired upon the crowd, killing 10 spectators One of the last uses of aggression from corporations The American Liberty League- group of critics from the big business members of the Right. The harshest (as well as wealthiest) members of this group attempted to arouse public opposition of the New Deal legislation. Could not gather much support outside of the people who founded the group. The Left produced its own opposition, but it also could not gain much support beyond its own constituency.

New Deal Critics

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There were also a few cases of political dissention that did not belong to either party. Dr. Francis E. Townsend called for a plan that would provide pensions for the elderly. All Americans of the age of 60 would receive $200 to spend each month. This plan gained much support from many older men and women. FDR acknowledged the legitimacy of the plan and it became the basis for the Social Security Act. When he passed this act, he also removed Townsend from political power because he had no other base to oppose FDR with. Father Charles E. Coughlin advocated for monetary reforms that would called for the remonetization of silver and nationalizing the banking system. FDR used Coughlins ideas to create the Silver Purchase Act. Senator Huey P. Long rose to become a serious political adversary to Roosevelt. He gained wide public support for his progressive policies. His Share-Our-Wealth economic program would heavily tax wealthiest Americans and distribute the money to the lower class citizens. Long could have been an influential third party candidate, but he was assassinated before the next election. Roosevelt used his policy as the basis for his increase of taxes later in his presidency.

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Jack Oswald

21. The Second World War

The rise of fascism and militarism in Japan, Italy, and Germany
Benito Mussolini of Italys Fascist Party took over the Italy in the early 1920s and by the 30s, the regime was growing increasingly nationalistic and militaristic, and Fascist leaders were campaigning for imperial expansion. Adolf Hitler, the nationalistic leader of the Nazis, was growing in popularity due to his ability to give hope to the Germans during the decline of their country after WWI due to the Allies. Japan, dealing with economic problems like the rest of the world, became concerned with the rise of strength in both the Soviet Union and Chiang Kai-Sheks nationalistic China. The rise of fascism and militarism in Japan, Italy, and Germany all occurred with a major problem in the countrys economy. With the countries that became militaristic and fascist, all began to invade other countries and expand their influence. Japan attacked China in Manchuria in the Sino-Japanese war, Italy invaded Ethiopia, and Germany attacked Austria and Poland and was given Czechoslovakia. The neutrality acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937 were designed to prevent a recurrence of the events many Americans believed had pressured the U.S. into WWI and to keep America out of conflict in Europe. The 1935 law established a mandatory arms embargo against both victim and aggressor in any military conflict and empowered the president to warn American citizens that might travel on the ships of warring nations at their own risk. The 1936 act renewed these acts. The 1937 act was passed as world conditions were growing more dangerous, the result was the cash-and-carry policy, by which belligerents could purchase only nonmilitary goods from the United States and had to pay cash and carry it away on their own boats. These policies of neutrality slowly begin to favor the Allies in the weakening of the neutrality acts and the lend-lease system after the fall of France and the threatening of Britain by Germany On December 7, 1941, a large attack by the Japanese navy on the U.S naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. This attack was brought about because of the U.S.s trade embargo on Japan which limited severely Japans ability to purchase essential supplies. This led to Japan desperate to find supplies to continue the war in Manchuria. Japans attack on Pearl Harbor destroyed much of the United States naval strength in the Pacific except for the American aircraft carriers which would play and instrumental part in the war with Japan. While this attack was a heavy blow on America, it unified the American people in a fervent commitment to war and on December 11, 1941, America was involved in WWII. America fought in both the Pacific and in Europe during WWII.

Prelude to war: policy of neutrality

The attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States declaration of war

Fighting a multifront war

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In the Pacific, America chose to have to broad offensives to turn the tide against the Japanese. One, commanded by General Douglas MacArthur, would move north from Australia, through New Guinea, and the Philippines. The other, commanded by Admiral Chester Nimitz, would move west from Hawaii to major Japanese island outposts in the Pacific. Then both forces would meet and invade Japan. In the war in Europe, the U.S. had less control over military operations. Fighting with Britain and the Free French forces in the west and attempting to help the Soviet Union in the East. The Soviet Union wanted an Allied invasion to occur as soon as possible to relieve the burden on the Soviets, while Britain wanted to first attack the edges of the Nazi empire in Africa and southern Europe before invading France. America sided with the British plan of attack which produced angry comments from the Soviets which would affect Soviet policy generations later. The American view of a post-war world was of a world that abandoned beliefs in military alliances and spheres of influence and governed their relations with diplomatic processes with an international body serving as arbiter in disputes. The Soviet Union and Britains view of a post-war world was one in which the great powers would control areas of strategic interest to them. In a meeting between the U.S. and Britain during January 1943 in Morocco, both countries would not accept Stalins demand for the immediate opening of a second front; however they decided to tell Stalin that they would accept nothing but Germanys unconditional surrender. One of the major disputes in the meetings between the Allies was the disagreement over Germany after the war and the dispute of the government of Poland. On August 6 and August 8, 1945, the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectfully, were destroyed by American atomic weapons. These weapons destroyed the much of the cities and inflicted horrible causalities and caused many long-term effects on the area and the survivors. This act in Japan and the victory of America in the European theater led to the nationsthe United States and the Soviet Union- growth in global power. The atomic age began after the detonation of nuclear weapons on Japan and would lead to the growth of nuclear strength in both the U.S. and the Soviet Union.

Diplomacy, war aims, and wartime conferences

The United States as a global power in the Atomic Age

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Lazette Carter

22. The Home Front During the War

Wartime mobilization of the economy
The transcontinental railroad became a huge focus of congress Congress passed the Homestead Act and Morrill Land Grant act The National Bank Acts gave the nation a uniform system of national bank notes in order to promote economic growth Ways the government used to finance the war included levying taxes, issuing paper currency, and borrowing money The first example of mass financing of a war in American history was the treasury, convincing the people to buy over $400 million in bonds Greenbacks were used in collecting and income tax for the first time

Urban migration and demographic changes

Many blacks wanted to secure their freedom, and some free blacks even travelled to the south in order to fight Many people bought land from the government in very rural areas, therefore the number of people in urban areas declined slightly Immigration to America decreased during this time Birth rate decreased, and life expectancy decreased during the war time.

Women, work, and family during the war

Industrial laborers had less purchasing power because prices rose much faster than wages. There was an increase in the number of workers joining unions and brought about many new unions in different sectors of he labor force. Many women took over the jobs that men usually had, since the men were sent to war and there were open positions. Women entered nursing, which enforced womens role in taking care of their men and their homes, aka their sphere. Some families were divided by the Civil War, and could support or even fight on opposite sides. Many were also distraught at the deaths on their own land, within the place where everyone is supposed to be living in harmony, and fighting off foreign enemies

Civil liberties and civil rights during the war

President Lincoln temporarily suspended the civil liberties within the Union by suspending habeas corpus and imposing martial law. Lincoln censored many newspapers and journalists in the north The states in the union closest to the line of the confederacy experienced more strict enforcement of the new regulations.

War and regional development

Many people spread out to populate the west The railroad led many people to a different part of the country instead of being centralized in the east, north, and south The war was bloody, and most battles were fought in the south There was an increase in the meat-packing industry making the now Midwest and some of the west more popular land.

Expansion of government power

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 The government instituted a new draft policy in order to get more help for the Unions fight. The government took much more power when it came to raising revenue to support the war Lincoln was a brilliant leader who had to reduce some civil liberties, but he went beyond his constitutionally stated power and caused controversy

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Sahana Venkatesh

23. The United States and the Early Cold War

Origins of the Cold War
Postwar world: U.S. wanted nations to govern their relations with one another through democratic processes, with an international organization serving as an arbiter of disputes and the protector of every nations right of self determination. Soviet Union envisioned a postwar structure in which the great powers would control areas of strategic interest to them. Strains in alliance from WWII: U.S. didnt agree to Stalins demand of immediately opening a second front in Western Europe. At Tehran Conference, Stalin wanted a pro-communist government in Poland but U.S. didnt. Stalin thought the nuclear weapons were used by the U.S. to intimidate Russia. Yalta Conference: A set of loose principles which sidestepped the most difficult questions of Germanys reparations and reunification and Polands government. Stalin took advantage of this and established pro-communist governments in Eastern Europe. Containment: the U.S. would try to contain the threat of Soviet expansion. Truman drew from the ideas of American diplomat George F. Kenan. Truman Doctrine: to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. Helped Greece and Turkey defeat communism. George Marshall offered economic assistance to all European nations who would join in drafting a program for recovery (Russia and Eastern Europe rejected plan). U.S. wanted China to be strong and independent. Chiang Kai-shek had a corrupt and incompetent government (but the U.S. supported it). Communist Mao Zedong took control of China and established communism. U.S. turned its focus to Japan, instead of China, and tried to create a new, ProAmerican Japan Japan controlled Korea but after WWII, the U.S. and U.S.S.R divided Korea along the 38th parallel. The North was communist; the south (led by Syngman Rhee) was democratic. North Korea invaded the south with support from the Soviet Union. The U.S. intervened with the United Nations. China later joined the war on the side of the communists. Stalemate officially ended in 1953. After WWII, the French wanted to reassert their control over Vietnam, but the Vietnamese set up a nationalist government under Ho Chi Minh. After French lost in First Indochina War (1946-54), Vietnam was divided along 17th parallel. Vietminh gained strength and attacked American and South Vietnamese troops. No clear victor when the U.S. pulled out, but North Korea took control of the whole country and established a communist government.

Truman and Containment

The Cold War in Asia: China, Korea, Vietnam, and Japan

Diplomatic strategies and policies of the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations

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Eisenhower wanted to avoid conflict and maintain stability: Continued and intensified American commitments to oppose communism but practiced more restraint; Suez Crisis: did not support UN invasion of Suez Canal, and helped pressure the French and British to withdraw and persuade Israel to a truce with Egypt; Tensions with the Soviet Union increased. Kennedy: Cuban Missile Crisis; unsuccessful Bay of Pigs Invasion; expanded Special Forces; believed in expanding American influence through peaceful means; Agency for International Development to coordinate foreign aid to third world countries; Peace Corps. Americans were afraid of Communist expansion and especially of Russias growing influence. Investigation of Alger Hiss, former State Department official, and his involvement with communists increased fear of communist infiltrations McCarthyism: Senator of Wisconsin, Joeseph McCarthy charged federal officials of communism which created panic. Led to increased fear of nuclear attacks America increased funding for science education and landed the first man on the moon Fear of communism led to McCarthyism and The Red Scare- loss of numerous jobs Arms race= Americans developed thousands of nuclear weapons

The Red Scare and McCarthyism

Impact of the Cold War on American Society

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Mahentikaa Gunasekera

24.The 1950s
Emergence of the modern civil rights movement
On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court announced in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that communities could not provide blacks with separate facilities to those of whites. Strong local opposition, known in the South as massive resistance, to facilities with blacks and whites produced long delays and bitter conflicts. Federal courts had ordered the desegregation of Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas causing an angry white mob to prevent implementation of the order. President Eisenhower sent troops to Little Rock to restore order and ensure that the court orders would be obeyed. On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama, when she refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus to a white passenger. The Montgomery Bus Boycott caused busses in Montgomery to abandon their discriminatory seating policies. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference was an interracial group founded shortly after the bus boycott. Martin Luther King was the most influential and most widely admired black leader in the country.

The affluent society and "the other America" America was experiencing a golden age in the 1950s because of a booming national
prosperity and the continuing struggle against communism that encouraged some Americans to look even more approvingly at their own society. White, middle-class Americans lived in a world of economic growth, personal afluencfe, and cultural homogeneity. Women, intellectuals, young people, and others found the middle-class consumer culture unsatisfying. Large groups of Americans remained outside the circle of abundance. In 1962, the socialist writer Michael Harrington created a sensation by publishing a book called The Other America, in which he chronicled the continuing existence of poverty in America. In 1960, more than a fifth of all American families continued to live below the poverty line. Native Americans constituted the single poorest group in the country. In 1956, farmers received only 4.1 percent of the national income. American history had been characterized by a broad consensus about the value and necessity of competitive, capitalist growth. Interstate Highways dramatically reduced the time necessary to travel from one place to another. The automobile encouraged the creation of fast-food chains.

Consensus and conformity: suburbia and middle-class America

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Television, perhaps the most powerful medium of mass communication in history, was central to the culture of the postwar era. By 1960 a third of the nations population was living in suburbs. Americans wanted move to the suburbs because they wanted a community populated largely by people of similar age and background. Suburban life generally meant a rigid division between their working and personal worlds. The most caustic critics of bureaucracy and of middleclass society in general, were a group of young poets, writers, and artists generally known as the beats. The beats wrote harsh critiques of what they considered the sterility and conformity of American life, the meaninglessness of American politics, and the banality of popular culture. Many young people began to wear clothes and adopt hairstyles that mimicked popular images of juvenile criminal gangs. James Dean became an icon of the unfocused rebelliousness of American youth in his time. An important advance in medical science was the development of new antibacterial drugs capable of fighting infections that in the past had been all but untreatable. Alexander Fleming discovered the antibacterial properties of an organism that he named penicillin. Since then, a wide range of new antibiotics have been developed so that bacterial infections are now among the most successfully treated of all human illnesses. Jonas Salk introduced an effective vaccine that by the early 1960s had virtually eliminated polio from American and much of the rest of the world. DDT protected crops from destruction by insects and protected humans from insect carried diseases as typhus and malaria. Researchers produced the first commercially viable televisions and created s technology that made it possible to broadcast programing over large areas. The first significant computer of the 1950s was the UNIVAC. It was the first computer able to handle both alphabetical and numerical information easily. In 1952, the United States successfully detonated the first hydrogen bomb. When the Soviet Union launched an earth-orbiting satellite, Sputnik, the American government reacted with alarm. Federal policy began encouraging strenuous efforts to improve scientific education in the schools, to create more research laboratories, and to speed the development of Americas own exploration of outer space. The U.S., launched its own first satellite, Explorer I, in January 1958. The Apollo programs purpose was to land men on the moon. Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin, and Michael Collins travelled into orbit around the moon. Armstrong and Aldrin became the first men to walk on a body other than earth.

Social critics, nonconformists, and cultural rebels

Impact of changes in science, technology, and medicine

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Spencer Lewis

25. The Turbulent 1960s

From the New Frontier to the Great Society
The New Frontier was the name of John F. Kennedys domestic reform package. The passage of most of his ideas, however, was hampered by thin popular mandate and a Congress dominated by Republicans and conservative Democrats. He did, however, manage to win approval of tariff reductions, and called for a significant tax cut to promote economic growth. His assassination would lay the groundwork for the Great Society. Upon taking office, Lyndon B. Johnson compiled the most impressive legislative record of any president since FDR, winning many New Frontier proposals. This was aided by the emotion following Kennedys death. He also had his own reform package, called the Great Society that he could begin to implement following re-election in 1964. He began his war on poverty by enacting Medicare (which gave healthcare benefits to all elderly Americans regardless of need) and Medicaid (extending aid to welfare recipients and other indigent people of all ages. He also created the Office of Economic Opportunity, which created many new programs, but was most notable for the controversial community action program (an effort to involve members of poor communities themselves in the planning and administration of programs designed to help them). It helped decrease poverty slightly, but was on the whole a failure. Johnson also tried to promote the revitalization of decaying cities and to strengthen the nations schools. Johnson established the Department of Housing and Urban Development (a new cabinet agency) and created the Model Cities program. He passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 extending aid to both public and parochial schools based on student economic conditions. He also passed the Immigration Act of 1965, which eliminated the national origins system. The battle for civil rights for African-Americans began to heat up in the 1950s and 60s. The first signs were expanding protests. Many sit-ins were staged, starting with college students in Greensboro, North Carolina. Later, the Student Nonviolence Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was organized. In 1961, a group of interracial college students worked with the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) to organize freedom rides to urge the desegregation of bus stations. The protests reached a fever pitch in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963. Protestors there were brutally attacked by the Birmingham police, led by Eugene Bull Connor. They used tear gas, attack dogs, electric cattle prods, and fire hoses. The movement later turned national with the march on Washington, D.C. Over 200,000 demonstrators gathered (with the support of President Kennedy). The gathering saw Martin Luther King, Jr. give his famous I have a dream speech. The national attention this cast on the movement would help lead to the passage of the most comprehensive civil rights bill in the nations history.

Expanding movements for civil rights

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The battle for voting rights then heated up. In the summer of 1964, thousands of people gathered for the freedom summer to promote voting rights for blacks. This was met violently by some white southerners. In March 1965, a march on Selma, Alabama lead by MLK pressed for the right of blacks to register to vote. It led to widespread violence, which contributed to Lyndon Johnson winning passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which provided federal protection for blacks exercising their right to vote. The movement would later turn violent after years of oppression and hardship, characterized by urban violence and riots. In the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles in 1965, an incident involving a white cop sparked a week of violence, with an estimated 10,000 people taking part. More outbreaks would occur elsewhere in 1966 and 1967, leading to over 70 deaths in total. The movement was characterized by a shift from integration to racial distinction, epitomized in the Black Power movement, which encouraged blacks to take pride in themselves rather than just assimilate into white society. The Black Panther Party, a black power organization, created an image of militant blacks, willing to fight violently in necessary. Another important group, the Nation of Islam, and its most important member, Malcom X, later rose to prominence. Malcom X would symbolize to a generation of blacks (especially after his assassination) the struggle for equality. The first major confrontations of the Cold War would occur in Latin America, specifically Cuba. In 1961, President Kennedy authorized the Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba, where a group of anti-Castro Cuban exiles was the invade Cuba, inspire an uprising, and take over. However, at the last minute, Kennedy withdrew the air support, leaving the rebels to be squashed. This was followed by a frosty exchange of views by Kennedy and Soviet Premier Khrushchev in Europe, which did little to relieve tensions. What followed was the Cuban Missile Crisis. After receiving intelligence that the Soviets were constructing missile bases in Cuba, he ordered a quarantine around Cuba to stop the shipment of missiles into the nation. He then received a message from Khrushchev that said the Soviets would remove the bases in exchange for an American pledge not to invade Cuba. Kennedy accepted, and the crisis was averted. The largest confrontations of the Cold War would occur in Asia, specifically in Vietnam. The war had its origins in the Geneva Conference, which agreed to temporarily divide Vietnam into two nations. There were major differences between the two sections, and elections to be held in 1956. However, come 1956, the leader of the South, Ngo Dinh Diem refused to allow the elections, keeping the nation split. He was later killed in a coup, which would begin the path to American intervention. In 1964, President Johnson reported that North Korean subs had fired upon US destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. This allowed him to gain passage of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which allowed the president to take all necessary measures to prevent further aggression in Southeast Asia. This was largely an excuse to

Cold War confrontations: Asia, Latin America, and Europe

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escalate the conflict, and by 1967, over half a million American personnel were in Vietnam, and causalities were beginning to mount. The war then entered a prolonged phase where the US could neither win nor fully understand. The US tried a strategy of attrition at first, by trying to simply win by sending in more troops then the enemy could handle. This failed because the enemy committed more troops than the US had expected (or was willing to commit itself). They then tried pacification where they tried ousting the Vietcong, then winning the hearts and minds of the villagers. This also failed because US troops could not establish the connection that the Vietcong did. On January 31, 1968, the North Vietnamese launched the Tet Offensive, an enormous concerted attack on American strongholds through South Vietnam. America eventually repelled them, dealing the North such appalling causalities that it permanently weakened their ranks. However, it was a political defeat for the US, one form which it would never fully recover. In 1968, President Richard Nixon was elected. Although mostly remembered for the Watergate scandal, he would finally bring an end to the painful conflict that was Vietnam, and begin to usher in an era of dtente. Dtente (the relaxing of relations between the Soviet Union and the United States) had its roots in several events in the early 1960s. In 1963, the two nations sign the Partial Test Ban Treaty, banning all nuclear tests except those underground. Later in the decade, they both signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Outer Space Treaty, to prevent the spread of nuclear weaponry and set space laws, respectively. Dtente really got accelerated once Richard Nixon took office. The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) was signed under his reign, which limited each sides nuclear arms. Also under the Nixon Administration, the Biological Weapons Convention and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty were also signed, limiting biological weapons and anti-ballistic missile systems on each side. Dtente would continue under the Ford and Carter administrations. The Helsinki Accords were signed in an attempt to ease tensions between the Eastern Bloc and the West. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project became the first joint international space project when the Soviet Union and the United States teamed up. Jimmy Carter would later sign SALT II, a further extension of the SALT I agreements signed under Nixon. As the Vietnam War first began, few people protested the US involvement. However, after the war began to drag on and victory seemed less and less imminent, protests expanded greatly. College students were the most vocal group, but later in the war even some senior politicians began to protest the war by resigning. Massive protests by students began spurting up in New York, Washington D.C. and other cities across America. The most notable demonstration occurred in 1970 at the Kent State University in Ohio. Students were protesting and began to grow slightly rowdy, throwing rocks at the Ohio National Guard that had shown up to control the protest. Instead of

Beginning of Dtente

The antiwar movement and the counterculture

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responding in a more humane way, the Guard fired into the crowd, killing four and injuring nine. The shootings enraged the nation and helped make the government look even more ridiculous. The counterculture rose out of the antiwar movement in the 1960s. The first sign on the counterculture was the rise of hippies. They showed their contempt for conventional standards by wearing long hair, flamboyant clothing, and disdain for conventional speech, replacing it with their own hippie speech. They also were rampant drug users, usually smoking marijuana or doing LSD. The counterculture also advocated doing what felt good. They ushered in an era of open sexuality. The counterculture was seemingly centered around the HaightAshbury neighborhood in San Francisco, where they gathered to try a more simple natural experience. Also central to the counterculture movement was the rise of rock and roll. Many musicians seemed fascinated with strange new concepts, and expressed so in their music. They also used their medium to express political radicalism. Two huge music festivals, Altamont and Woodstock, symbolized the counterculture. Woodstock epitomized peace, with a lineup of counterculture musicians. Altamont, however, turned violent, with the Hells Angels security beating spectators, killing one.

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Anmol Nigam

26. Politics and Economics at the End of the Twentieth Century

Richard Nixons election (1968)
The democratic party was greatly weakened by a variety of factors: o Few wished to challenge Johnson within the Democratic Party even though many disagreed with his policy on the Vietnam War. Later he dropped out , opening the way to many more Democratic candidates With his Death the Democratic Party split into four factions: o labor unions and big-city party bosses; they traditionally controlled the Democratic Party; rallied behind Hubert Humphrey o college students, intellectuals, and upper-middleclass whites; they were against the Vietnam War; rallied behind Eugene McCarthy o Catholics, African-Americans, Hispanics, and other racial and ethnic minorities; they rallied behind Robert Kennedy o white Southern Democrats; they rallied behind George Wallace o Robert Kennedy was assassinated while running for the Democratic nomination o Divided over Vietnam War o Democratic National Party Convention (1968) divided the party when riots broke out and protesters were beaten by police. Some supported the protestors and felt that the police were being heavy-handed, but others disapproved of the violence and supported the police Nixon won in the Republican Party with the support of the Silent Majority o They were dissatisfied with the materialism and excesses of the country as well as the civil rights, anti-war protests, and the counterculture movement Represented a view by many to return to a more hopeful time of stability and economic growth Reagan focused on three main values: o Strong military and anti-communist sentiments o Family values

Ronald Reagans Election (1980)

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o Individual responsibility and morality Showed the rising power of the Republican coalition and the neo-conservative religious right Nixon was impeached when it was discovered several men related to him broke in to the Democratic National Committee Headquarters o Nixons Administration Attempted to cover it up Nixon resigned form office Later pardoned by Ford Paris Peace Accords(1973) signed o US withdrew troops Protests ended, and Congress enacted legislature to prevent involvement o Belief of peace shattered when North Vietnam invaded the South

Watergate

Vietnam

China
Ping Pong Diplomacy helped improve Sino-US relations o It was an exchange of tennis players to compete against each other in both countries Led to Nixons visit to China Nixon visited China and greatly improved relations between the two counties Middle East The Yom Kippur War broke out between Israel and a coalition of Arab countries o Camp David Accord under Jimmy Carter negotiated peace between Israel and Egypt. Syria never formalized the peace with Israel. o In Response to US support of Israel. Arab OPEC nations led a oil embargo on the US. Led to the 1973 Energy Crisis

The American Economy

Began to change from a manufacturing base to a more technology-centered service economy. o The Computer market exploded Resulted in the Dot Com tech bubble Gorbachev Became the Soviet Leader and enacted the policies of Glasnost and Perestroika, Openness and reform o This led to him stepping down from the communist party and the dissolution of the Soviet Union Cold War ended in 1991 with the breakup of the Soviet Union

End of the Cold War

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Becca Heading

27. Society and Culture at the End of the Twentieth Century

Demographic Changes
The US birthrate began to decline through the 70s and 80s, leading to an older population overall. Because there were more senior citizens, more money was being spent on Social Security pensions. This cost the government as well as private hospitals and insurance companies. A labor shortage was also created because the very old and very young couldnt work and the middle aged group wasnt substantial enough to sufficiently fill the jobs. This created a need for immigrant labor. The older generation retained most of its political power and stayed involved in the politics and elections which forced candidates to look at the issues that affected the older people.

Immigration Surge Immigration quotas expanded significantly during the last part of the twentieth
century. This led to an influx of immigrants that was greater than any other of that century. Due to the Immigration Reform Act of 1965, immigrants began to come from Eastern Europe as well as Russia. More significantly though were immigrants coming from Latin America and Asia, who made up around 78 percent of the immigration of that time period. The influx of new people filled the cities and developed their own unique cultural blends. They also became involved in the cycle of poverty that trapped many of them in ghettos without the opportunity to move up.

Rise of the Sunbelt

The Sunbelt was a collection of regions that emerged in the postwar era to become the most dynamic growing parts of the country. It included Florida, Texas, and California, as well as the rest of the Southeast and Southwest. It inspired strong populist traditions to flourish which created progressive politics which oftentimes turned radical. It also led to strong opposition to the growth of government and resentment of all of the regulations and rules that had been recently enforced. The Sunbelt mentality of economic boom conflicted with the problems of the old industrial states. This caused a rift that was extremely obvious politically. The Sagebrush rebellion highlighted these sectional differences. The west portrayed itself as being controlled by the government and they demanded that the government release the large land areas that they owned out west. The south displayed a conservative nature while the west produced fervent right side leaders without being a right-ist region. This made the Sunbelt a stronghold for conservative ideals and it produced strong conservative movements.

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Revolutions in Biotechnology
Genetic engineering became a new industry that stemmed from the early discovery of DNA and the later discovery of its double-helix structure. Scientists then discovered the gene and realized that through its manipulation, they could create hybrid plants and animals as well as treat medical issues that seemed untreatable before. In 1989, the government spent $3 billion to finance the Human Genome Project. Its goal was to identify all of the 100,000 genes by 2005. Due to new technology and competitiveness between research teams, the Human Genome Project was completed two years early. Other researchers worked on the idea of cloning from DNA. They were successful and cloned a sheep which they named Dolly. DNA testing also became significant because each persons DNA is as unique as their fingerprints. Hair, bodily fluids, and skin can all be traced back to the person to whom they belong. This played a major role first in the O.J. Simpson Trial and later in the Monica Lewinsky scandal investigation. Scientists continue to study the ways in which DNA can be used to treat illnesses. That study has developed into the field of biotechnology which is a huge sector of the economy today. DNA research has also spawned huge debates over the morality of said research. The first big discovery that made the personal computer possible was the microprocessor. It allowed for a miniaturized central processing unit which then enabled smaller machines to perform the jobs that were previously only performed by large machines. In 1977, Apple produced the Apple II which was the first machine of its kind to be made available to the public. A few years later, IBM introduced the PC. It later developed Microsoft and Windows which helped to launch the PC to success and made it the dominating force in the industry. Apple later did develop its Macintosh computer which IBM borrowed features from to make the PC more marketable and user-friendly but Apple remained the underdog in the industry. Because the PC was so easy to use and came at an affordable price, the computer became a staple in American homes and businesses. The computer surge encouraged new industries to thrive and develop into some of the most important industries in America. The most common form of mass communication is the Internet which began in 1963 as a government creation by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). The head of the ARPAs Information Processing Technique Office tried to create a network of computers that were connected to each other from great distances to be called Libraries of the Future.

Revolutions in Mass Communications and the Computer

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It came to be known as Arpanet and over time the size and uses of it expanded. Expansion of Arpanet was accelerated by the development of store-and-forward packet switching and the Interface Message Processor. They allowed large portions of data to be transported between computers and the computers to be capable of handling the information. After the Department of Defense withdrew from Arpanet it was renamed the internet and was allowed to flourish on its own. The invention of e-mail and the abundance of the PC contributed to the rise of the internet. In 1989, the World Wide Web was developed by Tim Berners-Lee. The World Wide Web allowed users to publish information as well as navigate through all of it. Overall, the internet as a means of mass communication has revolutionized everything about the modern world. It connects countries and people and has made everyone so interconnected that one small action could cause a tidal wave of consequences worldwide. Because immigration was opened up to all countries, there was a huge surge of new ethnic groups entering into America. In addition to the African Americans already in the US, the new surge of people brought in changes and conflicts. The black population created a new class called the underclass. They lived in poverty with little hope of moving up in the world. Nonwhites were a very disadvantaged collection of people. They faced the issue of whites who were sick of affirmative action and welfare programs. They also were in trouble because there were fewer unskilled jobs available, no transportation to the cities to find jobs, and the feelings of despair which trapped them in the ghettos. Race also played a huge role in the judicial system. In the trial of several white policemen who were seen beating an innocent black man, the officers went free after being judged by a white jury. In response the release of the officers, there were riots in the streets and around 50 people were killed. The O.J. Simpson trial was also a race trial. Most whites believed O.J. was guilty of killing his wife and another young man, while most blacks believed him innocent. DNA evidence was first utilized in this case but in front of a black jury, O.J. was declared innocent leaving the white community to fume silently. Overall, the races clashed more and more as blacks gained more freedom and more minority groups immigrated in. Racism is still a struggle today although many people have begun to change their mindsets to accept other ethnic groups.

Politics in a Multicultural Society

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David Gaisford

28.The United States In the Post-Cold War World

Globalization and the American Economy
Reagen-omics Eron Corp. Experienced many economic booms and disasters President Clinton balances the Government budget Many U.S. Companies began to outsource their companies as labor is cheaper overseas. Camp David Accords The U.S. sold weapons to the Contras in Nicaragua. Contra Affair Iran Hostage Crisis U.S. is neutral to both Iran and Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War America Invades panama to remove Noriega from power Gulf War escalades after Bin Laden invades Kuwait In 91 the Soviet Union officially is Dissolved U.S. becomes involved in Iraq to oust Al Qaeda and Saddam from power after terrorist attacks of 9/11 First attack on the World Trade Center in New york by terrorists. Meant to take down the towers but failed. Oklahoma City Bombing took place at a government building in Oklahoma City by Timothy McVeigh. September 11, 2001 two planes crash into the twin towers in New York in a second attempt to take them down. This attempt succeeds. Planes also crash into the pentagon and a field in Pennsylvania The Shoe Bomber The underwear bomber The Unabomber Al Qaeda In the middle east Osama Bin Laden Saddam Hussein Nuclear Energy becomes an issue Smog

Unilateralism vs. Multilateralism in foreign policy

Domestic and Foreign Terrorism

Environmental issues in a global context

Japanese Nuclear Melt-down after tsunami and earthquake

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