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246 21/6 5383 254/6 3664 7/6

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247 22/6 .5385
248 77/5 .2673
249 .1565
250 .2473
251 .2358
252 1669 .374 .
253 179/2 183 221 .
254 2364.2365

74

.
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8-3

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Precipitation
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81

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4-4 Water source selection

82

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83

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5-4 Precipitation
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Claypeyrons equation
.1-4
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:
dP
dT

L
T V f V i

dP
dT

= )(

Vf

Vi

= .

) (
Vi Vf
.2-4
)(2-4

V f = RT
P

87

= R = 0.08205 /.
1-4 .3-4
)(3-4

dP = LP
dT
R T2

.4-4
)4-4(

P = Po e RT

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Ln P = L
RT
Po

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( . )(255

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.

} .{17 .
256 .{12}257
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. .

255
256
257 :

88

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:Cyclonic precipitation
.
.

} :{4 :Frontal
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. Warm front

.{18} Cold front Non-frontal

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Conventional

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.
.

. }.{4
10 .
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2.8 7.6

7.6

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89

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:

:Manual gauges )24

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5 ) 12.7( .

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258

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.
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10 .

.
.

258 .

90

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: RADAR
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:Interpolation of rain fall records

.
:

(
.

(
.

.5-4

N x Pc
Nc

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N x Pb
Nb
3

N x Pa
Na

:
= N

= a,b,c

= Px x
:
.

91

= Px

 1-4
)( )(

. )(
( .
( .

)(

914
898
992
997
1175
1098
1622
1128
938
652
607
312

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996

867
952
1129
1051
896
769
868
798
768
756
426
468

)(

689
686
855
916
994
542
652
840
353
273
210
188

946
961
937
989
698
516
823
998
757
519
550
419

(1 : .

(2 .

)(

)(

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996

914
898
992
997
1175
1098
1622
1128
938
652
607
312

867
952
1129
1051
896
769
868
798
768
756
426
468

946
961
937
989
698
516
823
998
757
519
550
419

909
937
1019.3
1012.3
923
794.3
1104.3
974.7
821
642.3
527.7
399.7

909
1846
2865.3
3877.7
4800.7
595
6699.3
7674
8495
91337.3
9665
10064.7

92

689
686
855
916
994
542
652
840
353
273
210
188

689
1375
2230
3146
4140
4682
5334
6174
6527
6800
7010
7198

785
781
974
1043
1132
617
743
957
402
311
239
214

 (3 )( .
(4 .1992

)( .
= = .1.14 .

12000
10000
1-4

6000
4000
2000

12000

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

2-4
) (a .

) (b) (c) (d ) (a41 58 73 :

. ) (a) (b) (c) (d706 450 960 :

319 ).(a

-1 73 = Pb : 58 = Pc 41 = Pd 960 = Na 450 = Nb 706 = Nc

319 = Nd .

-2 x .5-4

119 = {(31941960) + (70658960) + (45073960)}(31) = Pa

93

8000

 ) ( :
.

. .6-4
)(6-4

az + b

=P

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= z

= a ) 50 60 100 100 (.
) ( :
. .

.7-4

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P ' = e D

:
= D
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6-4 7-4 .8-4

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Aerial Distribution of rainfall

:
.

.
.

9-4 .
n
P
P av = ni
i =1

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:

= Pav )(
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94

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:Thiessen method

(1 .
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(3 .

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(4
.

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. 10-4 .

n
Ai Pi
= i =1
n
Ai
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P mean

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2

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.
} .{20
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95

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.

-2 .

-3 - - - -
.

-4
.11-4
A i P i + P i + 1

2
i =1

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Ai

= P av

i =1

3-4

1
2
3
4
5
6

)(
50
62
75
100
106
95

)(%
9
13
17
20
30
11

-1 : .
-2 Pav = (Pi/n) :
81.3 = 6 (95 + 106 + 100 + 75 + 62 + 50 ) = Pav.

-3 Pmean=(A1/A)P1+(A2/A)P2+..+ :
(An/A)Pn
= ) 87.6 = 100 (1195 + 30106 + 20100 + 1775 + 1362 + 950.
:Net storm rain

.
12-4
96

)12-4(

= +

)12-4(

)P = (I + Ea + Pe) + (F + Sd

= P

= I

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= F

= Sd

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f-capacity -index.
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( )
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(
)

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( } .{21 13-4
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f = f c + ( f o f c) ek f t

:
= f )( t
= fo
= fc

97

 = kf
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.14-4

)(14-4

t
) ( f o f c
1 ek f t
F = fdt = f c t +

0
kf

= F t
= t

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)(15-4

kf

= Fc

4-4

2.7 = Fc 9.9 = fo / 0.6 = fc / .

20.

-1 2.7 = Fc : 9.9 = fo / 0.6 = fc / 20 = t .

-2 3.44 = 2.7 (0.6 - 9.9) = Fc (fc - fo) = kf

-3 f = fc + (fo - fc) e -kft :
e(9.3) + 0.6 = t3.44--e(0.6 - 9.9) + 0.6 = f

t3.44--

-4 20 20 = t = 0.333 = 6020
e(9.3) + 0.6 = f :

0.3333.44-

= 3.55/

: .
.

. }:{34

: Infiltrometers . 5-4
1.

) (
. : Rainfall

Stimulators
Flooding Type

98

Hydrograph

 Analysis ) :
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99

6-4

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5-4

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47 :
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5

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9
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4

100


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( :W-index
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. .16-4
F = P Q S
tf
tf

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= W

:
= W

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( Wmin Index :
.
.

}.{420
( Antecedent Precipitation Index :
} .{4
.17-4
)(17-4

It = Io*kt

101

:
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: Rainfall intensity and duration

. .

)
( )

( ) :
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a
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19-4 .
)(19-4

c
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t

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:
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0.282

)(20-4

2.54

= P ) (
= N N N = 10/n
= n .
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= i )/(.

102

1214
105
.
= P
Nt
600

 .21-4
)(21-4

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)/( .22-4

)(22-4

0.282
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2.54
t

: .
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.
.

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:Evaporation Pan Method

: )

( ) (

) ( )
(.

103

 ) ( ) Water Budget Approach (Storage Equation

.

.23-4
)(23-4

ET = P + I + Qu + Qs + S

= ET
= P

= Qu
= I

= Qs
= S ) (
: Mass Transfer Method
.24-4
:

)(24-4

)EV = b(es - e

= EV

= es

= e

= b .

: Energy Budget Method

. )
( . .25-4
Es E r E b + E v Eo
) rL(1 + R

)(25-4
:
= EV
= Es
= Er

= Eb
= Ev
104

= EV

 = Eo
= r

= L
= R Bowen .26-4

) 0.61P(Tw Ta

)(26-4

) 1000(es ea

=R

= P )(

= Tw

= Ta
= es )( Tw
= ea )(

:Empirical Formulae
. 27-4
.

)27-4(

)EVa = C(es - e)f(u

= EVa )/(
= C
= es )( ) (t ) (
= e )( ) (t ) (
) = f(u .
:

: 27-4:
:

)27-4(

)EVa = 0.35(es - e)(0.5 + 0.5u2

= u2 2 )/(

-4
27:

)27-4(

)EVa = 0.345(ew - e)(1 + 0.25 u6

= u6 6 )/(.

105

 :Penmans Theory :
} .{4
) (

) ( .
) (stomata } .{24 28-4 .

H + E a
+

)(28-4

= ET

:
= ET

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=

= )= 0.66 e (
= Ea ) (
{25} Monteith ) (

. .
29-4 .

)acp (es e

w
ra

+ 1 + r s

H +

)(29-4

ra

:
= ET
= a
= w

= cp
=

= ra

= rs
= es
= e
= rs ) ( .

106

= ET


.
.

: : . Roof

:catchments .
. :
.

. )(
.
: )( .

.
.

6-4

)/( 900
48 80
.

-1 : = 900/ = 48 = %80
2

-2 = 32 = 48

-3 = 23.04 = 0.8320.9 = )36.1 = 365 (100023.04

3

/.

Ground Catchments

. .

. :

.

107

 6-4

.
.
.

: .
) ( . : . : .

. . :
.

"" " : " . :

. . :
. : . :
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.
.

.
.
.

.
}.{12
:
.

)6-4(
%40 .
) 6-4(
108

 Thermocline Metalimnium Eplimnium

) .(Hypolimnium
.

Turbulent eddies
.Eplimnium )

( .

) :
( . ) ( Oligotrophic

.Eutrophic Oligotrophic
.

.
.Eplimnium

Tophogenic zone . Tropholytic

.zone
50 400/ .
: )(

silicic .
.
: C H O N P

S Ca Mg K .Fe

)( .dystrophic ) (7-4
}.{26

109

 ) (7-4 }{26

Ca, P, N

fauna

) ( .

: : :
.
. :

: . : .
.
} .{1 : } .{12 :
}.{12

.

.

. ) (Intake .

110

 .
. )(

.
.

: :Infiltration System
.
.
.
2 3

. 20
25 . 10 15
. .

.
)(

. )(

. .
. :

:Direct river intake .

.

.
.
.

4000

. 84
4200

111

 2500
1250 . %6

. %80

%20 .

%59 %14

%13 %14 . %85

%15 .
%68 : %22 %5 %5 } .{27
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59

68

14

22

13

14

%59 % 5 .

% 60 % 20 .

} .{29

1600 5400

/ %45 %15 %40 .

.
.

1904 1912

1938 . 1937
2.5 . 1925

112

 1929
) ( 18.5 } .{28 1960

1.3 1966 .
7.6 10 }.{27
: :
) : (
. Velocity-area method

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( . ) (
. Weirs Flumes

.Culvert : -
}.{34

:Runoff percentage method

) (
. .

:Peak discharge ) (

) Spillways
( .

. ) (Design flow
. :

:
.

)( : .

. :

- . Chow

113

 : .

.
)(

The Rational method, Time of Concentration

:method ) ( .

) (
.

.30-4
)(30-4

Q = 27.78 C I A

= Q )/(
= C ) (
= I ) rainfall intensity /(

= A )(
40 80 .
)(31-4

Q = 2.78 C I A

31-4 Q A .
}:{3420

) (
) (.

) (
. ) (Q ) (I = Q I
= .

.
.

114

 .
.
.
:
. 1851

.Thomas J. Mulvany : )

-( .

. .

5 30 5 15 .
)
( 5 ) (9-4
.

) (9-4

)(
5

10 15

20 30

32-4 .
)(32-4

= 2.19 L.n
S

= tc )(
= L )(365 L
= S )/(

= n . ) (10-4 .n

115

2.14

tc

 ) (10-4

0.02

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

0.8

.
) ( .33-4
m

)(33-4

cT

)(t + d

=i

:
= i
= d , n ) d n (1

= T )(
= m

} .{14
.
) (11-4 5 10.

:
:Creage formula
)(34-4

0.938
A 0.048

Q = 13
) . C' ( 0.386A

- :Burkly-Ziegler formula
)(35-4

Q = 0.7CIA[S/A]0.25

116

:
= C
= I

= A
= S .

. : Salt Velocity

Salt Dilution .{419} Radioactive Tracers

( :Constant rate injection method

) ( .
} .{30

.36-4

)(36-4

QCb + qCi = (Q +q)Cm

:
= Q

= q
= Cb

= Ci ) (
= Cm ) (

117

 ) (11-4 }{14

0.7 0.95

0.5 0.7

0.3 0.5

0.4 0.6

0.25 0.4

0.5 0.7

0.6 0.75

0.5 0.8

0.1 0.25

0.2 0.4

0.2 0.4

0.1 0.3

0.6 0.9

0.7 0.95

0.8 0.95

0.7 0.85

0.75 0.95

0.75 0.95

0.05 0.1

%2

2 % 7

0.1 0.15

%7

0.15 0.2

heavy soil
%2

0.13 0.17

2 % 7

0.18 0.22
0.25 0.35

%7

118

( :Instantaneous injection method

.

.37-4

)(37-4

A o = Q. C. dt
0

:
= Ao

= Q

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.

. ) (82Br

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.

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Rating Curve .

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. :

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119


( .
. .
) ( )) : Flow mass curve (Ripple diagram, S-curve (7-4
: ) (.

.38-4
:

)(38-4

V = Q t . dt = Q t. t

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= Q t1 t2
.

) ( .
. )

( ) (Draft line .

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.

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)( .

)( )(
.

)( .
)( )(
.

)( .
)( )( )( )(.

)( )( )( )( )( )(
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.

120

draft line

) (

)(

t1

t2

7-4 4
7-4

230 .
. .

)
(
6

)
(
40

26

28

24

15

47

62

67

121


-1 : 230/3 .
-2 :

) (

40

(
46

26

72

28

100

24

124

131

133

134

15

149

47

196

62

258

67

325

-3 ) (
.

-4 ) ( =

)230 /3( ) 60 /( ) 24 /( ) 365 /( = 610120.89 /3.

-5 )( .
-6 )(

= 61020.3

35
-4

30
25

20

15
10
50

122

 : Hydrograph )
( . }{34
Base Flow .39-4
:

)(39-4

Qt = Qa*e- t

= Qt t

= Qa
=

= e .

) ( Unit Hydrograph
) (

} .{3420
} .{15

} .{410

.

8-4

3810 /
3

1100/3 .
( .

( .

-1 : Qt Qa 1100 = Q30 3810 = Q10

3

-2 Qt = Qa*e- t :
1.2
)(1

)(2
1 2 0.06 = a :

123

10-

= 3810 Qae
30-
= 1100 Qa e

 -3 1 2 Qa:

0.0610e(603810) = 60Q
= 118.2/3
-4 Qt = 118.2*e-0.06*t :

-5
4Qt = 118.2*e-0.06*t :

0.0660e 118.2 = 60Q

= 3.2/3

-6 5 :

0.06150 e 118.2 = 150 Q

= 0.01/3.

) (

} .{34 }

{ .53 : }

{ .41 : }

{ .12 :

( )

( . : )

( ) (

)(.
.

)(
}.{34

124

 7-4

. :

. : ) : (

) : ( .

. :
(1 Meteoric water .

(2 Juvenile water .
(3 Rejuvenated water ) (
) (.

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. .

.
:

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.
. .

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: )( .
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40
/.

125

 Fissured aquifers
.

8/.

)( Karstic aquifers

30/.
Ground water exploration

.
)( ) ( .

) ( .
.40-4
= +
:

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)40-4(

f + i + r + a = o + q + p +s

= f : .

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= r
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)( .
.

.41-4

126

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v = k*i

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d
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:
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) (

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v' = v
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:
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: Confined Aquifer
.44-4
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v x = k. dx

:
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= k )/(
= )(

= x )(

127

 .45-4

d
dx

)(45-4

q = kH.

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3

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:

)( : Steady flow state

.46-4
dq
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44-4 x 46-4 .47-4

2
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:

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d =0
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48-4 .49-4
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= bx + a

=
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= vx
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x .
One-dimensional flow

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)
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(.

) (.

128

 51-4 .
)(51-4

q = kh dh
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53-4

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Phreatic Surface -4

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dq
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N .57-4

129

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+ ax + b
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130

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131

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132

 - Talus Spring

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8-4

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Alluvial-slope Spring

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8-4

133

 - Monoclinal Spring

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9-4

10-4

134

 : .

:

(1 ) :Spring box (11-4

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.
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135

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136

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.

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138

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139

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142

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143

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57.4182

57.4809

104
550

146

57.4471
100

-1 : .
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0.0627 = 57.4182 -

= 0.0627 = 62.7

-3 = = )627 = 100 (100062.7

/

-4 = ) + ( ) - ( =
0.0389 = 57.4182 - 57.4471

= 0.0389 = 38.9/

-5

= 389 = 100100038.9/

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= 238 = 389 - 627/

:
) : ( .
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:
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147

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259

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148

 . :

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) (16-4 }{3441

NH3

)(

H2S
C8H5 NH CH3
NH2(CH2)4NH2

NH2(CH2)5NH2
CH3SSCH3 ( (CH3)2S

(CH3)3N CH3NH2

)(

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:
)(
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: : ) .( :- . :
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149

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.

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.
.

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260

Spectrophotometer . Field kit

500 250
CoCl2 100

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15 5 }.{34

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:

260

150

 .
.

) ( :

. :

.59-4
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9
o
9
F = C + 32
5
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K = C + 273.16

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151

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.
. .60-4
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TDS = a*EC

= TDS )/(

= a .

= EC )/(

10-4

1470/ 2100

/ . 3850
/.

-1 TDS = a*EC
0.7 = 2100 1470 = a

-2 :
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. } .{12:

: . . - :
-
:
:
.

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}{1

) (.

. :

152

 .
.

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.

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- :
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% 8
:

o 4 + . )
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} .{34 .62-4
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= m/V

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3

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"
.63-4

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= 1/

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3

= )/ (

.64-4

153

)(64-4
:

= *g

= )/ (
3

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= g )/ (

) (
.65-4

= s. g
w

)(65-4
:
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3

= )/ (

= w )/ (
) ( : .66-4
)(66-4
:

E v = dP = dP

dV

d
V

) (

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3

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3

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66-4 .

.

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) (

.67-4

154

)(67-4

F = . A = . A. dv
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dy

67-4 )( "
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3

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:
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} .{34
1000 }.{14

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.
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261

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261
262 .

155

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.

) 16-4( .

263

. )
( .
11-4

:
2
4-103.8 / 0.78 .

-1 4-103.8 = : /0.78 = sg
2

-2 1000/

: =
3

780 = 10000.78 = /

-3 = /
0.296 = 780 4-103.8 = /

263

156

- 6 4 3

Thixotropic

Rheopectic

16-4

157

 : }.{1
.

: : } {12

. 17-4 .

.69-4
g.r
g.D
)= h(1 2
2 cos
4 cos

)(69-4

) = h(1 2

:
= )/(

= h ) ( )(
3

= 1 )/ (

= 2 ) ( )/ (
2

= g )/ (
= r )(

= ) ) ( =

140 (
= D )(

12-4
0.95 .

18 .

-1 0.95 = h : 18 = T

-2 18
2-

107.31 = /109.793 =

- 3--

-3 :
D = 4**cos/g*h
2-107.314) = D () 0.031 = (3-100.95 3-109.793 = 31.

:

.
:
-

:
}.{12

. : .

158

 .
" " " " .

.70-4

)(70-4

'e = P - P

= e

= P
' = P

) ( )(
. ) (

. " ".

. "

" } .{34 71-4

.
)(71-4

h = 100e

es

= h )(%

= e

= es .

-
17-4 4

159


. "
" } .{34 . Psychrometer

. .

.
. }:{3442

:
.

: ) .( Ether
.
. .

.

:Psychrometer .
.72-4
)(72-4

)ew - e = (t - tw

= ew
= e

= tw
= . 3/
e 0.66 = e
.{11} 0.485 =
: . :
-
2-7-4 :
}.{12

. .
:

160

 . .
.Ion pair
} .{636-3
.
. 50 } {43

.
.

} {4
) ( }.{44

) ( ) .(18-4
.

) 10 ( .

. 30 99
.
8

) 103/( .
.

. 4
) 2 (
:

XAz YAz42 + He42

:
= X

= Y
= Z )= (

= A )= (
= He ) (

161

18-4 6 4 3

- Lo
Lt
-
t
BODt
-
t

19-4 -

162

-
BOD

0
Z YZ
XA
A + 1 + e 1

:
= e )(
} :

) ( He 12 ) (e 01 ) ( n 10 ) ( H 11 ) { ( D 12 .

} .{4 .

.
) (

}:{44

(1 ) :Roentgen (R

9 102.89 :

1 R = 2.58x10-4 C/kg
(2 ) : Radiation absorbed dose (rad

.
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(3 ) : Rad equivalent man (rem
.
:

)1 rem = 0.01 Sv (Seivert

(4 ) : Curie (Ci

. 10 103.8 .
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(5 ) : electron volt (eV .

. ) (17-4 .

163

 ) (17-4 }{34

90 Sr

28.1

40 K

9 101.28

218 Po

3.05

78Br

6.4

3H

12.3

234 u

5 102.48

238 U

9 104.51

60 Co

5.3

41C

5730

37 1 Cs

30

13 F

32 P

14.3

24 Na

15

226 Ra

1600

214 Pb

26.8

234 Th

24.1

.

. :

.
" ".

.73-4

)(73-4
:

= no
= nt t

= k )

0.693
t1
2

= (k

= t1/2

164

Ln n t = kt

no

 13-4
4 8 . 32

49.6 . 2.45

-1 4 = no : 8 = t1/2 .
-2 / 0.0866 = 8 0.693 = k :
-3 32 49.6 :
ln n t = k. t
no
= 320.0866- 4
= 0.25
e
noe-kt = 32n :
:

49.6n

= 0.054

-4 1.55 = 2.45 - 4 = nt

2.45 t = - (Ln nt/no ) k :

- = t ) 10.94 = 0.0866 (41.55.

2-8-4

. :

-
.

: Berzelius

H2CO3 CO2 H2CO2 CH4

.
.

) (18-4 .

165

 ) (18-4

(
)

)

(

) (

: 14 7
7 7 . :

) : ( .

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( . .74-4

)(74-4

pH = - Log [H+] = Log 1

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:
= pH
] =[H+

166

 : 7
.
.

: .
.
.
.
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-

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250/
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( .

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7 :} : . { 56 : :
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.
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167

 19-4 )( }{3433

++

HCO3

Ca

++
Fe
++
Mg

++

NO3-

- )( SO4
Cl
SiO3

Mn
++

Sr

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.

.
.

. }{39
.75-4
)(75-4

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++
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) (20-4
.

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)/(CaCO3
75

76 150

151 175

176 300

300

168

 :
.

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) (.

.
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1 . 10 %15

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.

17 48 .

150 250/.

.
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.
.
.

) ( :Methods of water softening

:

) ( } .{34 :

( :
. :
Ca(HCO3) 2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

35/ .
.

169

( :Lime treatment
. .

.
CO2 + Ca(HCO3) 2 CaCO3 + H2O
Ca(HCO3) 2 + Ca(OH) 2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg(HCO3) 2 + Ca(OH) 2 MgCO3 + 2H2O + CaCO3

MgCO3 + Ca(OH) 2 Mg(OH) 2 + CaCO3

MgSO4 + Ca(OH) 2 Mg(OH) 2 + CaSO4
MgCl2 + Ca(OH) 2 Mg(OH) 2 + CaCl2
,

( :Lime-soda treatment

CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl
)(
.

. 30/.

( : ) ( .
.
) (

0.25 0.5 . .
Ca (or Mg ) + Na2R CaR + 2Na+
Ca(HCO3) 2 + Na2R CaR + 2NaHCO3
Mg(HCO3) 2 + Na2R MgR + 2NaHCO3
CaSO4 + Na2R CaR + Na2SO4
MgSO4 + Na2R MgR + Na2SO4
CaCl2 + Na2R CaR + 2NaCl
MgCl2 + Na2R MgR + 2NaCl
++

170

++

:
= R ) ( .

:
CaR + 2NaCl CaCl2 + Na2R
MgR + 2NaCl MgCl2 + Na2R
) = /( .
.
14-4
:

++

Mg

)/(
36.5

--

SO4

)/(
72

Na
++
Sr

46
4.4

Cl
HCO3

42.6
152.5

Ca

50

NO3

++

( /.
( .
(

( .

( .

-1 : .

-2 .76-4
)(76-4

Co
EW

=C

:
= C )/(

= Co )/(

= EW

)(77-4

171

EW = MW
Z

 = MW ) (
= Z

-3 / /CaCO3
:

= = )50 = 2 (40 + 12 + 3 16
.

/ /CaCO3

)
++

Ca
++
Mg
++
Sr
+
Na
)

20
24.3
43.8
23

50
36.5
4.4
46

2.5
1.5
0.1
2

125
75.1
5
100

HCO3
SO4
Cl
NO3

61
48
35.5
62

2.5 152.5
1.5
72
1.2 42.6
0.9 55.8

125
75
60
45

-4 :
= ) + + ( = 4.1 = 0.1+1.5+2.5
/ = 205 = 504.1 /CaCO3

= = 2.5/ = 125 = 502.5/CaCO3

= - = 80 = 125 - 205/CaCO3
-5 : =
+

NO3 + 5.2 = 6.1 :

: 0.9 = NO3/ = 55.8 = 620.9 /NO3 = 45 = 500.9

/CaCO3

-6 . :
= 2.5/ = 125/CaCO3

= 1.5/ = 75/CaCO3
= 0.1/ = 5/CaCO3

= 0.1/ = 5/CaCO3
= 1/= 50/CaCO3
= 0.9/= 45/CaCO3

172


: .
.

.
.

: .
.78-4
P g MW
RT

)(78-4
:

= Cg

= Cg )/ (
= Pg ) / (
2

)(79-4

Pg = xg*kH

= kH
= xg
ng
) ( ng + n w

)(80-4

= xg

= ng

= nw

= R = 8.3143/
= T )(

.81-4
:

)(81-4

Cs = kD*Cg

= Cs )/ (

= kD .

.82-4
)(82-4

173

) Cs( P p w
)(760 pw

= 'C

:
' = C P )/(
= Cs )/(

= P )( )(

= pw )(
15-4
22 690
8.33/.

-1 22 = T : 690 = P 8.33 = C' /.

-2 22 19.82

-3 82-4 :

)= 8.33Cs (19.82 - 760) (19.82 - 690

9.2 = Cs :/
: .

(i - : .
.

(ii : .

(iii : ) (H2SO4
.
- :

.
.
)( . 20 5
. 20

. 95 99

60 70 .
.
.

174

 - :

. ) ( - .

. } .{633-3

.83-4

)(83-4

dL = k ' L
dt

= L
= t
' = k )= (
t

) 84-4 ( dL = kL :
dt
0
Lo

Lt
= e k ' t = 10 k1t
Lo

)(84-4
:

= Lt - t

= Lo -

= -.

= k1 k1 = 0.4343*k' :
.85-4

)(85-4

- .86-4

)(86-4

BOD t = Lo Lt = Lo 1 10 k1t

' BOD 520 = L o 1 10 5k 1 = L o 1 e 5k

175

 16-4
- 5 670/ 20 .
- 0.14 ) .(10

-1 5 = t :/ 0.14 = k1 670 = BOD5 /.

20

-2 ) :

-5k1

20

BOD5 = Lo(1 - 10

(0.145-10 -1)Lo = 670

837 = Lo :/.
) (Lo )' (k -

. ) 1 -

(e-k't )

) ( 1+

k' t
6

( k ' t .87-4

) (

)(87-4

k' t
6

1+

BOD = Lo k ' t

87-4 88-4
2

( k ') 3 t
1
t 3

= ( k ' L o) 3 +
1
BOD
( 6 L o) 3

)(88-4

= BOD - t

= t
' = k ) (e

= Lo -
88-4 .89-4
)(89-4

y = a + bx

:
1
3

y= t
BOD

1
3

176

)a = ( k ' L o

( k ') 3
1

( 6 L o) 3

=b

) (y ) (x ) (b ) (a
. ' k Lo .90-4
)90-4(

k ' = 6ab

)90-4(

k' a

= Lo

88-4 .91-4
2

( k1 ') 3 t

)(91-4

3.43 ( L o) 3

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 9-4
.1993 ( 1)
: ( 2)
.244 - 232 . 1977
.1995 ( 3)
( ) ( 4)
.

( 5)

.1986
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196



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215

(7)Rowe, D. R. and I. M. Abdel-Magid, Handbook of wastewater reclamation and reuse,

CRC Press\Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, 1995.
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216



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) 1 + exp( a + bt

:
= Pc t
= t )(

= k, a, b

t2 t1 ti

.14-6
)(14-6

)(t1 - ti) = (t2 - ti

Pi P1 P2 .
.ti ti t1 ti t2 n . k a b -6

15 .17-6

223

Pi + P2
P i P 2 P12

)(15-6

k = 2 Pi P1 P 2 P12
k Pi

)(16-6

Pi

a = Ln

) P i ( k P1
Ln

) P1 ( k P i

)(17-6

1
n

=b

1-6

P1 2 = ti 17 = t1 45 = t2 42 = Pi :
= 238 = P2 125

-1238 = P2 125 = P1 2 = ti 45 = t2 17 = t1 42 = Pi :
-2 k :15-6

= )k563.67 =( (125)-23842)/(238+125) (125)-238125422

2

-3 b 17-6

0.0843 - = [(42 - 563.67) 125 (125 - 563.67)42 In] (2 - 17) 1 = b

-4 a a = Ln (k - Pi )/ Pi :
= a})2.5194 = {42 (42 - 563.67

-5 Pc :
563.67
k
=
= Pc
1 + exp( a + bt ) 1 + e2.5194 0.843t

441 = Pc 45

5-6

) .(2-6 .

:
.

: .

: .

224

 ) (2-6 }{ 101213
)(
50
30

*
*

*
*

30
15
10
15 - 10
30
30 - 20
15

30

6-6 }{10

. .
.

.
) (Hydrant 150
. 15

. :
) ( .
:

(1 National Board of Fire Underwriters formula

(

200.000 18-6 .

225

)(18-6

Q = 4637 P 1 0.01 P

:
= Q )/(
= P )(

200.000 54.600/

9.100 36.400/ .

)( : :
= 2.200/

= 4.500/

= 7.650 13.500/
27.000/
(2 Freeman .19-6
)(19-6

Q = 1136.5 P + 5
5

(3 Kuichlings formula .20-6

= Q )/(

)(20-6

Q = 3182 P

= P )(

(4 Bustons formula .21-6

)(21-6

Q = 5663 P

7-6
:
.
1-7-6:
: . :- ) .(

:
} .{48
:

:
.

} .{49 :
).{49
. :

226

 ) (2-6 :
.

.
)( .

.

. :
. : .

) (3-6 }.{19-14 9-3

) (3-6

)(

40

20 40

1 20
0.02 0.06

: )( .
: . ) - (

.
.

. .

227

2-6 5-2

0.5 . ) (

0.3 0.5/ . 0.7

1/ .

1 25
.
.

228

 2 5

.

) ( .
.

.
2-7-6

. : .

:

.

.

:

} .{49

: } .{48
: .
-

.


: . :

:

:

( ) ( . :
.

.
.

) (3-6 .

. Scum
.

229

: )

( )
(

) : ...
(.

: ) ( .

)( .
)( .

. :
)( .
.

: .

.Discrete

. ) (

} :{67

) (.

. .
.

230


) ( }.{67
:
. :

) ( :Discrete settling, Class I settling

) (
.

.
. :
.

) ( : Hindered (zone) settling

. :

) (

. 22-6 .0.2
)(22-6

v' = (1 - C )4.65
v
v

:
' = v ) /(

= v ) /(

= Cv = .
: Flocculent settling
.

: Compression settling
.

231

 )( :
.

.23-6
) - ( =

V g (s ) = C D A v
2
2

)(23-6
:

= V ) (
2

= g )/ (

= s )/ (
3
= )/ (

= A ) (

= v )/(

= CD ) ( .
) ( .
.24-6

)(24-6

24
CD = Re

= Re

.25-6
)(25-6
:

vd

= Re

= )/ (

= v )/(
= d )(

= )/ (

.26-6

232

)gd 2(s. g 1
18

)(26-6

=v

:
= v )/(
2

= g )/ (

= d )(
= s.g.

= )( ) /(

)( 104
> Re > 0.5 .27-6
)(27-6

24 + 3 + 0.34
CD = Re
Re

= CD
= Re

.28-6
) 4g d ( s. g 1
=v

3 CD

)(28-6
. 500 < Re < 104

0.4
.29-6

])[3.3g d( s. g 1

)(29-6

=v

2-6
1.24 0.04

25 . .

-1 0.04 = d 1.24 = s.g. 25 = T

-2 25 100.898 =

-3 :

233

2 6-

/.

 0.233 = (3-100.89818){(1 - 1.24)2(3-100.04)9.81} = v/

-4 Re = vd
0.01 = (6-100.898)((10000.04)(10000.233)) = Re
0.5
.

. .
. ) ( Co
) (C1, C2,....Cn
) . (h1, h2,....hn ( ht11 =) v1 .
v1 . ) X1
(v C1 :
. X1 = C
1
o

) .(4-6
.30-6
x0

)(30-6

vdx

vso

XT = 100 X0 +

) ( 0.65
0.85 .

1.25 1.5

} .{19 vso
) HT B (L

.31-6

Q
Q
=
A BL

)(31-6

Xo

) (

vso

4-6 234

A
Q

V
V

hT
= vso = t

 3-6
12
2930

)/

) (
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8

)(
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4

(
28
52
68
95
20
26
40
53
18
22
27
36

( 200/.
( .

-1 2 = N2930 = Q / 12 = D .
3

-2 :
=
) :

= - 100 ( )(32-6

235

)/(

0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8

3600
7200
10800
14400
3600
7200
10800
14400
3600
7200
10800
14400

0.1667
0.0833
0.0556
0.0417
0.3333
0.1667
0.1111
0.0833
0.5
0.25
0.1667
0.125

28
52
68
95
20
26
40
53
18
22
27
36

) (

)(

)(%
72
48
32
5
80
74
60
47
82
78
73
64

-3
) ( ) (.

-4 = q

= 0.017 = (2460602) 2930/3

-5 A = (/4)*D2
133.097 = 41212 =A

-6 vs = Q/A
0.15 = 133.097 0.017 = vs/
-7 = 0.15 / Xo %70
x0

-8 vdx :

vso

XT = 100 X0 +

v dX
3-

105.1 :
%60 = (3-101.5 3-105.1) + 70 - 100 = XT
-9 Ce = Co*(1 - XT) :
80 = (0.6 - 1)200 = Ce /.

236

90
80
70

50
40

3-6

60

30
20
10
0.50

0.45

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

: )(

.
:

. 580 2000

} .{67
.33-6

vH r H

)(33-6

:
= Re

= ) / (

= vH ) /(
= rH )(

= )( )/(2
= )( ) /2(

237

v H r H
=

= Re

 .34-6
Q
Q
v H = A = B h

)(34-6
:

= vH ) /(

= Q ) /(

= A ) (
= B )(

= h )(

.35-6
)(35-6

A = Bh
rH = w
p
)( B + 2 h

= rH )(

= A ) (
= wp )(

.36-6
vsB L
Q
=
)( B + 2 h) ( B + 2 h

)(36-6

= Re

. :

.
)( :
.
.
.Scour velocity )
( ) ( .

.{67} 37-6

)(37-6

238

40 s. g.1 g d
(
)
3

= vsc

:
= vsc ) /(
= s.g. ) (
= g ) /(2
= d )(

. Baffles .
:

. ) (
. .

) ( .

} .{6715

: (.
)

Froude .38-6

)(38-6

2h

2
2
Q ( B + 2 h) vs L 1 + B
v
H
= Fr
=
=
g rH
g B3h3
g h3
2 2

:
= Fr
= vH ) /(
= g ) /(2
= rH )(
38-6 :
.
.
239

 .
. } {15
Fr > 10-5 :
3-7-6 )(

. :
: . : :
:
.




: . } .{48 :
-
.{49

-


.

. :
} .{49 ) ( : } .{49

: .

)(
.
) ( :

. )
( .

: 270 271 )
272 273 .
:

275

274

)( Hydrophilic

. Hydrophobic

} .{671020

) :

( . }.{6721

270 Al2(SO4)3.18H2O NaAlO2

271 FeSO4.7H2O + Cl2, Fe2(SO4)3 + FeCl3 FeCl3.6H2O
Fe2(SO4)3.7H2O FeSO4.7H2O
272
273
274 :
275 :

240

 :
) (
) (

) ( )
( . - -

. ) (Colloids :

)( )(
)( . :
) (Diturnal Colloids ).(Caducous Colloids

) : (5-6
) ( - )

( .
) ( .

)
( . . )
( .

. -

.

) ( .
}.{6721

:
.

.

. .

241

 .
.

. ) (5-6

. ) (
.

) .(Electrical double layer

Electrophoretic mobility . Zeta potential

5-6
242

.
. ) (

) ( }) {67172223 -6
.(6

) Stern layer
.(6-6

.Diffuse layer .
.

)
( .
.

. ) Colloidal dispersion (

. :

.
.
.

. .

243

7-6

244

Gouy layer

Stern layer

6-6

: .

.
.
Electrophoresis .

"
" . "

" . .39-6
ZP = (4**B*q+) / DI
)(39-6
:

= ZP )(
= B
= q+ )(
= DI
"

" . .40-6
)(40-6
:

= U ) /(
= y ) t(
245

yA
t i R s

=U

 = A )(2
= i )(

= Rs )(
.41-6
)(41-6

ZP = (4***U) / DI

:
= ) ( )/(2

30 60

102

4-

104

4-

/ .

.
:Mechanism of destabilization of Colloids

) - - (
.

:Double - layer compression

.
.
.

AL+3 > Ca++ > Na+ :

:

:Adsorption and charge neutralization

.

)
( .

Al2 (SO4)3

FeCl3 CaO . Ca(OH)2

246

. Sweep
.coagulation
) : Adsorption & interparticle bridging (7-6
.
.
.

.
.

:Flocculation .
) (
.
::
) :

.
.

: ) (Perkinetic
) .(Orthokinetic

.

. .

.42-6
2

)(42-6

4E k bN
3

= N t
= E
= kb

= T

247

= dN
dt

 =
= t : Ni = N t = t N = N .43-6
)(43-6

Ni

t
1+ 1
t

Ni

4E k bNi t
1+

=N

:
= Ni

)(44-6

t = 4 EkT Ni /3

= t .

. :

.
) (Spatially ) ( .

.
.45-6
2

)(45-6

dN = 2 EG d N
3
dt

.
.

.{6714} 46-6
:

)(46-6

)w = *CD*(A*v3/2

= w )/(

= ) /(3
= CD

= A )(2
= v )/(
2 5 .

.47-6

248

)(47-6

w
V

=G

:
= G ) (

= )( )/(2

= V )(3
30 ) 60 ( .

) ( ) (G*t

101

14

5 101 t }.{6724

4-6

19
1.8

36/

50

3400

-119 = T : 0.6 = 6036 = vp 1.8 = CD / 50 = G 3400 = V 1-

3 -2 19101.034 = :
3

/ 998.4 = 2 /

-3 w = *G2*V :

8.789 = 3400 (50) 3-101.034 = w.

3

-4 ) 0.7 = v ( = 0.42 = 0.60.7/

-5 A = (2w) / ( *CD*v3) :
132 = (2 (0.42)1.8998.4)(87892) = A

249

 : .

} .{6725

}.{6714

) ( . :

.
:
}:{6726

-1 : .

:
=+ 3SO4

2Al(H2O)63+

Al2(SO4) 3

-2 ) ( Hydrolysis

=15
.
[Al ( H O) OH ] + H 3 O
[Al (H O) ] + H O pH
=2

[Al ( H O) (OH ) ] + H 3 O
[Al (H O) OH] + H O pH
=4.5
[Al ( H O) (OH ) ] + H 3 O
[Al (H O) (OH) ] + H O pH
2+

3+

2+

(8 :
)
+

=8

[Al ( H O) (OH ) ] + H 3 O
[Al (H O) (OH) ] + H O pH

.
-3 Polymerization :

[Al6(OH)15]3+

[Al7(OH)17]4+

[Al8(OH)20]4+

[Al13(OH)34]5+

250

4+

(H 2 O) 4

OH
(H 2 O) 4

Al

Al
OH

:
Al2(SO4) 3 + 6H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2SO4
) : (8-6

) ( )
( .

.
:

) ( .
.

. .
.
.

) Isoconcentration lines .(8-6

.48-6

)(48-6

R n +1

Rn

:
= RT )(%
= hi ) i(
= n

= ht )(
4-7-6

: }.{48

}:{67272829

251

hn

ht

+....+

R 2

+
2

R1

h
RT = h 1
t


) (

) (

)
(

) (

) (.

: )
( )( .

. .
.

) ( .
)
)(( . .

. .

%100

8-6
252


.
.

:
.
.

.
.
:

: :

)( .

.49-6
:

)(49-6

Cs = kD*Cg

= Cs ) /(

= Cg ) /(

= kD ) ) .(4-6
) (4-6
253

KD

)/( ) (

33-

17.03
44.01
2.016
34.08
16.014
28.01
32
48

7825362162196-

10

20

30

0.0288
1.3
1.71
0.0214
4.69
0.0556
0.023
0.0493
0.641

0.0234
0.943
1.23
0.0203
3.65
0.0433
0.0192
0.0398
0.539

0.02
0.763
0.942
0.0195
2.87
0.0335
0.0166
0.0337
0.395

0.0179

183-

0.738
0.189
0.0306
0.0151
0.0296
0.259

112-

.50-6

P MW
RT

)(50-6

= Cg

:
= Cg ) /(
= P ) /(2
= MW )(

= R ) /(

= T )(
) 51-6 (.
)(51-6

= kH ) /
3

Cs = kH*P

= /( )

k D MW
RT

(k

.52-6
k b MW P

)(52-6

R To

= kb ) /( )

k DTo
T

(k

= To ) 273.16(
= T )(
254

= Cs

 .LeChatelier
Van't Hoff's equation
.53-6

)(k D)2 = (k D)1 e (T 2 T1

)(53-6
:

= (kD)2 T2
= (kD)1 T1
=
.54-6
k D Cg
)(54-6
Cs =
:

= )
(.
5-6

10 101.3
. 20.948 .

-1 10 = T : = 0.20948 = 101.3.
-2 283.16 = 273.16 + 10 = T :.
-3 100.0398 = kD :
-4 10 1.59 = pw .

-5 32 = 216 = MW

-6 ) 20964.8 = 1000(1.59-101.3)0.20948 = x(P - pw.

-7 : Cs = kD*P*MW / R*T :
3
11.3 = (283.168.3143) 3220964.80.0398 = Cs/

-8 kH = kD*MW / R*T :
105.4 = (283.168.3141) 320.0398 = kH

255

4-

 -9 kb = kD *(To/ T) :
0.0394 = 283.16 273.160.0398 = kb
Fick's law .55-6
)(55-6

dm = D A c
dt
x

:
= dm )/(
dt
2
= D ) / (
= A ) ( 2

= xc )//3(
= x )(

.
) (5-6 .
) (5-6

20 101.3

)= 10

)/(

44.01
2.016
34.08
16.014
28.01
32

1.98
0.09
1.54
0.72
1.25
1.43

/2(
20
1.68
5.13
1.41
1.5
1.64
1.8

10
1.3
3.98
1.09
1.16
1.27
1.39

9-

30
2.26
6.9
1.9
2.02
2.2
2.42

: 56-6 .
Ce Co
Cs Co

)(56-5

256

=K

:
= K ) (

= Co ) / (
= Ce ) / (
= Cs ) / (

.57-5
:

)(57-5

) CN = Cs - ( Cs - Co )*( 1 - Kn

= CN ) / (
= Kn
= N .
6-6

17
.

. 40 .

-1 17 = T : %40 = K Cs0.2 = Ce 5 = N
-2 :
) : K = (Ce - Co) / (Cs - Co = Co :
%40 = (0 - Cs ) (0 - Cs0.4) = K

-3 17 9.7 = Cs :/
-4 1.94 = 9.70.2 = Cs0.2 = Co :/

-5 ) Ce = Co + K ( Cs - Co
5.044 = (1.94 - 9.7)0.4 +1.94 = Ce1/

.
:

6.906 = (5.044 - 9.7)0.4+ 5.044 = CeI I/

:
8.024 =(6.906 - 9.7)0.4 + 6.906 = CeI I I/

257

 :
8.694 =(8.024 - 9.7)0.4 + 8.024 = CeIV/
:
9.097 =(8.694 - 9.7)0.4 + 8.694 = CeV/
:
CN = Cs - ( Cs - Co )*( 1 - Kn )N
1.94 = Co 0.4 = Kn 5 = N ::
9.097 = 5(0.4 - 1)(1.94 - 9.7) - 9.7 = CN/.
5-7-6

: .

: .

: .

: } .{48
.

: .

. :

:

.
}.{49

. :

)
(.

:
. :

: : )(
.

.
:
.
.
258

 :
.

.
.
0.01 1 .

.
. : .

. :

} .{67 )
( .

: :
. :

. :
. } {303132

.58-6

)(58-6

N = 12 Q

= N )(
3

= Q ) /(

} {33 .59-6
)(59-6

N = 15 Q

7-6
125 .
8

259


-1 125 = Q / 3 8 = vf / 3 2
-2 N = 12 Q
(3600 125)12 = N

0.5

4 ) (

-3 A = Q / vf
375 = 8(24125) = A

-4 )An = A / (N - 1
= A : = 375 = An 2 .
125 = (1-4) 375 = An :

. .
: .

.
:
.60-6
)(60-6

1 f L v2
2 D 2g

= h1

:
= hl )(
= f
= L )(

= v )/3/2(

= d )(

= g )/(2

. 61-6 .
)(61-6
:

= rH )(

260

d = 4rH

 .62-6
)(62-6

1 f L v2
8 rH g

= h1

.63-6
Q
' va = A

)(63-6

= va )/(
= Q )/3(

' = A )(2

.64-6
)(64-6
:
= v )/(

= e ) (

= = eV
:

= V ).(3

)nVp = (1 - eV
:

= n
= Vp .
) nVp/(1 - e
)). e(nVp/(1 - e

nAp
:

Ap .

261

v = vea

 .65-6
Vp
= e
1 e Ap

)(65-6

e nV P

1 e

nA

= rH

.66-6
)(66-6

VP = d
AP 6

.67-6
)(67-6

VP = d
AP
6

:
= = .

.

.
.68-6

)(68-6

r H = 1e e d6

- :
2
L 1 e va
D e 3 dg

)(69-6
.70-6
)(70-6

h1 = E 1

)150(1 e
.
+ 175
Re

=E

:
= Re =

v a d

= E -.
.

.71-6
)(71-6

)d = 6(V/A)av = 6(Vav/Aav

262

:
= Vav
= Aav
.72-6
)(72-6

av

EL(1 e)v2a A
V
6 e3g

) (

= h1

(A/V)av )'(6)(x/d
:

= x )(
' = d

) ( .73-6
)(73-6

2
dh1 (1 e)va f
=

'd
e3g
dL

.74-6

)(74-6

x
' d

va2

)L(1 e
e3g

= h1

:
= hl )(
= e ) (
= va )/(
= L ) (

= g )/(2
= d ) (

= )(
Dimensional Analysis
.75-6
)(75-6

263

2
1 vf L
=
1067
.
hf
CD
e 4 gd

:
= hf ) (
= CD .
76-6 .

)(76-6

24 + 3 + 0.34
C D = Re
Re

:
= vf )/(
= L )(
= g )/(2
= d )(

= e ) (
= Re =

v d

8-6
.

0.8

0.6

)(

0.6

1.2

0.9

0.85

)(%

0.5

0.55

)(

) /32(

199

)(

18

-.
- .

-1 : 0.8 = L:100.6 = D
0.6101.2 = D

3-

3-

0.55 = e 0.85 =

264

0.5 = e 0.9 = = L :

 -2 102.303 = (246060) 199 = vf :

3-

/.

-3 18 = :
101.06

3-

/ 2 998.6 = /

-4 :
:
*

v d

= Re

1.302 = (3-101.06)(3-100.6 3-102.303998.6) = Re

* 24 + 3 + 0.34
CD = Re
Re

21.406 = 0.34 + ((0.5 1.032)3) + (1.30224) = CD

* ])hf = (1.067*CD*vf2*L) / (g*d**e4
2
293 = {40.50.93-100.69.81}{0.8 (3-102.303)21.4061.067} = hf
:

* Re = *v*d/
2.6035 = (3- 101.06)(3- 101.23- 102.303998.6) = Re
* CD = (24 / Re) + (3 / [Re]1/2) + 0.34
11.418 = 0.34 + (0.5 2.6035)3) + (2.603524) = CD
* ])hf = (1.067*CD*vf2*L) / (g*d**e4
2 3 42 = {40.550.853-101.29.81}{0.6 ( 102.303)11.4181.067} = hf
* = +
= 335 =42 + 293

-5 :
:

* 1.302 = Re :

* E E = [150 (1-e) / Re] + 1.75

59.35 = 1.75 + {1.302(0.5-1)150} = E

* - )hf = [E*(1-e)*vf2*L] / (g*d*f*e3

32 3 190 = {30.50.9 100.69.81}{0.8 ( 102.303)(0.5-1)59.35} = hf
:

* 2.6035 = Re :

* E E = [150 (1-e) / Re] + 1.75

27.677 = 1.75 + {2.6035 (0.55-1)150} = E

265

* - )hf = [E*(1-e)*vf2*L] / (g*d*f*e3

2 3 24 = {30.550.853-101.29.81}{0.6 ( 102.303)(0.55-1)27.677} = hf
= 214 = 24 + 190.

-6 :
= ])%36 = 335 [100 (214 - 335
:
0.4 1.2 .
.

.
.

:
.
.

: 0.5
1.
) (9-6 )(
)( .

)(
. .

)( )( )( . )(

) ( .
. )
( .

)( .
)( )( . )( .

266

10-6 }{32
Source: Visscher, J., T., Paramasivam, R., Raman, A. & Heijnen, H., A., .Slow Sand
Filtration for Community Water Supply< TP 24, IRC, The Huge, The Netherland.
Reprinted & Translated by courtesy of the publisher IRC.

267

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.

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3 .

268

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269

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270

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271

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272

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:
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100 .
274

1.8

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275


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macromolecules

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. R

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R - SO3H + nNa operation R-SO3Na + nH+
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276

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278

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279


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276

277

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276
277

280

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281

= P osm

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282

11-6

10-6

20
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20 = T : 2.38 = P
20 2.33 = Po
.
293.16 = 273.16 + 20 = T :

Posm = (RT/V)*Ln (Po/P) :

293.168.314 = Posm) 51.7 = (2.33 2.38
11-6

.
20 :

) /(

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++

1
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++
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283

 )(
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61
96
35.5
62

0.96
1
0.7
0.5

0.015
0.01
0.02
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++

++

C = Mg + Ca + K + Na + HCO3 + SO4 + Cl + NO3 = 0.156

Posm = C*R*T
3.75 = (273.16 + 20)0.0820.156 = Posm

: .
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284

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289

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291

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294

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304

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305

 10-6
.1987 9-1 ( 1)
.1992 3-1 ( 2)

( 3)
.1986

" ( 4)

.1986

: ( 5)

.1986

.1995 ( 6)
) ( 7)

. (
(8)Rowe, D. R, and Abdel-Magid, I. M., Handbook of wastewater reclamation and
reuse, CRC Press\Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1997.
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environmental engineers, CRC Press\Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1995.
(10)Raju, B. S., Water supply and wastewater engineering, Tata - Mc Graw-Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 1995
(11)Clark, J. W. , W. Viessman and M. Hammer, Water supply and pollution
control, Harper and Row Publishers, 3rd Ed., New York, 1977
(12)Fair, G. M. , J. C. Geyer and D. A. Okun, Water and wastewater engineering,
Vol. 1, John Wiley, New York, 1968
(13)Chatterjee, A. K. Water supply, waste disposal and environmental pollution
engineering (Including odour, noise and air pollution and its control), Khanna
Publishers, Delhi, 1994
(14)Punmia, B. C., Environmental engineering: Volume 1: Water Supply, Standard
Book House, Naisarak, Delhi-6, 1979.
(15)Huisman, L., Sedimentation and flotation, Delft University of Technology,
Herdruk, 1977.
(16)Tebbutt, T. H. Y., Principles of water quality control, Pergamon Books, Oxford,
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(17)Peavy, H. S.; Rowe, D. R.; and Tchobanoglous, G., Environmental engineering,
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design, Ann Arbor Science, Michigan, 1980.
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France, 6th Edi., Vol. 1 and 2 1991.
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Vol. 2, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1968.
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(31)Hofkes, E. H., Huisman, L., Sundaresan, B. B., Netto, J. M. D., and Lanoix, J. N.,
Small community water supplies, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1986.
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(36)Perry, R. H. Green, D. W., and Maloney, J. O., Edi., Perry's chemical engineers'
handbook, 6th Edi., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1985.
(37)Bolto, B. A. and Pawlowski, L., Wastewater treatment by ion exchange, E. and F.
N. Spon, New York, 1987.
(38)Porteous, A., Desalination technology: Developments and practice, Applied
Science Pub., London 1983.
(39)Buros, O. K., The desalting ABC's, International Desalination Association,
Massachusetts, 1990.
(40)Sawyer, C. N. and Mc Carty, P. L., Chemistry for environmental engineering,
McGraw-Hill Pub. Co., 3rd, New York, 1978.
(41)Viessman, W. and Hammer, M. J., Water supply and pollution control, Harper
and Row Pub., New York, 1985.
(42)Fair, G. M., Morris, F. C., Chang, S. L., Weil, I, and Burden, R. A., The behavior
of chlorine as a water disinfectant, J. American Water Works Association, 40: 1051,
1948.
(43)Cairncross, S. and Feachem, R., Environmental health engineering in the tropics,
John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 2nd Edi., 1993.

307

(44)Rao M. N. and V. Thanikachalam, Environmental engineering, Tata McGrawHill Publishing Co. Ltd, New Delhi, 1993
(45)Paisson, M. L., The water cycle with emphasis on recycling, Seminar held at
the College of engineering, Civil Eng. Dept., Sultan Qaboos University on 4th
March 1996, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman
(46)Grag, S. K., Water supply engineering, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 1988
(47)OMelia, C. R. Coagulation and flocculation, W. J. Weber Jr. (ed.)
Physiochemical processes for water quality, Wiley Interscience, New York 1972.
( 48)
.1995

( 49)

.1993
(50)House, S., Reed, B., Emergency Water Sources: Guidelines for Selection and
Treatment, Water Engineering and Development Centre (WEDEC), Loughborough
University, Leicestershire, 1997.

308



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343

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351

 : ( 6)
.1986
.1995 ( 7)
( ) ( 8)
.

(9) Rowe, D. R, and Abdel-Magid, I. M., Handbook of wastewater reclamation and reuse,
CRC Press\Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1995.
(10)Abdel-Magid, I. M., Hago, A., and Rowe, D. R., Modeling methods for environmental
engineers, CRC Press\Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1997 .
(11)Nathanson, J. A., Basic environmental technology: Water supply, waste disposal, and
pollution control, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1986.
(12)Viessman, W. and Hammer, M. J., Water supply and pollution control, 4th Edi.,
Harper and Row, Publishers, New York, 1985.
(13)Rao, M. N. and Thanikachalam, V., Environmental engineering, Tata Mc GrawHill Publishing Co. Ltd, New Delhi, 1993
(14)Hofkes, E. H., Huisman, L., Sundaresan, B. B., Netto, J. M. D., and Lanoix, J. N.,
Small community water supplies, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1986.
(15)IRC, Public standposts water supplies - A design manual, TP Series 14, The Hague,
1979.
(16)Douglas, J. F., Gasiorek, J. M. and Swaffield, J. A., Fluid mechanics, Longman
Scientific and Technical, New York, 1994.
(17)Munson, B. R., Young D. F. and Okiishi, T. H., Fundamentals of fluid mechanics,
John Wiely and Sons, New York, 1990.
(18)Fox, R. W. and McDonald, A. T., Introduction to fluid mechanics, John Wiely and
Sons, New York, 3rd Edi., 1985
(19)Streeter, V. L. and Wylie, E. B., Fluid mechanics, McGraw-Hill Book Co., London,
1988
(20)Daugherty, R. L., Franzini, J. B. and Finnemore, E. J., Fluid mechanics with
engineering applications, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1985
(21)Sundaresan, B. B., Guidelines on technologies for water supply systems for small
communities, Eastern Mediterranean Region, Alexandria, 1984
(22)Water for the world US Agency for International Development, National
Demonstration Project, Institute for Rural Water, National Environmental Health
Association 1982, Technical Notes, RWS, RW
(23)Water for the World, Us Agency for International Development, National
Demonstration Water Project Institute for Rural water, National Environmental
Health Association, Washington, D. C. 182 , Selecting pumps, Technical Note No.
RWS. 4. P. 5
(24)American Water Works Association, Determining internal corrosion potential in water
supply system, AWWA 76(8), August 1984, 83.
(25)Wisler, C. O. and Brater, E. F., Hydrology, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2nd Ed.,
1959.

352



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9-8
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.

: .
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10-8
)(1

.1993

)(2

.1995

)(3 :

26 27 .1989

)(4 .1995

)(5 )
( .
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384

385

) (

)(
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2.26

2.24

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2.21

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-8

2.51

2.49

2.47

2.45

2.43

2.41

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14

12

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15

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13.28

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13.8

13.9

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14.08

14.17

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14.5

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14.9

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15.09

15.17

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15.5

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16.06

16.16

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16.9

17

17.1

17.21

17.32

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20

17.5

17.64

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18.08

18.2

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21

18.7

18.77

18.88

19

19.11

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19.7

22

19.8

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20.06

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20.69

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23

21.1

21.19

21.32

21.45

21.58

21.71

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22.23

24

22.3

22.5

22.63

22.76

22.91

23.05

23.19

23.31

23.45

23.6

25

23.8

23.9

24.03

24.2

24.35

24.49

24.64

24.79

24.94

25.08

26

25.3

25.45

25.6

25.74

25.89

26.03

26.18

26.32

26.46

26.6

27

26.7

26.9

27.05

27.21

27.37

27.53

27.69

27.85

28

28.16

28

28.3

28.49

28.66

28.83

29

29.17

29.34

29.51

29.68

29.85

29

30

30.2

30.38

30.56

30.74

30.92

31.1

31.28

31.46

31.64

30

31.8

32

32.19

32.38

32.57

32.76

32.95

33.14

33.33

33.52

Wilson, E.M., Engineering Hydrology, Macmillan Education, 3rd Edi., Houndmills, 1983

386

3

760 % 20.9
100
( /)


20000
10000
5000

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0.017
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13
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0.016
11
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2
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12
12.7
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3
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11.7
12.4
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4
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10
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5
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11.1
11.8
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6
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9.6
10.9
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7
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10.6
11.2
11.9
8
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9.2
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11
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9
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9
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13
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9.3
9.9
10.4
14
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9.1
9.7
10.2
15
0.01
8
9
9.5
10
16
0.01
7.8
8.8
9.3
9.7
17
0.009
7.7
8.6
9.1
9.5
18
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7.6
8.5
8.9
9.4
19
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8.7
9.2
20
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9
21
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8
8.4
8.8
22
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7
7.9
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8.7
23
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6.9
7.7
8.1
8.5
24
0.008
6.7
7.6
8
8.4
25
0.008
6.6
7.4
7.8
8.2
26
0.008
6.5
7.3
7.7
8.1
27
0.008
6.4
7.1
7.5
7.9
28
0.008
6.3
7
7.4
7.8
29
0.008
6.1
6.9
7.3
7.6
30
Source: * Hammer, M.J., Water & Wastewater Technology, 2nd Edi., Wiley, New York, 1986
* Steel, E.W. & McGhee, T.J, Water Supply & Sewerage, McGraw-Hill International Book Co.,
London, 1984, 7th reprinting
* Whipple, G.C. & Whipple, M.C., Solubility of Oxygen in Sea Water, JACS, 33, 1911, 362
* Abdel-Magid, I.M., Selected Problems in Wastewater Engineering, Khartoum University Press,
National Council for Research, Khartoum, 1986

387

1
H

6.9
Li

10.8
B

12
C

14
N

16
O

19
F

23
Na

24.2
Mg

27
Al

28
Si

31
P

32
S

35.5
Cl

39
K

40
Ca

52
Cr

55
Mn

56
Fe

59
Co

63.5
Cu

65
Zn

75
As

28
Si

80
Br

87.6
Sr

108
Ag

112
Cd

126.9
I

137
Ba

197
Au

200.6
Hg

207
Pb

226
Ra

388

389

390

391

392

393

394

395

396

397