HOW LANGUAGES ARE LEARNED

P.M.Lightbown, N.Spada

Chapter 1 will not be considered as it deals with first language acquisition.

2 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO EXPLAINING

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
(pg 30 46)

Considerations in second language learning (pg 30-35): 30 Personal characteristics in Difference in the conditions for learning Existence of a first language Cognitive maturity MetaMeta-linguistic awareness Cultural knowledge Anxiety, fear OR NERVOUSNESS Learning environment Time Corrective feedback Type of language exposition Age

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

INFORMAL LEARNING CONDITIONS

keep this in mind: mind

Younger learners in an informal language learning environment are allowed to be silent until they are ready to speak (pg 33)

Modified input : child directed speech or teacher talk Adjustments Adjustments done to speaking in order to help learners understand (pg 34)

Error correction is limited to correction of meaning or vocabulary choice, grammar and pronunciation are overlooked (pg 34)
Errors are considered as an integral part of the learning process

LINGUISTIC THEORIES

In many ways theories that account for second language learning are closely related to those proposed for first language learning. Basically because a second language is learnt following the same process of a first language learning. learning. Some theories however, give primary importance to learners innate characteristics; other to the role of environment and other tend to integrate both aspects seeking to unsolve the mysteries of language learning.

I.

35Behaviourism (pg 35-36) Imitation Practice Practice Reinforcement Habit formation Contrastive analysis hypothesis: learners whose first language is similar to the target language will learn easily .Errors therefore can be predicted.

II.

36Innatism (pg 36-37) Noam Chomsky Universal grammar: innate knowledge of grammar rules knowledge applied to all language learning Critical period for language acquisition Language competence Error correction and meta-linguistic information metadoesnt contribute learning Learners need to know about the language Universal grammar (innate knowledge of the principles (innate of grammar) of mother tongue interferes with second language learning, therefore learners must be aware of the differences

period of noticing
to observe language,

Learners need opportunities hypothesize about it

Krashens (pg38Krashens monitor Model (pg38-40) Communicative language teaching Innatist theory constituted by 5 hypothesis: 1.Acquisition learning hypothesis: (pg38) Acquisition is unconscious Learning is conscious

2.Monitor hypothesis(pg38) Learners monitor their performance only in learning situations. Acquisition situations develop fluency 3.Natural order hypothesis(pg 39) Acquisition follows a predictable sequence independent from the order of rules learnt in class 4.Input hypothesis( pg 39) acquired Language is acquired only by exposure to comprehensible units Input is the source of acquisition 5.Affective filter hypothesis ( pg 39) Imaginary barrier which prevents learners from acquiring language from input. The more stressed and the learner is the higher the barrier and less the learning; it is directly proportional to stress. Factors involved: o Motivation o Needs o Attitude o Emotional states

41Recent Psychological Theories (pg 41-46)

I. (pg41Information Processing (pg41-42)

Internalization

Building up of knowledge systems that can eventually be called on automatically for speaking and understanding Noticing the language by paying attention to bits of it in sequential turns Richard Schmidt: everything we know about the language was first noticed consciously
According to this theory

there is no difference between

learning and acquisition Development of automaticity through practice

II.

Connectionism (pg 42)

Learners build up their knowledge of language through exposure Input is the principal source of language knowledge.

Learners develop neurological connections through Learners

repetitive exposure The more exposure the more connections

(pg42III. Interactionism (pg42-44)

Second language acquisition takes place through

conversational interaction

Learning Factors affecting second Language Learning Chapter 3 51Research on Learners characteristics (pg 51-69) I. Intelligence (pg 52)
May be an important factor for language analysis and rule learning but it may play a less important factor in communicative interaction

II.

Aptitude (pg53)
learning quickly (based on grammar translation approach) . Composed of different types of abilities:
Identifying and memorizing new sounds Understanding the functions of words in sentences Figure out grammatical rules Memorizing new words

with Matching students abilities with compatible learning achievement( environments improves level of achievement( pg 54)

III. Personality (pg 54)

There is no evidence of correlation between personality and language learning. However it has been found that extroverted students perform better in terms of fluency and and pronunciation

IV. Motivation and attitude

Motivation or success, whats first? Provide opening routines and forthcoming activities Vary the activities, materials and formats Use co-operative learning activities co-

V. Learner preferences
Visual learners

Kinaesthetic Kinaesthetic learners

Aural learners Cognitive learning styles: field dependant or field independent

VI. Learner beliefs

Influence the kind of strategies learners choose in order to learn new material

VII. Age of acquisition

Critical period hypothesis : Mark Patkowski : only the learners under 15 can achieve Patkowski full, native like mastery of the target language.
This does not mean that people over 15 are impelled to learn or acquire a second language but, the younger the better

To teach a language is to start all over again, every year, because learning is cyclical

Learners need opportunities to observe language, hypothesize about it hypothesize and experiment with it in a positive and supporting atmosphere
our aim as teachers is to provide them with exposure to real language as much as possible and to help them achieve communicative competence