A wide variety of bearings and auto assemblies are manufactured by Tata Steel at its Bearings Division, with a production

capacity of 30 million bearing numbers per annum. Tata Bearings and auto components happen to be the preferred choice of key players in the targeted industry segment. Over the years, a highly performance-driven approach has helped Tata Bearings achieve an influential and crucial position in its target industry segment. Tata Bearings Division of Tata Steel Limited is one of India's largest quality bearing manufacturers, with a production capacity of 30 million bearing numbers. It is the only bearings manufacturer in India to win the TPM Award (2004) from Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance, Tokyo. The company is foremost in the manufacturing of a wide variety of bearings and auto assemblies and the product range includes:

Self - Aligning Clutch Release Bearings Double Row Self - Aligning Ball Bearings Hub Unit Bearings,Tapered Roller Bearings Magneto Bearings Double - Row Angular Contact Ball Bearings Clutch Release Bearings Special Purpose Ball Bearings Non Standard Ball Bearings Center Bearings Deep Groove Ball Bearings

Tata Bearings is supported by Tata Steels wide network of offices in India and abroad. It has technical collaboration with NACHI Fujikoshi Corp., of Japan for development and testing of new generation automotive bearings and special application bearings. Tata Steel's bearings and auto components happen to be the preferred choice for key players of the Indian Industry. With more than 20 consignment agency points (warehouses) and 170 stockists spread all over India, the division is geared to serve the ever-increasing needs of both the OEM and the replacement market. Tata Bearings was one of the first to start the concepts of ship to line and JIT delivery and it is presently extending such facilities to customers in different segments.

Manufacturing Technology
In the initial stages the technology for the manufacture of bearings was obtained from M/s Societe Nouvelle de Roulements (SNR) -France, through a technical collaboration but after the expiry of the contract in 1986 all developments are carried out in-house. All equipment used in the manufacturing process are high-tech and diligently checked to meet quality parameters. Advanced laboratories are available for keeping a close check on the product quality. The division has installed IBM RS6000 servers and is on ERP (SAP).

Quality Implementation

In line with the Group's policy, Tata Bearings is wholeheartedly committed to creating value for all its stakeholders by continually enhancing its systems and processes through exacting standards of excellence. Tata Bearings is ISO 9001:2000/QS 9000 certified for product and process quality, ISO/TS 16949-2002 certified for quality of automotive parts, ISO14001-1996 certified for conforming to Environmental Standards and ISO 18001-1999 certified for conforming to Occupational Health & Safety Management standards. In addition, Tata Bearings Division has also been the proud recipient of several prestigious awards and recognitions from elite authorities and accredited institutions. For three successive years, Tata Bearings has won the J. N. Tata Quality Award, the company's most prestigious award for Total Quality Management at the organisation level.

Flat product

Flat Products
Galvanised corrugated sheets under brand name Tata Shaktee has been consistently delivering on its promises of longevity and strength. Tata Steelium, another product of the Flat Products Division happens to be the world's first branded Cold Rolled Steel and has a strong presence in the retail segment through exclusive shops called Steelium zones. World class steel products are manufactured at the Flat Products Division of Tata Steel under three basic categories - Hot Rolled Products, Cold Rolled Products and Galvanised products. With commanding brands like Tata Shaktee and Tata Steelium under its umbrella, the Company is continuously surging ahead in its commitment to re-define the future of Indian Steel. Integrated supply chain starting with self-sufficiency in raw materials procurement, futuristic technology, continuous pursuit for innovation and improvement and an exhaustive pool of highly skilled manpower are some of the factors that have resulted in impressive performance records for this group.

Capacity and Market Share

The Flat Products Division retained its leadership position in the Indian automotive segment with a 42% market share. The competitive advantage that the Flat Products Division enjoys today, may be attributed to a paradigm shift in corporate strategy. Renewed focus towards value added products and capability enhancements have inevitably led to increased customer loyalty strengthening market position in no uncertain terms. Newer branding initiatives, fresh channel management approaches and steel promotion drives have led to superior end results and product premium.

Introduction of revolutionary products, complete customer orientation and new market development approaches have enabled the Flat Products division to consolidate its leadership position in the business. It has maintained its focus on the SAARC market with regular and long term customers.

Manufacturing Technology
The Flat Products complex at Tata Steel constitutes state-of the art facilities comprising LD2 and Slab Caster, Hot Strip Mill and Cold Rolling Mill with two Galvanising Lines. The last produces 300,000 tonnes of superior quality galvanised products. The Company has recently launched the worlds first branded cold rolled steel under the name- Tata Steelium. The Brand name being etched on the product itself, it comes with the added assurance of authenticity and trust.

Application
Various grades and sizes of materials can be selected to meet diversified requirements for automobiles, appliances, construction etc. Tata Steels coated sheet offer an advantage in corrosion resistance and increased paintability making the product an ideal choice for automotive body parts. The galvanised sheets are widely used in automobile applications due to its easy weldability as the coating layers are made of zinc alloy. Skin-passed galvanised sheets with zero spangles find application in a variety of white goods. As coated steel is a superior quality alternative to traditional wood framing materials or RCC it offers builders a strong and dimensionally stable framing system. It is used in building and architectural applications like roofs, floor decks, roll formed panels or in cladding on standard building materials

Long Product

Long Products
Thermo Mechanically Treated (TMT) rebars from the Long Products Division are produced under the brand name Tiscon and are the first of its kind to have been introduced in India. Tiscon has been the first rebar in the country to be awarded the Superbrand status in the construction rebars category. The Long Products Division of Tata Steel operates as a separate profit centre and was the first to introduce the Thermo Mechanically Treated (TMT) rebar under the brand name Tata Tiscon in the country. Controlled processes, supervision by expert metallurgists and engineers coupled with highly advanced processes make Tata Tiscon the leading rebar in the country. Tata Tiscon is available for both residential and project applications. The residential segment is catered to by the Companys extensive dealer / distributor network and the project applications segment is handled by the Division's sales offices.

Manufacturing Technology

Tata Tiscon is made from pure steel, with the most advanced TMT technology from Tempcore, Belgium in state-of-the-art plants of Tata Steel. Tata Tiscon rebars are 'hot rolled' in fully automated rolling mills and subjected to on-line thermomechanical treatment in three stages - quenching, self tempering and atmospheric cooling. Empowered with the latest technology supplied by Morgan, USA, Tata Tiscon has created a new benchmark. Tata Tiscon is the only rebar in the market today that provides consistent mechanical and chemical properties. This is because Tiscon is manufactured from virgin steel (from Tata Steel's own mines) and rolled with superior technology and strict discipline. Strong quality control ensures that each product comes with the same trust and quality that the Tata name commands. Long Products Technology Group (LPTG) provides both long and short term technical support for the Long Product Division. The Long Products Division was awarded the prestigious certificate by CARES, UK for superior quality rebars. These rebars guarantee a minimum of 5 million cycles of fatigue strength. Tata Steel is the only rebar manufacturer in India to receive this honour.

Tiscon Brands and Application

Tata Tiscon is manufactured to suit varying construction needs. With the commissioning of the spark erosion machine, the three products in the Tiscon range in the project segment - Tata Tiscon, Tiscon CRS and Tiscon 500 -have started arriving in the market place carrying the distinct brand names. Tata Tiscon is the first rebar in India to be awarded the Superbrand status in the construction rebars category. The Long Products Division with its highest rebar sales at 1.56 million tonnes was the biggest rebar player in the Country in 2009-2010.

A new grade of FE 500 D was launched for the first time in India having lower impurities of phosphorous and sulphur under the brand called Tata Tiscon 500 D.

Quality Implementation
All the production units of the Long Product Division (LD1, WRM [E], WRM [W], MM) are ISO 9001: version 2000 certified by Indian Register Quality System (IRQS). Tata Steel Long Product, Marketing and Sales Division, has been certified to the ISO 9001: 2000 version standard by Indian Register Quality Systems. This is the first commercial division to receive these certifications.

Wires

Wires
Steel wires under the brand name Tata Wiron comprise 30% market share of the organised wire market in India. A wide range of wires manufactured by Tata Steels Wire Division cater to the needs of the various industry segments such as automobile, infrastructure, power and general engineering.

To bring about a greater focus to the steel wires business, Tata Steel has brought all its wire manufacturing under the scope of the Global Wires Business. It is amongst the largest steel wire manufacturers in the world (and largest in India, Thailand & Sri Lanka). Tata Steel Wires is the first choice for key players in the wire industry and it services the discerning needs of its customers across global markets. It has a 30% market share of the organised wire market in India. Tata Steel Wires meets the most exacting specifications and requirements of customers and is manufactured with the latest technology coupled with a wealth

of experience and expertise in the wire industry. A wide range of wires cater to the needs of various industry segments such as automobile, infrastructure, power and general engineering. The products are well established across the markets of Europe, USA, Middle East Asia, Australasia, South Asia and Asia - Far East. The range includes: Auto Segment (Tyre Bead Wire, Spring Wire, Spoke Wire, Ball Bearing Wire); Construction Segment (LRPC, PC Wires), Power Segment (Cable armour, ACSR), Textile industry (Card Clothing Wire), Galvanised Wires (Farming/ Fencing), Welding ( Mig Welding Wire) and also Steel Wool Wires for miscellaneous use. Tata Steel's Global Wires Business has manufacturing facilities spread across the geographies of India, China, Thailand and Sri Lanka. The products are manufactured in fully integrated manufacturing cycles, from sourcing of raw materials to in-house steel making and wire rod rolling facilities. All the units of operation adhere to strict quality parameters and are ISO certified. In 2009-2010, the Wire Division in India restructured itself by relocating its operations from Mumbai to Tarapur and to Indian Steel & Wire Products Co. Jamshedpur. The Division was the first to brand its galvanised wires for the retail segment under the TATA Wiron brand. The Wire Division has been the sole supplier of pre-stressed concrete strands used in the construction of precast segments for the 4.7 kms, 8-lane- cable-stayed Bandra-Worli Sea Link at Mumbai, India.

Tubes

Tubes
Pipes manufactured by the Companys strategic business unit Tata Tubes, is the most prominent brand in the industry today which is retailed through a wide distribution network. A deeply thought out branding exercise was undertaken in order to unleash the power of the Tata Pipes' brand in the welded steel category.

The Tubes-SBU promotes three lines of businesses - (i) The Standard Tubes Business under the Tata Pipes brand, (ii) The Precision Tubes Business and (iii) The Steel Hollow Sections Business under the Tata Structura brand. Tata Tubes - a Strategic Business Unit (SBU) of Tata Steel, is the largest domestic manufacturer of steel tubes today. Tata Tubes is presently the leading "Welded Steel" Tube Company in India with a manufacturing capacity of 400,000 tonnes. Its main works is situated at Jamshedpur and the marketing head office in Kolkata.

Product Range and Application

The Commercial Tubes (Tata Pipes) cater to the plumbing, irrigation, cold storage, HVAC applications and other Industrial end usage. The structural tubes (Tata Structura) are used for a variety of architectural, industrial, scaffolding, infrastructural and general engineering applications. Landmark airport structures in India have been built using Tata Structura. The Precision Tubes cater to the auto, boiler and general engineering segments. The Tubes Division entered the high-tech segment with the successful commissioning of its hydroforming line and commencement of supply of tubular hydroformed engine cradle for the Tata Nano cars. It has also developed telescopic front fork for motorcycles. The Division has substantially increased its share (40% YoY) of High Precision Cold Drawn tubes for Propellor Shaft, Drive Shaft and Front Fork tubes. It continues to hold a leading position in the Boiler Segment in spite of intensifying competition.

As the tubes are manufactured from high quality hot rolled coils from the advanced hot strip mill of Tata Steel, they come with a number of sure advantages. These steel tubes are manufactured in ISO certified manufacturing facilities, under strict quality control norms, and have high strength and durability. The Tubes Division, achieved its highest ever annual sales at 3.5 lakh metric tonnes recording a 10% growth in sales in 2009-2010. It continues to pioneer the Closed Structural Business, with landmark structures being built using TATA Structura, which crossed the 3 lakh tonnes landmark this year.

Manufacturing Technology
The Tata Group has been a pioneer in adopting the most modern, state-of-the-art technologies for its businesses. The Standard Tubes Plant for Tata Pipes and Tata Structura boasts of high-class facilities in tube making, with technology from OTO Mills (Italy), Kusakabe (Japan) and MAIR Research (Italy). The Division has also stabilised its newest high-speed narrow tube mill and implemented a state-of-the-art air wiping system to enable a finer coating control for its galvanised products. The Precision Tubes plant has added a new 4" mill from OTO Mills (Italy) to its existing 2" and 3" mills, thereby extending the Precision Tubes range to 114.3 Outer diameter and 6 mm thickness, with a combined capacity of 90000 tonnes per annum. The recently set up hydroforming mill from Schuler Germany, has a capacity of 3500 tonnes. The Tata Steel Tubes Division uses HFIW (High Frequency Induction Welding) mills to manufacture its tubes. It has an ERP in place to control the business, which seamlessly integrates the key functional units within the SBU.

Raw Material

Raw Materials
With a century of experience in sourcing raw material through scientific research & development and sustainable mining, Tata Steels three main areas of raw material operations are iron-ore, chromite and coal. The Companys long-term strategy has been designed to have greater control over raw material resources and achieve its security across global operations. A pioneer in prospecting, discovering and mining iron ore, coal and other minerals, Tata Steel has nearly a century of experience in scientific and sustainable mining, mine planning, development and research. Company-owned and operated mines and collieries have since its inception, met most of the raw material needs of the Companys Steel Works. The Raw

Materials Division of Tata Steel raises over 14 million tonnes of ores from its captive collieries, iron ore mines and quarries spread over the states of Jharkhand and Orissa. The Companys Raw Materials operations in India are mainly spread in three broad areas ironore, chromite and coal. The chromite and manganese mines and their operations have been amalgamated under the Ferro Alloys & Minerals Division that acts as a separate profit centre. Iron-ore and coal being the two key raw materials for steel making, efficient and scientific mining operations give the Company a competitive edge in steel production. Steel production in India is projected to grow to over 120 Million tonnes by the year 2015. To cater to the raw materials requirement of increasing steel demand and other mineral based industries, Tata Steel has entered into an agreement with MMTC Limited, a Central Government undertaking to establish a joint venture company for acquiring, developing and operating mines and processing of minerals and metals. The Company has also signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with NMDC for exploring possibilities of entering into joint ventures for the purpose of acquisition, exploration and development of mines, extraction and processing of minerals, setting up integrated steel plants etc.

Iron Ore and Coal

Ever since the discovery of the mineral in 1903, Iron ore mining has become an integral part of steel making at Tata Steel. The iron ore units are located in Noamundi, Joda and Katamati in the states of Jharkhand and Orissa. Tata Steel Limited also has manganese mines and dolomite quarries in Orissa, located around 150 kms from Jamshedpur, home to the Steel Company's manufacturing facility. The Steel Company's iron ore units produce various grades of high quality iron ore including rich blue dust ore. Operations at the mines, including services are managed by Integrated Management Systems. More

Ferro Alloys and Minerals

Tata Steels Ferro Alloys & Minerals Division (FAMD) is the market leader of chrome in India and is among the top six chrome alloy producers in the world, with operations spanning two continents. It is also the leading manganese alloy producer in India and is a leading supplier of dolomite and pyroxenite. FAMD has leveraged the core strengths of Tata Steel to grow successfully into a strategic business unit and separate profit centre within the Company.

Company Profile

Company Profile
Managing a global workforce and setting global benchmarks is primarily about managing diversity. In a process of inclusive growth, every person contributes to the blueprint of the future and is truly committed to the stated objectives. And one of the key requisites for successful diversity management is a shared vision.

Tata Steel Today

The Tata Steel Group has always believed that mutual benefit of countries, corporations and communities is the most effective route to growth. Tata Steel has not limited its operations and businesses within India but has built an imposing presence around the globe as well. With the acquisition of Corus in 2007 leading to commencement of Tata Steel's European operations, the Company today is the tenth largest steel producer in the world with an employee strength of above 81,000 across five continents. During the financial year 2009-10, the Group recorded deliveries of 24 million tonnes against 28 million tonnes in the previous year, the decline being a reflection of the global economic slowdown mainly in the UK and European operations. The Group recorded a turnover of Rs.102, 393 Crores in 2009 - 2010. The Company has always had significant impact on the economic development in India and now seeks to strengthen its position of pre-eminence in international domain by continuing to lead by example of responsibility and trust. Tata Steels overseas ventures and investments in global companies have helped the Company create a manufacturing and marketing network in Europe, South East Asia and the Pacific-rim

countries. The Groups South East Asian operations comprise Tata Steel Thailand, in which it has 67.1% equity and Nat Steel Holdings, which is one of the largest steel producers in the Asia Pacific with presence across seven countries. Given below is an outline of Tata Steel's operations in Europe and South East Asia.

Corus is Europes second largest steel producer. With main steelmaking operations in the UK and the Netherlands, Corus supplies steel and related services to the construction, automotive, packaging, mechanical engineering and other markets worldwide. Corus comprises three operating Divisions, Strip Products, Long Products and Distribution & Building Systems and has a global network of sales offices and service centres, employing around 37,000 people worldwide. (www.corusgroup.com)

Headquartered in Bangkok, Tata Steel Thailand is a major steel producer in Thailand and is the largest producer of long steel products with a manufacturing capacity of 1.7 mtpa. ( www.tatasteelthailand.com)

NatSteel Holdings is headquartered in Singapore and is a leading supplier of premium steel products for the construction industry. It became a 100% subsidiary of Tata Steel in February 2004. NSH produces about 2 MT of steel products annually across its regional operations. (www.natsteel.com.sg)

Vision

We aspire to be the global steel industry benchmark for Value Creation and Corporate Citizenship

We make the difference through:

Our people, by fostering team work, nurturing talent, enhancing leadership capability and acting with pace, pride and passion. Our offer, by becoming the supplier of choice, delivering premium products and services, and creating value for our customers. Our innovative approach, by developing leading edge solutions in technology, processes and products. Our conduct, by providing a safe working place, respecting the environment, caring for our communities and demonstrating high ethical standards. Archives

Mission
Consistent with the vision and values of the founder Jamsetji Tata, Tata Steel strives to strengthen Indias industrial base through the effective utilization of staff and materials. The means envisaged to achieve this are high technology and productivity, consistent with modern management practices. Tata Steel recognizes that while honesty and integrity are the essential ingredients of a strong and stable enterprise, profitability provides the main spark for economic activity. Overall, the Company seeks to scale the heights of excellence in all that it does in an atmosphere free from fear, and thereby reaffirms its faith in democratic values.

Steel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Steel (disambiguation).

Iron alloy phases

v

Ferrite (-iron, -iron) Austenite (-iron) Pearlite (88% ferrite, 12% cementite) Martensite Bainite Ledeburite (ferrite-cementite eutectic, 4.3% carbon) Cementite (iron carbide, Fe3C) Steel classes Crucible steel Carbon steel (2.1% carbon; low alloy) Spring steel (low or no alloy) Alloy steel (contains non-carbon elements) Maraging steel (contains nickel) Stainless steel (contains 10.5% chromium) Weathering steel Tool steel (alloy steel for tools) Other iron-based materials Cast iron (>2.1% carbon) Ductile iron Gray iron Malleable iron White iron Wrought iron (contains slag)

Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten.[1] Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the iron atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of alloying elements and the form of their presence in the steel (solute elements, precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but such steel is also less ductile than iron. Alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as cast iron because of their lower melting point and castability.[1] Steel is also distinguishable from wrought iron, which can

contain a small amount of carbon, but it is included in the form of slag inclusions. Two distinguishing factors are steel's increased rust resistance and better weldability. Though steel had been produced by various inefficient methods long before the Renaissance, its use became more common after more-efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century, steel became an inexpensive mass-produced material. Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, further lowered the cost of production while increasing the quality of the metal. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world, with more than 1.3 billion tons produced annually. It is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations.

The steel cable of a colliery winding tower

Contents
[hide] 1 Material properties 1.1 Heat treatment 2 Steel production 3 History of steelmaking 3.1 Ancient steel 3.2 Wootz steel and Damascus steel 3.3 Modern steelmaking

 5 Recycling

3.3.1 Processes starting from bar iron 3.3.2 Processes starting from pig iron

4 Steel industry 6 Contemporary steel 7 Uses 7.1 Historical 7.2 Long steel 7.3 Flat carbon steel 7.4 Stainless steel

8 See also 9 References 9.1 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links

[edit] Material properties

Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the conditions necessary to form different phases

Iron, like most metals, is found in the Earth's crust only in the form of an ore, i.e., combined with other elements such as oxygen or sulfur.[2] Typical iron-containing minerals include Fe2O3the form of iron oxide found as the mineral hematite, and FeS2pyrite (fool's gold).[3] Iron is extracted from ore by removing oxygen and combining the ore with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon. This process, known as smelting, was first applied to metals with lower melting points, such as tin, which melts at approximately 250 C (482 F) and copper, which melts at approximately 1,000 C (1,830 F). In comparison, cast iron melts at approximately 1,370 C (2,500 F). All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods that have been used since the Bronze Age. Since the oxidation rate itself increases rapidly beyond 800 C, it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Unlike copper and tin, liquid iron dissolves carbon quite readily. Smelting results in an alloy (pig iron) containing too much carbon to be called steel.[4] The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step. Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with desired properties. Nickel and manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make austenite more chemically stable, chromium increases hardness and melting temperature, and vanadium also increases hardness while reducing the effects of metal fatigue. To prevent corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten interferes with the formation of cementite, allowing martensite to form with slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus make steel more brittle, so these commonly found elements must be removed from the ore during processing.[5] The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents, but usually ranges between 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm3 (0.2800.291 lb/in3).[6] Even in the narrow range of concentrations which make up steel, mixtures of carbon and iron can form a number of different structures, with very different properties. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable form of iron is the body-centered cubic (BCC) structure -ferrite. It is a fairly soft metallic material that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.021 wt% at 723 C (1,333 F), and only 0.005% at 0 C (32 F). If the steel contains more than 0.021% carbon then it transforms into a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, called austenite or -iron. It is also soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%[7] carbon at 1,148 C (2,098 F)), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel.[8] When steels with less than 0.8% carbon, known as a hypoeutectoid steel, are cooled from an austenitic phase the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for cementite to precipitate out of the mix, leaving behind iron that is pure enough to take the form of ferrite, resulting in a cementite-ferrite mixture. Cementite is a hard and brittle intermetallic compound with the chemical formula of Fe3C. At the eutectoid, 0.8% carbon, the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite, named after its resemblance to mother of pearl. For steels that have more than 0.8% carbon the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite and cementite.[9] Perhaps the most important polymorphic form is martensite, a metastable phase which is significantly stronger than other steel phases. When the steel is in an austenitic phase and then

quenched it forms into martensite, because the atoms "freeze" in place when the cell structure changes from FCC to BCC. Depending on the carbon content the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below approximately 0.2% carbon it takes an ferrite BCC crystal form, but higher carbon contents take a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure. There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite. Moreover, there is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors.[10] Martensite has a lower density than austenite does, so that transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when water quenched, although they may not always be visible.[11]

[edit] Heat treatment

Main article: Heat treating carbon steel

There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The most common are annealing and quenching and tempering. Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to soften it. This process occurs through three phases: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The temperature required to anneal steel depends on the type of annealing and the constituents of the alloy.[12] Quenching and tempering first involves heating the steel to the austenite phase, then quenching it in water or oil. This rapid cooling results in a hard and brittle martensitic structure.[10] The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite or spheroidite to reduce internal stresses and defects, which ultimately results in a more ductile and fracture-resistant metal.[13]

[edit] Steel production

Iron ore pellets for the production of steel Main article: Steelmaking

See also: Steel production by country

When iron is smelted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be melted and reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added. This liquid is then continuously cast into long slabs or cast into ingots. Approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as cast steel ingots.[citation needed] The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs, blooms, or billets. Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel, such as I-beams and rails. In modern foundries these processes often occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel coming out.[14] Sometimes after a steel's final rolling it is heat treated for strength, however this is relatively rare.[15]

[edit] History of steelmaking

Bloomery smelting during the Middle Ages Main article: History of ferrous metallurgy

[edit] Ancient steel

Steel was known in antiquity, and may have been produced by managing bloomeries, ironsmelting facilities, where the bloom contained carbon.[16] The earliest known production of steel is a piece of ironware excavated from an archaeological site in Anatolia (Kaman-Kalehoyuk ) and is about 4,000 years old.[17] Other ancient steel comes from East Africa, dating back to 1400 BC.[18] In the 4th century BC steel weapons like the Falcata were produced in the Iberian Peninsula, while Noric steel was used by the Roman military.[19] The Chinese of the Warring States (403221 BC) had quench-hardened steel,[20] while Chinese of the Han Dynasty (202 BC 220 AD) created steel by melting together wrought

iron with cast iron, gaining an ultimate product of a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD.[21][22]

[edit] Wootz steel and Damascus steel

Main articles: Wootz steel and Damascus steel

Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in the Indian Subcontinent was found in Samanalawewa area in Sri Lanka.[23] Wootz steel was produced in India by about 300 BC.[24] Along with their original methods of forging steel, the Chinese had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel, an idea imported into China from India by the 5th century AD. [25] In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed the unique use of a wind furnace, blown by the monsoon winds, that was capable of producing high-carbon steel.[26] Also known as Damascus steel, wootz is famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge. It was originally created from a number of different materials including various trace elements. It was essentially a complicated alloy with iron as its main component. Recent studies have suggested that carbon nanotubes were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though given the technology available at that time, they were produced by chance rather than by design.[27] Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated up with the use of wood. The ancient Sinhalese managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil[citation needed], a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did long ago.[26][28] Crucible steel, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD.[24] In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in Song China using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that utilized partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast.[29]

[edit] Modern steelmaking

A Bessemer converter in Sheffield, England

Since the 17th century the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron ore into pig iron in a blast furnace.[30] Originally using charcoal, modern methods use coke, which has proven to be a great deal cheaper.[31][32][33] [edit] Processes starting from bar iron
Main articles: Blister steel and Crucible steel

In these processes pig iron was "fined" in a finery forge to produce bar iron (wrought iron), which was then used in steel-making.[30] The production of steel by the cementation process was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in Nuremberg from 1601. A similar process for case hardening armour and files was described in a book published in Naples in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614.[34] It was produced by Sir Basil Brooke at Coalbrookdale during the 1610s. The raw material for this were bars of wrought iron. During the 17th century it was realised that the best steel came from oregrounds iron from a region of Sweden, north of Stockholm. This was still the usual raw material in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used.[35][36] Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than being forged, with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots.[36][37] [edit] Processes starting from pig iron

A Siemens-Martin steel oven from the Brandenburg Museum of Industry

White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace

The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer's Bessemer process in 1858. His raw material was pig iron.[38] This enabled steel to be produced in large quantities cheaply, thus mild steel is now used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used.[39] The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic Bessemer process) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, lining the converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus. Another improvement in steelmaking was the Siemens-Martin process, which complemented the Bessemer process.[36] These were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), developed in the 1950s, and other oxygen steelmaking processes. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limits impurities.[40] Now, electric arc furnaces (EAF) are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a great deal of electricity (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity.[41]

[edit] Steel industry

A Corus Group plant in the United Kingdom

Steel production by country in 2007 See also: History of the modern steel industry, Global steel industry trends, Steel production by country, and List of steel producers

It is common today to talk about "the iron and steel industry" as if it were a single entity, but historically they were separate products. The steel industry is often considered to be an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall economic development.[42] The economic boom in China and India has caused a massive increase in the demand for steel in recent years. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian [43] and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence like Tata Steel (which bought Corus Group in 2007), Shanghai Baosteel Group Corporation and Shagang Group. ArcelorMittal is however the world's largest steel producer. In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about onethird of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively.[44] In 2008, steel started to be traded as a commodity in the London Metal Exchange. At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.[45]

[edit] Recycling

A pile of steel scrap in Brussels, waiting to be recycled

Steel is one of the most recycled materials in the world,[46] and, as of 2008, more than 83% of steel was recycled in the United States.[47] In the United States, it is the most widely recycled material; in 2000, more than 60 million metric tons were recycled.[46][48]

The most commonly recycled items are containers, automobiles, appliances, and construction materials. For example, in 2008, more than 97% of structural steel and 106% of automobiles were recycled, comparing the current steel consumption for each industry with the amount of recycled steel being produced (the late 2000s recession and the associated sharp decline in automobile production explains the over-100% calculation).[47] A typical appliance is about 75% steel by weight[49] and automobiles are about 65% steel and iron.[50] The steel industry has been actively recycling for more than 150 years, in large part because it is economically advantageous to do so. It is cheaper to recycle steel than to mine iron ore and manipulate it through the production process to form new steel. Steel does not lose any of its inherent physical properties during the recycling process, and has drastically reduced energy and material requirements compared with refinement from iron ore. The energy saved by recycling reduces the annual energy consumption of the industry by about 75%, which is enough to power eighteen million homes for one year.[51]

Steel from the World Trade Center is poured for construction of USS New York (LPD21)

The BOS steelmaking uses between 25 and 35% recycled steel to make new steel. BOS steel usually has less residual elements in it, such as copper, nickel and molybdenum and is therefore more malleable than EAF steel so it is often used to make automotive fenders, soup cans, industrial drums or any product with a large degree of cold working. EAF steelmaking uses almost 100% recycled steel. This steel contains more residual elements that cannot be removed through the application of oxygen and lime so it is used to make structural beams, plates, reinforcing bar and other products that require little cold working.[52] Recycling one ton of steel saves 1,100 kilograms of iron ore, 630 kilograms of coal, and 55 kilograms of limestone.[53] Because steel beams are manufactured to standardized dimensions, there is often very little waste produced during construction, and any waste that is produced may be recycled. For a typical 2,000-square-foot (200 m2) two-story house, a steel frame is equivalent to about six recycled cars, while a comparable wooden frame house may require as many as 4050 trees.[54]

[edit] Contemporary steel

See also: Steel grades

Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes.[5] Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production.[1] High strength low alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically

1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase.[55] Low alloy steel is alloyed with other elements, usually molybdenum, manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections.[1] Stainless steels and surgical stainless steels contain a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist corrosion (rust). Some stainless steels are magnetic, while others are nonmagnetic.[56] Some more modern steels include tool steels, which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and cobalt or other elements to maximize solution hardening. This also allows the use of precipitation hardening and improves the alloy's temperature resistance.[1] Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting cutting edge. Other specialpurpose alloys include weathering steels such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted.[57] Many other high-strength alloys exist, such as dual-phase steel, which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure for extra strength.[58] Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austentite at room temperature in normally austentite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain to the metal, the austentite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without the addition of heat.[59] Maraging steel is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel contains almost no carbon at all. This creates a very strong but still malleable metal.[60] Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy.[61] Eglin Steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost metal for use in bunker buster weapons. Hadfield steel (after Sir Robert Hadfield) or manganese steel contains 1214% manganese which when abraded forms an incredibly hard skin which resists wearing. Examples include tank tracks, bulldozer blade edges and cutting blades on the jaws of life.[62] Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example, the Society of Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining many types of steel.[63] The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most commonly used structural steel in the United States.[64] Though not an alloy, galvanized steel is a commonly used variety of steel which has been hotdipped or electroplated in zinc for protection against rust.[65]

[edit] Uses

A roll of steel wool

Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure, applicances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as stadiums and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure will employ steel for reinforcing. In addition to widespread use in major appliances and cars. Despite growth in usage of aluminium, it is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, nails, and screws.[66] Other common applications include shipbuilding, pipeline transport, mining, offshore construction, aerospace, white goods (e.g. washing machines), heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tools, and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role).

[edit] Historical

A carbon steel knife

Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of knives, razors, swords, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for springs, including those used in clocks and watches.[36] With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods, steel has been easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel due to their lower cost and weight.[67]

[edit] Long steel

A steel pylon suspending overhead powerlines As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete Railroad tracks Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges Wires Major appliances Magnetic cores The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships.

[edit] Flat carbon steel

[edit] Stainless steel

A stainless steel gravy boat Main article: Stainless steel Cutlery Rulers Surgical equipment Wrist watches

Difference Between Iron and Steel

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There are many differences between iron and steel. Primarily, iron is an element while steel is an alloy comprising of iron and carbon. However, in this alloy iron is present in a greater quantity. You can add various other metals to steel so as to produce alloys that have different properties. For example, if chromium is added to steel, stainless steel is the product. It is durable and doesnt rust easily. In the construction industry steel is used on a large scale. This is because steel is stronger than iron and it has better tension and compression properties. Another difference can be perceived via looking at the percentage of carbon. The iron that contains less than 2% of carbon is called steel whereas which contain more than 2% of carbon is known as pig iron. When iron ore is processed with coke in a blast furnace, pig iron is obtained. When this pig iron is further processed to reduce the carbon percentage, in various furnaces, steel is obtained. Now, steel can be further processed to obtain various types of alloys. Elements like silicon, manganese and chromium are added for making alloys. Looking back at the history, it is not exactly known when iron making technique was actually discovered. However, according to certain archaeological findings, iron was used in making tools in Egypt in 3000 BC. The Greeks advanced a little further and in 1000 BC, they manufactured hardened iron weapons. Thus all other type of iron that was manufactured can be classified under the category of wrought iron until 1400 AD. It was only after 14th century, furnaces that were used in the smelting process increased in sizes. The iron was pushed in the upper part of these furnaces. It was reduced to metallic iron and then carbon rich gases were introduced by a blast, so that metallic iron would absorb them. The end product thus obtained was pig iron. It was further refined to make steel. Summary: 1. Iron is an element while steel is an alloy. 2. Iron was known to the humans from the beginning of civilization; however steel was discovered much later. 3. Steel is a derivative of iron.

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What is Steel|: Steel is an alloy made up of iron and carbon. Iron itself is a pure element and most things that are "iron" are actually an alloy of iron and other minerals, including iron and carbon. Iron gets rusted but steel does not gets rusted because steel contains a special metal (that i don't know) Also Iron loses its magnetism while steel does not if you stop connecting it to current, however iron is a stronger magnet when current is flowing.