CURRENT TRANSFORMERS Basics of Operation and In-Service Testing Norbert J. Ackermann, Jr.

CEO, Spinlab
1. INTRODUCTION

Current transformers are used in electric metering for large load situations to reduce the current level presented to the metering circuit in order to make it more manageable and safe. This paper presents the basics of operation of current transformers and discusses the in-service testing of current transformers to assure accurate performance. 2. 2.1 BASICS OF OPERATION Ratio

A current transformer (henceforth called a CT) is designed to produce a secondary current, Is, that is directly proportional to its primary current, Ip, which is also called the load current. In metering this proportionality is called the ratio of the CT and is represented by: Ip Ratio = Is 2.2 Rated Ratio x 5

The ratio of a CT is referenced to a 5 amp secondary output for nominal full value input current such that a CT ratio of 200 to 5 means that the CT would produce a secondary current of 5 amps when exposed to a primary current of 200 amps. The CT manufacturer classifies its CTs by its ratio value called the rated ratio which is stamped on the nameplate of the CT and that is the certified operating value of the CT. 2.3. Accuracy Class

The CT accuracy is determined by its certified accuracy class which is also stamped on its nameplate. For example, a CT accuracy class of 0.3 means that the CT is certified by the manufacturer to be accurate to within 0.3 percent of its rated ratio value for a primary current of

2 100 percent of rated ratio. For primary currents of 10 percent of rated ratio the specified accuracy for a given classification is double that of the 100 percent value or 0.6 percent for the above-stated case. The accuracy is relatively linear between these two points. Hence a CT with a rated ratio of 200 to 5 with accuracy class of 0.3 would operate within 0.45 percent of its rated ratio value for a primary current of 100 amps. To be more explicit, for a primary current of 100.00 amps it is certified to produce a secondary current between 2.489 amps and 2.511 amps. 2.4. Rating Factor

Some CTs are certified to be accurate for primary current values greater than 100 percent of the rated ratio, called over-range. This over-range is designated by a rating factor representing the factor by which the upper limit of the primary current can be increased and still remain within certified accuracy. Hence a 200 to 5 rated ratio CT with a rating factor of 2 will remain within its accuracy certification up to 400 amps (200 amps times 2). The rating factor of the CT is stamped on the nameplate of the CT. Typical rating factors are 1, 1.5, 2, 3, and 4. 2.5. Burden

When a CT is used in a metering circuit it will have a secondary current loop connecting its output through a test block to a meter . This current loop will consist of a secondary wire from its X1 terminal to a test block and go through a shorting switch. From the shorting switch the current loop will have a wire connection over to the meter, go through the meter, and have a wire connection back to the test block. From there the current loop will go through the secondary current test switch and have a wire connection return to the X2 terminal of the CT with a connection to neutral either at the output of the current test switch or at the X2 terminal of the CT . This secondary current loop has an electrical impedance called its burden. This burden will have a resistance component and may have an inductance component. Usually the inductance component is small and is treated as negligible. The burden of the secondary circuit, as installed, is designated the natural burden of the circuit. If installed properly the natural burden should be less than a few milliohms. The CT is designed to operate accurately under certain burden conditions as specified. The accuracy class certification of a CT is presented for a stated upper value of burden, called the CTs rated burden. For example it may have an accuracy class of 0.3 for burden of 1, meaning that the CTs rated burden is 1 ohm and the CT will maintain accurate rated ratio performance within 0.3 percent for secondary circuit burdens up to 1 ohm. This rated burden classification is also stamped on the CT nameplate. If the natural burden of the secondary circuit is larger than the rated burden, then the CT is not certified to have accurate performance. For this condition, called over-burdened, the secondary current will not be accurate tending to be somewhat less to significantly less than the accurate value causing the metering to be in error in favor of the customer. Furthermore, secondary circuits may have burden build up as they age due to loose connections, corrosion, broken stranded wires, etc. CTs, as installed, need to have enough excess burden capacity over the natural burden to allow accurate performance over time even if there is additional burden build up in the secondary circuit.

3. 3.1.

IN-SERVICE TESTING OF CT-METERED INSTALLATIONS Introduction

Electrical utilities have significant concerns about revenue loss due to inaccuracies from metering. Metering inaccuracies are caused by installation errors, aging and environmental failures, and theft. Studies have consistently shown that the majority of revenue loss in their system comes from their CT-metered installations. This occurs because these are the larger customers of the utility such that an error will create obviously a much larger loss and because CT installations are more complex and comprise more components resulting in a higher probability of failures. The attached Table presents the 32 different failure modes that you can have in a CT-metered installation. In nearly all cases these failure modes result in errors in favor of the customer resulting in under-billing of the customer. To protect against this revenue loss, utilities have implemented in-service testing of their CT-metered installations. These test programs may consist of ratio testing, burden testing, ratio/burden testing, and wire verification testing. 3.2. Ratio Testing

Ratio testing involves simultaneously measuring the primary current and the secondary current in order to calculate the operating ratio of the circuit. This ratio value is compared to the rated ratio to determine the percent error for that CT. Ratio values greater than the rated ratio result in underbilling and ratio values less than the rated ratio result in over-billing. As presented in the Table, ratio errors can be caused by manufacturer error, shorting bar left connected at the CT, shorted primary turns, shorted secondary turns, magnetization, etc. Most utilities use an error threshold of plus or minus 2 percent to determine adequate ratio performance of installed CTs. Others choose to have an error threshold of 1 percent for their large CT customers and 2 percent for their smaller CT customers. 3.3. Burden Testing

Burden testing of CT-metered installations involves measuring the secondary current of the CT circuit while introducing additional burden in graduated steps, usually up to the rated burden of the CT, into the circuit and assuming constant customer load during the duration of the test. If the measured secondary current remains constant during the duration of the test then the CT is deemed to have passed the burden test as rated. This allows the determination of the performance of the CT under the build up of additional burden in order to evaluate future performance if such additional burden does occur. If the customer load does change sometime during the burden test then the secondary current will correspondingly change giving a false indication of burden error. This is a major limitation of burden testing. As presented in the Table, burden errors can be caused by excessively long secondary wires, wrong wire gauge, loose connections, corroded connections, etc. In a majority of cases, burden errors are caused by loose or corroded connections in the secondary circuit. Hence when a burden error is detected a tightening of the screws in that circuit will usually correct the error. Otherwise, a search for and elimination of the high burden component will be necessary.

4 3.4. Ratio/Burden Testing

The dependence on constant customer load during the duration of the test is a major limitation for burden testing. To overcome this limitation, a technique called ratio/burden testing is recommended. Ratio/burden testing involves measuring the CT ratio while imposing a series of additional burdens into the secondary circuit usually up to the rated burden of the CT. In this test any customer load change will create a corresponding change in both the primary current and the secondary current so that the ratio should be unaffected. Hence any change in the ratio value during the test will unquestionably be due to burden error.

3.5.

Wire Verification

Wiring errors in CT-metered installations are detected through use of phase angle analysis of the primary current signal, secondary current signal, and secondary voltage signal. For a particular meter type and secondary wiring network there will be an appropriate phase angle relationship among these signals. Errors in wiring such as CT reversal, CT cross phasing, or CT-PT cross phasing will introduce particular additional phase shifts that are readily identifiable indicating the presence of a wiring error. 3.6 Comprehensive CT-System Testing

To assure the absence of all of the possible 32 failure modes that can occur in a CT-metered installation (see Table) a comprehensive in-service test is required that comprises ratio testing, ratio/burden testing, and wire verification testing in tandem. Passing a comprehensive test assures accurate CT and secondary circuit performance at that site. 4. 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 EXAMPLES OF CT CIRCUIT FAILURES CT with Shorted Turns Wrong Selection of Dual Ratio CT Magnetized CT Burden Failure in Secondary Circuit Wiring Error

TABLE. CT System Failure Modes

Failue Mode Test Technique for Failure Mode Wire Verification Wire Verification Wire Verification Wire Verification Wire Verification Burden Test Burden Test Burden Test Burden Test Burden Test Burden Test Possible Cause of Failure Mode Installation Error Installation Error Installation Error Installation Error Installation Error Vibration/Wind/Installation Error Moisture Installation Error Installation Error Installation Error Installation Error

Wiring Problems
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Cross Phasing of a CT Cross Phasing of a CT/PT X1X2/H1H2 Reversal of a CT X1X2/H1H2 Reversal of a PT Meter Socket Wire Error Loose Connections Corroded Connections/Terminals Insulation Stripping Error Excessive Wire Length/Small Wire Broken Wire Strands Meter Overburdened

Primary/Secondary Current Shunt Problems

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Shorted Turns (Wiring & Leakage Current) Shorted Turns (Turn to Turn) Shorted Turns (Turn to Ground) Theft (Secondary Shunt) Theft (Primary Shunt) Theft (CT Wrap) Theft (Primary Tap) Theft (Secondary Tap) Ratio/Burden Test Ratio/Burden Test Ratio/Burden Test Ratio/Burden Test Ratio/Burden Test Ratio/Burden Test Ratio/Burden Test Ratio/Burden Test Lightning/Ground Fault Lightning/Ground Fault Lightning/Ground Fault Tampering Tampering Tampering Tampering Tampering

Current Transformer Problems

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Open Secondary Shorted Secondary Magnetized CT Dual Ratio Error Inaccurate Ratio on CT Wire Wrap Error on CT Inaccurate Rated Burden on CT CT Burden Manufacturer Error CT Mounted Backwards Polarity Dot on Wrong Side of CT Overburdened CT Overdriven CT CT Phase Shift Ratio Test Ratio Test Ratio/Burden Test Ratio Test Ratio Test Ratio Test Burden Test Burden Test Wire Verification Wire Verification Ratio/Burden Test Ratio/Burden Test Wire Verification Installation Error/Tampering Installation Error/Tampering Lightning/Ground Fault Installation Error Manufacturer Defect Manufacturer Defect Manufacturer Defect Manufacturer Defect Installation Error Manufacturer Defect Secondary Burden Excessive Current Harmonic Loading