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MENSA PROJECT: SUBSEA-TREE SYSTEM

At the time of installation, Shell Offshore Inc.s Mensa project represented the world's deepest subsea tree and longest offset from the host platform. Extreme water depth, high flow rates, and erosion-resistance requirements resulted in a number of significant technical advancements in the subsea-tree design, installation equipment, and installation techniques. The Mensa gas wells are in Mississippi Canyon Block 687, approximately 140 miles southeast of New Orleans, in 5,300 ft of water in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico. Development plans use three satellite wells with 10,000-psi-working-pressure, guidelineless, diverless subsea trees, producing to a subsea manifold 5 miles away. A single flowline carries the commingled produced fluids from the manifold to a shallow-water platform 63 miles away. The tree design extended existing guidelineless technology to deeper water. A split tree was designed to resist wear and enable retrieval of components subject to erosion, while leaving the master valves in place. During the first quarter of 1997, the first tree was subjected to factory-acceptance and system-integration testing programs that simulated the offshore installation. The first tree installation was completed in July 1997, and the second in September 1997. The third tree was scheduled for installation in May 1998.
SUBSEA-TREE EQUIPMENT

to the wellhead and an upfacing funnel guide, providing 14 orientation for the blowout preventer (BOP) stack and tree. The tubing head is used to simplify the interface between different drilling- and completion-equipment hardware. Tubinghead use also avoids the possibility of having to correct space-out problems sometimes associated with installing the tubing hanger directly in the wellhead. It also provides a new and accurate landing area for the tubing hanger and tree. The tubinghead frame structurally supports and positions a receiver funnel for the flowline-/umbilical-bridge assembly. The receiver funnel includes a latch mechanism operated by a remotely operated vehicle (ROV). The relative position between the tubing head and flowline/umbilical bridge is fixed to mate correctly with the upper trees flowline connector. The tubing head may be installed with a wellhead-housing running tool or slings on drillpipe. All hydraulic-connector-control functions, isolation valves, and seal-test line are ROV operated through a panel on the frame. Flowline/Umbilical Bridge. This bridge is a retrievable assembly that provides the attachment point for the flowline and hydraulic-umbilical jumpers. It has one central and two outboard hubs. The bridge configuration allows independent retrieval of the tree and flowline/umbilical jumpers. The central hub has a production bore that connects the upper trees flowline connector to the outboard flowline hub and its production-flowline jumper. An ROV-operated flowline-isolation valve is incorporated in the bridge body to prevent seawater ingress into the flowline jumpers and retain produced fluid in the flowline if the tree must be removed during a well workover. The central hub also incorporates an external hydraulic coupling plate that connects the tree-control functions and chemicalinjection lines to the outboard umbilical hub and hydraulic-umbilical jumper. The flowline/umbilical bridge is run with the tubing head and may be retrieved and reinstalled with ROV assistance and the flowline-bridge running tool or slings. The tool is a hydraulic connector run on

drillpipe. Tool-connector functions are ROV operated. Snag-Load Protection. The flowline/umbilical bridge incorporates a load-limiting breakaway joint on each outboard hub to protect the tree and wellhead in the event of a flowline or umbilical snag near the tree. No flowline or umbilical snag is anticipated near the manifold because anchored rigs are not used to perform operations over the manifold, 5 miles away from the trees. Tubing Hanger. The tubing hanger is a parallel dual-bore system that is run through the drilling riser and BOP stack on a hydraulic running tool to lock and seal inside the tubinghead bore. It uses a direct hydraulic-control system that also operates the production and annulus bore-isolation ball valves in the spanner joint, while providing six lines for the tubing hanger and its running tool, one test line in the hanger, and three downhole lines. The hanger-installation-mode riser is a monobore type, with access to the annulus bore accomplished with a wireline-installed kick-over tool. Annulus control, when in the production-bore configuration, is achieved at the hanger running tool through a side-access port into the annulus bore below the BOP annular seal. The tubing-hanger running tool has balanced seal pistons in the running position, making it independent of water depth. Passive orientation of the hanger is by means of a cam shoe on the running string and a hydraulically actuated pin in the BOP stack. An orientation key on the tubing hanger and a slot on the tubing head achieve fine alignment. Tree Assembly. The assembly includes all pressure-containing and -controlling components, structural and guidance equipment, valves, piping, and an ROV-intervention panel for mounting the necessary ROV interfaces. All gate valves on the subsea tree, hydraulically actuated or ROV operated, are provided with position indicators easily visible to the ROV. The hydraulically actuated valves are fail-safe closed and can be manually overridden to the open position by the ROV. All valves in the production flow path are hydraulically actuated.
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The primary subsea-tree components are the tubing head, flowline/umbilical bridge, tubing hanger, lower and upper subsea trees, and the tree cap. Tubing Head. The tubing head consists of a guidelineless fabricated frame mounted to a hydraulic connector with a mandrel for completion operations. It provides a nonorienting, downfacing re-entry funnel

This article is a synopsis of paper OTC 8579, Mensa Project: Subsea-Tree System, by M. daCosta and H.J. Hartley, FMC Petroleum Equipment & Systems Div., originally presented at the 1998 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 47 May.
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Innovative aspects of the subsea tree include a split-tree configuration, erosion resistance and detection, and chemicalinjection control. Split-Tree Configuration. This configuration was designed with the master valves, crossover valve, crossover loop, and downhole chemical-injection isolation valve in the lower tree. Swab and wing valves, production-bore piping, erosion detector, pressure and temperature transducers, production choke, orifice valve, flowline connector, tree chemical-injection isolation valves, and hydrate-circulation valves are in the upper tree. The split-tree configuration allows the upper tree to be retrieved and replaced without killing the well (for example, to repair erosion damage). Because the master valves that provide the mechanical barrier to well pressure are in the lower tree, no need exists to set wireline plugs in the tubing hanger if the upper tree needs to be retrieved. Erosion Resistance. No significant sand production is expected; however, at the design production rate of 150 MMscf/D, a gravel-pack failure could lead to rapid erosion damage of the subsea tree. Therefore, the tree was designed to resist wear caused by sand production. Erosion Detection. No flow turns exist in the lower tree, ensuring maximum resistance to erosion. All flow turns and other components subject to erosion are located in the upper tree. The flow turns are configured as 90 plugged-T elbows, significantly more erosion resistant than curved elbows. An erosion-detection device (Fig. 1) is included in the upper-tree piping between the production wing valve and choke. Pressure sensors in isolated chambers will indicate isolation-barrier failure caused by erosion. The time required for pressure to appear between the first and second barrier indicates the rate of erosion. Chemical-Injection Control. Because of the long offset distance to the production platform, it is not practical to insulate the flowlines to prevent hydrate formation. Therefore, the production system was designed to minimize the potential for hydrates to form within the system. This goal is achieved by continuous injection of glycol at the trees in adequate concentration to inhibit hydrate formation as the gas cools in the 5-mile-long flowline between the tree and manifold. Glycol-injection points are included in the upper tree, upstream of the production wing valve and downstream of the production choke. Subsea Choking. The intention is to use continual choking for the first few years of
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production. A production choke with a retrievable insert and a position-indicator sensor is included downstream of the wing valve to reduce the flowing pressure and control production. Tree Cap. The tree cap locks to the uppertree manifold and provides transfer from workover to production control. The ports are externally connected to route control functions from the production-control system to the tree-valve actuators, surfacecontrolled subsea safety valve, and chemical-injection line through the upper-tree manifold. The cap incorporates three softlanding pistons that provide initial rough alignment to the upper-tree manifold. Guide pins inside the tree-cap connector achieve fine alignment. The tree cap also includes ROV-operated isolation valves for the production and annulus bores and external seal-test lines.
TREE AND TREE-CAP INSTALLATION AND RETRIEVAL TOOL

The flowline and umbilical jumpers incorporate ROV-operated hydraulic connectors to connect to the flowline/umbilical bridge and to the termination sled. The umbilical jumper comprises an external pipe for structural support and seven internal hydraulic lines for tree functions and chemical injection.
SEAL TECHNOLOGY

This tool is configured to perform installation of the lower and upper trees and the tree cap. The upper and lower trees are normally installed together, but the tool can install the trees independently if required. The ports are externally connected to route the workover-control functions from the workover-control system to the tree functions. Many of the workover-control functions can also be performed by an ROV with hot-stab receptacles and isolation ball valves on the ROV panel.
JUMPER EQUIPMENT

The subsea-tree equipment is designed to allow depressurization of the tree and flowlines to near 0 psi to help dissolve a hydrate plug that might form inside the components. All tree equipment and piping that could be depressurized during such operations is designed to resist and seal ambient external seawater hydrostatic pressure (approximately 2,500 psi) when internal pressure is vented to atmospheric pressure. Different geometries of the seal pockets allow selecting which side of the connection will retain the seal after disconnection. For example, the flowline connector to the flowline-/umbilical-bridge connection was designed so that the seal was placed in the flowline connector for installation but would stay in the flowline-/ umbilical-bridge hub after disconnection. This feature allows subsea replacement of the seal by the ROV.
INTERCHANGEABILITY

The intrafield (trees to manifold) flowlines and hydraulic-umbilical connections to the subsea tree were accomplished by use of inverted U-shaped jumpers connecting the flowline and umbilical termination sleds to their respective hubs on the flowline/umbilical bridge.

Interchangeability between the primary tree components was achieved by use of three fabrication jigs. A dummy flowline-bridge jig mimics the flowline/umbilical bridge and is used in conjunction with the tubinghead/flowline-hub fabrication jig to position the flowline-/umbilical-bridge receiver funnel on the tubinghead frame. The tubinghead/flowline-hub fabrication jig positions the tubinghead receiver funnel and the tubinghead upper funnel relative to the tubing-hanger orientation slot inside the tubing head, which ensures accurate rotational positioning with respect to the flowline/umbilical bridge. This jig is also the master jig used to fabricate the uppertree fabrication jig, correctly positioning and orienting its stump, upper funnel, and dummy hub . Upper-Tree Fabrication Jig. This jig is used to position the upper-tree flowline connector while the upper and lower trees are stacked on the jig (upper and lower trees are matched sets and are not interchangeable). It comprises a stump, an upward-facing funnel that simulates the tubing head, and a dummy hub that
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Fig. 1Sand-erosion detector.

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Fig. 2Lower and upper trees being deployed.

corresponds to the flowline-/umbilicalbridge hub.

INSTALL ATION

The tree-system-installation phase was one of the more scrutinized aspects of the project because this project would be the deepest subsea completion to date. Once a deepwater drilling rig was committed to the project, the project team identified areas early on that could impact deployment of the subsea-tree equipment. Transoceans George Richardson, a moored semisubmersible rig, was chosen for drilling and completing the Mensa wells, including installation of subsea-tree
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equipment. The rig originally was designed for drilling operations; therefore, the task was to ensure that, given the rig's equipment, layout, and experience, the installation of the subsea-tree equipment would be trouble free and handled so that safety was not compromised. To aid in this effort, day trips to the rig were made by project-design personnel to provide the project team with necessary insight and understanding of the rigs strong and weak points in terms of completion operations. This exercise proved invaluable when addressing such issues as equipment placement and handling and enabled development of additional equipment designed

specifically to interface with the George Richardson and to aid in safe handling and running of subsea-tree equipment. Because of the extreme water depth, the rigs pipe racks could not store the entire drilling and completion risers simultaneously. In addition, remaining deck space was limited and would not allow both the tree system and workover-control system to be brought onboard at the same time. Given these constraints, a detailed plan for mobilization of the completion equipment was necessary. The equipment was staged so drilling operations would not be impacted, and completion operations would not be waiting on loading or unloading of equipment. The tubing head was the first component of the system to be brought to the rig. Tubing heads for the second and third wells were parked on piles on the seafloor to eliminate tripping the drilling riser to install tubing heads. When a tubing head was required, the BOP stack was unlocked from the wellhead. The rig then used its anchor lines to move over the parking pile and tubing head. The tubing head was picked up with the BOP stack and moved back over the wellhead. The BOP stack with tubing head was then landed out on the wellhead and the tubinghead connector locked in place by the ROV. Completion operations were then resumed. The tubing hanger had been oriented to the specific BOP on the surface, and correct orientation of the hanger was verified by ROV observation of the orientation-pin indicator mechanism installed on the BOP . The subsea trees were brought to the rig while drilling operations were still under way. The lower and upper trees, shipped out on separate skids, were unloaded and stacked on a test stump in the moonpool area. Trees were extensively tested to ensure correct operation. With the tubing hanger installed, upper and lower trees were run together in a typical guidelineless fashion (Fig. 2). When the tree was in place, flowline and umbilical jumpers were installed. After completion of the tree-cap installation, a corrosion cap was run on a cable and placed on top of the tree cap with the assistance of an ROV The oper. ation was then complete, and the platform took control of the subsea-tree system to begin production. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed. Copyright Offshore Technology Conference.
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RISK ASSESSMENT OF A BOP AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR 10,000-FT WATER DEPTH
Hydril Co. has developed and built a deepwater blowout preventer (BOP) and control system for the Transocean Offshore Inc. drillship, Discoverer Seven Seas. The BOP is designed for deepwater drilling operations in water depths to 10,000 ft and incorporates the latest technological advances in microprocessors to increase system flexibility and diagnostics and to reduce electronic-component count and physical size. To assess overall system reliability, EQE Intl. developed and quantified a fault-tree model as part of a quantitative risk assessment (QRA).
BACKGROUND

New deepwater BOP stacks have more functions and monitoring capabilities than older control systems. New multiplexed control systems are software-driven, computer-based networked systems. Advanced hydraulic circuitry now operates many functions (e.g., lock, unlock, secondaryunlock, gasket-release, and nudge-pin functions). Additional hydraulic logic has been added to the subsea control pod for such events as an unplanned lower-marineriser-package disconnect. Because of the importance of the BOP and control system to personnel and environmental safety, it must be highly reliable. Also, the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate has issued regulations that require quantitative evaluation of the likelihood of the unmitigated risk of a blowout (i.e., failure of the BOP). Equipment associated with the new control system is different enough from existing equipment that comparisons of opera-

tional data or maintenance records are not completely applicable to assess overall system reliability. In addition to component and system testing, a reliability study that uses fault-tree-modeling techniques has been included as a part of prequalification to provide confidence that a system will perform properly. Because the new multiplexed BOP/control system is a tightly integrated combination of electronic and electrical equipment, software, and hydraulic hardware, the reliability assessment must consider the entire system and its interdependencies, not just isolated elements of the system. A design audit of the BOP was accomplished by performing a QRA of the BOP/control-system design with fault-tree models developed for various portions of the system. This evaluation identified combinations of equipment failures, operator errors, and environmental conditions that can lead to failure of the BOP to perform its desired function. Each combination is called a cut set, and each cut set represents one minimal grouping of failures that lead to the undesired BOP-failure state. The assessment performed during development of a multiplexed BOP/control system resulted in design changes that improved system reliability.
SUCCESS CRITERIA

tions. Other operational scenarios, such as planned disconnect, require similar equipment functionality but are less time critical and are enveloped by the ADS scenario. Actions initiated by the software control system during performance of the ADS were reviewed and essential functions determined. Five functions required by the ADS to prevent severe environmental damage are closing the shear ram, disconnecting the riser from the stack, closing the upper and lower choke lines, closing the upper and lower kill lines, and opening the upper annular ram. Failures to perform well-control operations were examined to determine the minimum functionality that must be available. On the basis of discussions with designers and individuals with operational experience, the functions required for successful well-control operations were identified as closing the upper annular ram, closing two pipe rams or the shear ram, opening the upper and lower choke lines, and opening the upper and lower kill lines. These success criteria form the basis for the faulttree-model development and evaluation.
SYSTEM-BOUNDARY DEFINITION

This article is a synopsis of paper OTC 8791, Risk Assessment of a BOP and Control System for 10,000-Ft Water Depths, by Marc Quilici and Thomas Roche, EQE Intl.; Peter Fougere, Transocean Offshore Inc.; and Dave Juda, Hydril Co., originally presented at the 1998 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 47 May.
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The first step in developing a quantitative fault-tree model is determining required success criteria. Success criteria are defined as minimal functional or system requirements for system success. These criteria may vary from system-design requirements that may also include desirable but noncritical capabilities. The evaluations primary goal is to determine the likelihood of a system failure that results in potentially severe environmental damage or significant danger to personnel safety. Two operational scenarios were considered in the evaluation: (1) where an automatic disconnect sequence (ADS) must be performed and (2) typical well-control operations. Each scenario requires different func-

To develop a usable fault-tree model efficiently, boundaries are established that define the model scope and limitations. Selection is based on factors that include analysis purpose, intended use of the results, and identified component or system interdependencies that may impact system reliability. Boundaries established for this analysis include the electrohydraulic system necessary to perform the functions up to, but not including, the ships hydraulic supply to the subsea units; two subsea multiplex units, each containing two redundant sets of electronics controlling the position of the electrohydraulic valves; modems and multiplex cables used to transmit signals from the surface to the subsea control pods; the central control units; the drillers panel; and an uninterruptible power supply up to, but not including, the aft mainAUGUST 1998

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ship service switchboard and the auxiliarygenerator switchboard. Interfaces with the ships hydraulic supply and power systems were included to reflect the appropriate dependencies accurately, but were not modeled in detail.
FAULT-TREE DEVELOPMENT

Fault-tree analysis is a deductive-reasoning tool that uses a graphical depiction of the reasoning process to determine various combinations of failures that, if they occur, lead to an undesired event. It is a structured, systematic approach that can be used to evaluate single or multiple systems and account for system interactions and interdependencies. Fault-tree analysis can be used to develop both qualitative and quantitative results for any type or group of systems. The model is developed from logic gates, graphical representations of Boolean AND and OR operators and basic events analogous to individual failures. Fig. 1 shows graphical symbols used most often in fault-tree analysis. These symbols are the AND gate, OR gate, transfer, and basic event. The OR gate is a Boolean-logic operator with one or more inputs that is true if any of the inputs to the gate are true. The AND gate is a Boolean-logic operator with one or more inputs that is true if all inputs to the gate are true. A transfer denotes that this event is described in more detail in another place within the model. A basic event represents a basic-component failure, human error, or maintenance unavailability. These events are representative of the lowest-level resolution in the model. Each basic event has a probability of failure associated with it when quantitative results are desired. Development of a fault-tree model begins by identifying the undesired condition to be examined, commonly called the top event. The event may be defined as broadly or narrowly as desired, but care must be taken in defining it because it sets the bounds of the analysis. This event usually is defined as failure to achieve a desired goal (e.g., failure to perform an automatic disconnect). Once the top event is defined, the analyst performs a systematic review of each small piece of the system to determine how that event can happen, either in terms of basic events (e.g., failure of the shear ram to shear the pipe) or in terms of other broader events (e.g., failure of hydraulic supply to the shear ram). These broad events are usually represented by AND- or OR-logic gates that are then examined in the same manner as the top event. The modeling process continues until all broad events are defined in terms of
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basic events and associated logic gates. The fault-tree-logic model is then evaluated to determine the possible combinations of basic events that could result if the top event occurred. These possible combinations are referred to as cut sets. The cut sets may be qualitative in nature (if no failure data are applied) or quantitative (if failure data are applied), depending on the desired goal of the analysis. BOP/Control-System Model. The success criteria defined previously provide the starting point for model development. The identified success criteria for an ADS and wellcontrol operations are translated into corresponding failure criteria that define the toplogic models used to perform the QRAs. The first fault-tree top-logic model is failure to perform critical functions of the ADS (failure to close the shear ram, failure to disconnect the riser from the stack, failure to close the upper and lower choke lines, failure to close the upper and lower kill lines, or failure to open the upper annular ram). The second model is failure to perform well-control operations adequately (failure to close the upper annular ram, failure to open the upper or lower choke lines, or failure to open the upper or lower kill lines). Because the rams are highly reliable owing to redundancy, they were not mod-

eled for well-control situations. The faulttree models were developed on the basis of design and operational information provided by Hydril and Transocean Offshore. Electrohydraulic models were developed at a component level of detail (e.g., solenoid-operated pilot valve, hydraulic-operated inner choke valve, and pressure regulators). The electronics portions of the models typically were developed at a card level of detail with the exception of the solenoid fire cards, for which individual fire circuits were identified and modeled at a circuit level of detail. All other portions of the model were developed at a component level. Human errors included in the model were failures to perform various necessary actions, such as initiating the ADS, switching to the backup electronics pod in the event of a failure of the active pod, or actuating individual components in cases where the ADS is not present or the software fails to initiate the correct actions. The BOP/control-system model, including all support requirements, includes approximately 600 logic gates and 450 basic events.
FAULT-TREE QUANTIFIC ATION

To evaluate fault-tree models that are developed for the BOP/control system quantitatively, failure rates are required for

Fig. 1Fault-tree graphical symbols.

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each identified basic event. Failure rates are assigned to the basic events on the basis of a combination of published data compiled for the nuclear industry and military applications, discussion with Hydril and Transocean Offshore engineers, experience of the analysts, and engineering judgment. The following are dominant failure combinations associated with the failure of the BOP to perform the ADS functions. Failure of the six-stage shear-ram shuttle valve or the shear ram itself. Inability to shear with the high-pressure supply. Failure of one subsea-manifold pressure regulator and operators failure to switch to another pod. Power failures to one pod and operators failure to switch to another pod. The following are the dominant failure combinations associated with well control. Failures in the drillers panel. Failure of upper annular ram to close. Failures of a pod power supply or hydraulic system and operators failure to switch to another pod. Failure of the operator to close the upper annular ram.

Another result of fault-tree evaluation is development of importance factors. These factors allow the analyst to focus on the areas of risk that are important to system reliability. Two measures typically are calculated, risk reduction and risk achievement (increase). For evaluation of the BOP human errors are important to the , results. The item that has the greatest potential to reduce risk (increasing reliability) is ensuring the indication to, recognition by, and willingness of the operator to switch to the standby pod following failure in the active pod. Also significant from a risk-reduction standpoint is the high importance of the subsea-manifoldpressure regulator and reference-pressure accumulators on each pod. The most important factor, other than the shear rams themselves, that might raise the risk of failure of the BOP to perform ADS functions is identified as the reluctance of the operator to initiate the ADS. To ensure low risk, training and procedures for operators regarding ADS should define clearly and concisely the specific indications and set points at which the ADS should be initiated.

SUMMARY

The BOP/control system was designed with much redundancy in most areas. Continuous monitoring of the status of the system components improves reliability because it is unlikely that the system will operate with unidentified failures. Application of QRA techniques to the system provides an integrated perspective on the overall reliability of the system. The results of the quantitative approach can be used to prioritize areas of the system where system reliability can benefit from additional attention, whether in the design area, testing frequency of components, or optimization of maintenance scheduling. Data collection and reporting are currently somewhat sparse, but results of the analysis can also be used to focus future data-collection efforts on the most important components. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed. Copyright Offshore Technology Conference.

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FIBER-OPTIC DYNAMIC RISER-CABLE SYSTEM FOR DEEPWATER APPLICATION

Advances in remote-sensing, offshorestructure, and deep-drilling technologies allow platform installation increasingly farther from shore. Accordingly, the demand for deeper riser cables, including communication cables, has increased. A new riser cable has been developed to meet the 1000m depth requirement for floating platforms of the Campos basin project and the severe environmental conditions.
SYSTEM

Fig. 1Schematic diagram of a riser system.

DRC

The riser system includes a dynamic riser cable (DRC), a dynamic rig termination that connects the riser cable to the platform and to a static platform cable, and a hybrid universal quick joint (UQJ) that connects the riser and submarine cables on the seabed. Fig. 1 is a schematic of the riser system and its connection to adjacent cables. The static bottom cable, the primary transmission cable between platforms, is standard repeaterless cable with a single outer layer of high-strength-steel armor wires. The protected platform cable is a special-application cable that includes a protective layer of steel tape and an outer polyethylene jacket. The dynamic rig termination is designed to be waterproof and can be installed underwater to meet specific project requirements. Tension and any torsion that may exist in the riser is held at the rig termination, isolating the platform cable from these loads. The total length of riser cable used with a floating platform is approximately twice the length of its catenary. Therefore, approximately half the riser cable is laid on the sea bottom to isolate the hybrid UQJ (between the riser and bottom cables) from DRC loads.

The DRC has three parts. The central core, referred to as the unit-fiber structure (UFS), accommodates the optical fibers. The second part includes the strength members and insulation surrounding the core. The third part provides the outer armor layers. Fig. 2 shows how the UFS incorporates 12 hermetic fibers arrayed around a king wire in an ultravioletlight (UV) -cured elastomer matrix. Hermetic (carbon-coated) dispersion-shifted fibers are used. The carbon coating serves as a hydrogen and diffused-water barrier to protect the transmission properties of the fibers and increase fatigue resistance. Over the UFS, as Fig. 3 shows, three layers of strand wires with water-blocking material form a cage to protect the UFS. The first two strand-wire layers are confined and stabilized with a layer of polyester tape. Similarly, a layer of polyester tape surrounds the outer strand-wire layer to add stability and contain the water-blocking Hermetic fiber

compound. The package of strand wires is torque balanced. The two inner layers are left-hand lay; the outer layer is right-hand lay. The water-blocking compound limits the ingress of water in the unlikely event that the cable is cut during service. The two layers of armor wire also form a torque-balanced structure. The larger, inner wires are left-hand lay; the outer wires are right-hand lay. The inner wires are sized so that, under tension, they will lock up and form a tight cylinder rather than squeezing into the polyethylene jacket of the core cable. This design makes the cable very stiff and prevents long-term creep that could place the optical fibers in tension. A thin bedding layer of nylon yarn is placed under the inner wires and between the two wire layers. The armor wires are flooded with tar and covered with two layers of tar-soaked yarn serving. The DRC is designed to survive in a minimum 2000-m water depth, depending on dynamic conditions. Also, the UFS is controlled during its manufacture to place the optic fibers in compression so that a maximum of zero tension would occur in a fiber during service in 1000-m depth. Dynamic Concerns and Cable Profiles. For a floating platform, the riser cable experiences significant dynamic loads from platform

King wire

This article is a synopsis of paper OTC 8888, A Fiber-Optic Dynamic RiserCable System for Deepwater Application, by C.S. Ma, R.K. Stix, R.J. Rue, and R.F. Gleason, Tyco Submarine Systems Ltd., originally presented at the 1998 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 47 May.
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UV-cured matrix
Fig. 2UFS core. Fig. 3Complete riser-cable structure.

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Fig. 4Simple catenary configuration of riser cable.

Fig. 5Riser-tension profile in a simple catenary riser.

Fig. 6Optimized riser profile, buoyancy and ballast modules.

Fig. 7Riser-tension profile, buoyancy and ballast modules.

motion. Fig. 4 shows the original riser-implementation design was a simple catenary to bear the dynamic load during the service life. In analyzing the dynamic situation, concerns arose regarding compression and kinking in a DRC from motions caused by currents and waves. Under conditions of 100-year probability wave and 10-year probability current in the basin, computer modeling predicted compression in the cable at the touch-down area. Fig. 5 shows the calculated force along the riser of a shallowwater floating platform. The top and bottom curves are maximum and minimum forces, respectively, and the middle is the mean. Similar, but somewhat smaller, compression forces occur for deeper-water platforms. Because of the compression and current forces, a risk exists that a cable will bend with a small radius and form a kink. To avoid compression and possible kinking under the Campos basin conditions for the 25-year service life, a lazy-S profile was chosen. Fig. 6 illustrates how this profile is achieved with ballast modules (weight collars) applied to the riser in a midwater area and buoyancy modules applied in an adjacent area. The combination forms an S profile that stabilizes the cable and minimizes the tension variation at the touch-down point to eliminate compression. The proper number of ballast and buoyancy modules and their locations are studied to provide the optimum profile for the riser. The modules are placed low enough
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to avoid large side movements caused by currents but high enough to eliminate any chance of touching the seabed. Fig. 7 shows the tension profile of this type installation. Fatigue. For a DRC, fatigue is a critical issue. A deterministic approach is used to estimate the service life, and a test plan is designed and carried out to confirm the results. The study starts from statistical wave data for the region. These wave data include wave height, mean period, and number of waves per year. On the basis of these data, the maximum cable stresses and stress ranges are calculated. By use of Eq. 1 and Table 3 in the full-length paper, the cumulative fatigue/damage ratio and estimated riser service life can be calculated. The results show that the riser should survive for 2,670 years (25 years with a safety factor higher than a 100), well beyond the required safety factor of 10. Qualification. The riser-cable-qualification plan covers strength, endurance, and optical performance. Cable properties are determined or verified in qualification tests. The following critical tests are also performed and are detailed in the full-length paper. Extended-range temperature. Reverse bend. Tension, temperature, and pressure. Cyclic-fatigue bending. Cyclic-fatigue tension. Cyclic-fatigue flexing.

DYNAMIC RIG TERMINATION

The DRC rig-termination design is based on proven designs of undersea lightwavecable joints. The termination provides secure and protected storage for the opticalfiber splices and permits low-voltage electrical-fault location to be performed on the cable. The termination may be used in an underwater hang off, splash zone, or other platform-connection location. Mechanical components of the termination are designed to handle all pressure, tension, and bending conditions expected for the life of the system. Rig termination prevents water from entering the core cable by use of overmolded polyethylene, and the addition of encapsulating material inhibits water ingress inside the housing and armor termination. As illustrated in the full-length paper, the hangoff device is a bolted-flange arrangement. The flange is securely fastened to the rig termination through a second split-flange assembly. In other cases, the termination can be seated into a mating receptacle. A bend limiter on the bottom is designed to withstand the high-cycle combined tension/bending service environment. The top-end boot is designed to provide bending protection where the top static platform cable enters the rig termination. The two armor-wire layers of the DRC are swaged between a steel socket, steel collet, and steel plug, surrounded by a layer of copper under high compression. Additionally,
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the interstices between the elements are filled with epoxy for added stability. The core of the DRC is joined to the top cable through a joint box to ensure that the tension in the core-cable strand wires is properly held and to prevent relative motion between the core cable and the armor wires under cyclic-tension loading. The core cable and armor layers share tensile loads exerted on the DRC and experience the same strain under load. The optical fibers are joined with highstrength, low-loss splices and are coiled securely in a splice tray inside a pressure housing of the cable joint, well protected and insulated from the outside environment.
HYBRID UQJ

the mechanical components of the joint. The hybrid UQJ provides secure and protected storage for the optical-fiber splices and permits low-voltage electrical-fault location to be performed on the cable.
INSTALL ATION APPROACH

The basic UQJ is designed to be compatible with virtually all repeaterless-submarinecable systems. The UQJ has been adapted to connect the bottom static cable to the DRC. This cable joint is a reliable, compact, and robust watertight connection that can be handled by, stored on, and laid from a cable ship or laying vessel, just like the cable that it connects. The hybrid UQJ terminates both the armor and core portions of the cable. Pressure, tension, and bending resistance are all integrally designed into

Installation of a riser system requires detailed analyses of the environment in which it will be deployed. These analyses should include oceanographic data, platform dynamics/mechanics, and marine activity in the area. To achieve adequate performance over the system life, configuration needs must be determined precisely on the basis of currents, waves, depth, and other such data. The riser system can be optimized with analytical modeling techniques. After making assumptions about worst-case scenarios, the model is tuned to establish optimum length, shape, weights, floats, anchors, and other factors. This modeling determines the angle of the cable with respect to the platform hang-off device, nominal cable touchdown point, and other parameters. Once the configuration is established, installation engineers formulate a plan for installing the cable in a preferred configuration. Cable deployment, ship movement,

and platform-hauling activities are all closely coordinated. Typically, the hang-off device is assembled to the rig termination aboard the installation vessel. A messenger line is used to set up a pulling line from the platform to the rig termination on the installation vessel. With the installation ship holding back tension on the cable, a hauler or winch on the platform pulls the rig termination from the ship to the platform. Riggers guide the termination and hang-off device to the mounting location. Once the hang-off device is seated or secured, the ship begins backing down the cable track while paying out additional cable. At designated intervals, ballast, floats, transponders, and anchors are attached. With anchors planted and transponder locations verified, the ship begins laying the rest of the bottom cable and system link to the next platform or to the shore. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed. Copyright Offshore Technology Conference.

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TROIKA SUBSEA PRODUCTIONTEMPLATE AND -MANIFOLD SYSTEM

Clustered subsea developments arrange wells around, but separate from, a central manifold structure. Such systems enable use of predrilled wells in addition to the use of the drilling rig to install the inherently smaller system components. The British Petroleum operated Troika production system is a subsea cluster-type development in 2,700 ft of water in Green Canyon block 200 in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico. The manifold is tied back to and controlled from Shell's Bullwinkle platform, approximately 14 miles northwest, by means of two 103/4in.-outer-diameter (OD) flowlines and separate hydraulic and electrical umbilicals (Fig. 1). Well spacing was driven primarily by the desire to eliminate gyroscopic surveys of the shallow portions of the wells, which created the need to separate the wells and template piles far enough apart to prevent magnetic interference. This required a minimum separation of 55 ft; well locations were set 60 ft apart. In addition, well locations were chosen to provide a clear area adjacent to the flowline end of the template/manifold for jumper connections to the flowlines and to minimize the possibility of impacting a well if a flowline was snagged and pulled loose. Each of the two 103/4-in.-OD steel-pipe jumpers connecting the manifold headers to separate flowline sleds includes a special load-limiting joint near the manifold end of the jumper. The joint is designed to part cleanly when a pull force exceeds the design limit, eliminating any damage to the manifold or template if a pipeline is snagged. The template/manifold is oriented with its major axis at a right angle to the flowline route to maximize the efficiency of the load-limiting joint; this also facilitated installation of the flowlines. The hydraulicThis article is a synopsis of paper OTC 8847, Troika Subsea ProductionTemplate and -Manifold System, by T.L McInturff, Manatee Inc., originally presented at the 1998 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 47 May.
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Fig. 1Troika subsea-system arrangement.

umbilical termination assembly also incorporates a load-limiting joint.

CONFIGURATION

This system is similar in concept and construction to the Phillips Seastar system, installed in 1995. Fig. 2 shows the eight-

slot Troika template-/manifold-system layout. It features a two-header 8,000-psiworking-pressure manifold that can be removed and retrieved from the template for repairs if necessary. The two manifold headers are connected to one another by a pigging loop that can be disconnected and

Fig. 2Manifold mounted on template at fabrication facility.

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retrieved from the manifold. The pigging loop incorporates a hydraulically actuated pigging valve to isolate the headers from one another during production and to allow round-trip pigging from the host platform. Production flows from a given well jumper into a single valve block containing a pair of hydraulically actuated 4in. gate valves, which allow the production to be routed into either of the two 103/4-in.-OD headers.
VALVES

The pigging valve is a 9-in. hydraulically actuated gate valve with a fail-as-is actuator that requires hydraulic power to open and close. Both of the valves bonnets incorporate redundant, nonmetallic stem seals. The pigging valve features a ball/screw design that allows remotely operated vehicle (ROV) override at low torque. Each header also includes an ROV-operated 9-in. gate valve near the flowline end for contingency isolation and a duplicate of the pigging valve near the pigging-loop end. The pigging-valve duplicates serve as backups to the pigging valve but initially are not connected to a hydraulic power source. Should the pigging valve ever fail, it would be overridden open by an ROV and the hydraulic flying lead that was initially connected to the pigging valve would be connected to one of the backup pigging valves for control. All five 9-in. valves have visual gateposition indicators. The 4-in. hydraulically actuated gate valves that direct flow from the well jumpers into the manifold headers are a fail-safe-closed design. All manifold valves are mounted with their actuators in a vertical orientation, permitting ROV access from above. The manifold also includes six 1/2-in., ROV-operated gate valves for injection of methanol and corrosion inhibitors into the headers.
INSUL ATION AND CORROSION PROTECTION

rounded by epoxy resin. This material was used to create sheets of insulation that were subsequently cut to fit components as necessary. This material was also mixed and poured around irregularly shaped features, around which forms were built. The same basic material was also mixed with adhesive and used to glue adjacent sections of insulation together. Valve blocks were drilled and tapped to accept fiberglass bolts for attaching insulation. Insulating jumper connections was accomplished by fabricating insulated steel boxes (dubbed doghouses) with bombbay-type doors on the bottom. The doghouses were lowered over the connections after makeup, and nylon straps connecting the bomb-bay doors forced the doors to close, completely encasing the connection. This method entraps water that forms a heat sink until heated by production. The high level of insulation on the system caused concern about the effectiveness of the cathodic protection system. The entire template/manifold system is protected by anodes as usual, but the presence of insulation effectively breaks the electrical circuit by isolating the insulated components from seawater. A three-coat epoxy-paint system was used on all components, with extra effort made to ensure complete paint coverage on surfaces to be insulated. In effect, external corrosion of insulated components is controlled by the paint, not by the anodes.
HYDRAULIC-DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Fig. 3Exploded drawing of manifold, template, and pile-spacer template.

scenarios. ROV-accessible valves on the faces of the HDMs provide additional control options.
INSTALL ATION

To keep the production-stream temperature high enough to prevent hydrate formation or paraffin deposition in the flowlines, the entire Troika production system, from the subsea trees to the host platform, is insulated (including jumpers, manifold, and connections). Insulation thickness at nearly all sections is 3 in. A syntactic composite of hollow, fiber-reinforced polymer spheres surrounded by epoxy resin was used for premolded sections. A protective fiberglass skin also surrounds these sections. The second type of insulation used is a syntactic composite of tiny, hollow glass beads sur AUGUST 1998

The hydraulic umbilical is connected directly to the manifold, from which hydraulic fluid, methanol, and corrosion inhibitor is distributed to the headers and trees. This strategy was followed rather than use of a hydraulic-distribution module separated from the manifold structure. Although a separate structure can make installation easier, use of the manifold for hydraulic distribution eliminates a number of flying leads (thereby reducing congestion) and allows use of metal tubes rather than thermoplastic tubes. The 15line hydraulic umbilical is composed of four high- and low-pressure hydraulic (two each), eight methanol, and two corrosion-inhibitor supply lines and a single line to receive fluid bled off from well annuli. Between the boarding and expansion hubs, the control lines tee off and are routed to two hydraulic-distribution modules (HDMs), which can be retrieved independently from the manifold and replumbed to address a variety of failure

Fig. 3 depicts the arrangement of the major components of the Troika template/manifold system. First, the seabed-supported pile-spacer template is placed. Before leaving the shipyard where the drilling rig was upgraded before work on the Troika project, the pile-spacer template was secured to the rig underneath the moonpool. Pad eyes also were installed on the rigs columns for use in mooring the supply boat that would deliver the template/manifold under the rigs moonpool. In mid-March 1997, the pile-spacer template was lowered to the seafloor on drillpipe. A gyroscope with an acoustic transmitter was mounted on the template to ensure placement on the correct azimuth. The drilling rig was then used to jet the first three well conductors into the seabed. Subsequently, a controlled jetting technique with drill-collar doughnut weights was used to install the three 36-in.diameter, 190-ft-long foundation piles through the pile-spacer template. Use of the 24-in.-OD steel doughnut weights guaranteed an immediate pile-load capacity equal to the buoyed weight of the pile (69,000 lbm) plus the buoyed weight of the doughnuts (87,000 lbm), producing an initial safety factor of 2.25. This method eliminated the need to wait a significant time for
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pool. The template/manifold then was rotated 90 to maximize clearance from the rigs structure and lowered on drillpipe to the preinstalled piles on the sea bottom. With ROV cameras for guidance, the rig was moved until the template's guide sleeves aligned with the piles, and the template/manifold was lowered onto the pile landing rings. Cement was then pumped through the drillstring and grout hose into the annuli formed by the piles and guide sleeves. An ROV was used to operate valves on the grouting panel to direct cement flow to one pile at a time. The template/manifold landed out within 1/3 of level in any direction. The grout-hose hot stab was then disconnected from the grouting panel, and the four lifting slings were released from the manifold by use of ROV-releasable shackles. The entire operation took less than 12 hours.
Fig. 4Template/manifold on supply boat under rig's rotary table.

ELECTRIC ALDISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

skin friction between the piles and soil to recover. Only 5 days after the piles were installed, a 300,000-lbf tensile-load test was performed on each pile successfully. A 70-in.-diameter landing ring was attached near the top of each pile to provide support for the template/manifold when installed later. Bonded to the top of each landing ring is a rubber doughnut used to form a seal with the template's corresponding guide sleeve to retain grout that is pumped into the annulus formed by the pile and guide sleeve. The planned tolerance on the setting depths of the landing rings for the three piles relative to one another was 2 ft. The realized difference in setting depths was less than 5 in. This was achieved by monitoring the controlled jetting process with a high-resolution depth gauge mounted on an ROV and halting the jetting on the basis of gauge readings. The relative depths of the three landing rings were measured before and after the piles were load tested with no change. These depth differences were used to adjust the elevations of the template's guide sleeves so that the template/manifold would be level when landed out on the pile landing rings. The pile-spacer template was left in place on the seabed, but the piles do not impose any load on it. In late July 1997, the template and manifold were loaded separately onto a small barge and transported to an inland derrick barge, where they were transferred onto a 220-ft offshore supply boat. At the transfer site, the template was lifted by and set onto the deck of the derrick barge. The manifold was then lifted onto and connected to the
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template. The combined template/manifold was then lifted off the derrick barge and onto the supply boat. In the days preceding the transfer, the supply boat was fitted with nine 5-ft-diameter, 10-ft-long marine fenders on each side as a damage-prevention measure for when the boat was maneuvering under the rigs moonpool. Two doubledrum winches were installed on the deck of the boat to tension the four 3-in.-diameter nylon ropes that would be used to moor the boat under the rigs moonpool. On the morning of 10 August 1997, the seas were nearly dead calm as personnel on the drilling rig and supply boat made final preparations to maneuver the supply boat and template/manifold under the rigs moonpool. Ballast was removed to raise the rig approximately 10 ft to provide adequate clearance between the boat and the rig. A crew boat was connected to the bow of the supply boat with a slack rope in case the supply boat lost power and had to be pulled away from the rig. The supply boat, equipped with bow and stern thrusters, then maneuvered into position (Fig. 4). Four laser-pointing devices mounted on the deployment drillstring were used to fine tune the positioning of the template/manifold center of gravity directly below the rotary table. Four slings were then attached from a lifting sub on the bottom of the drillstring to pad eyes on top of the manifold, and a grout hose from the end of the lifting sub was connected to a template-mounted grout-distribution panel. The template/ manifold was then lifted off the boat, and the boat maneuvered out from under the moon-

Following installation of the template/manifold, an electrical-distribution unit (EDU), attached to the electrical umbilical, was installed on the template structure away from the manifold. From the EDU, individual electrical flying leads (EFLs) are routed to the tree-mounted control modules to provide power and signals from the host platform. The EFLs are routed from the EDU into troughs along the perimeter of the manifold to exit points that allow routing from well jumpers to corresponding trees. Should the manifold ever have to be retrieved, the EFLs would first have to be removed from the manifold troughs by an ROV.
CONCLUSIONS

Installation of a subsea cluster-system module by maneuvering a supply boat under the rigs moonpool can be a costeffective method when environmental conditions permit. Manifold systems can be fully thermally insulated; however, it is expensive and requires considerable effort. Controlled pile jetting with drill-collar weights is an effective means of ensuring adequate pile capacity in a short time. The setting depth of jetted piles can be accurately controlled by use of ROV-deployed high-resolution depth gauges. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed. Copyright Offshore Technology Conference.
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SUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR DEEP INSTALLATION OF STRUCTURAL PIPE

Installation of large-diameter, shallow-set anchors and foundation caissons by use of suction technology has proved valuable. Extending this technology to relativelysmall-outside-diameter (OD), deep-set tubes can provide significant cost savings for deepwater well and foundation construction. This new technology incorporates suction techniques targeted at increasing the integrity of structural pipe for deepwater drilling operations. It can also be extended to installation of caissons and foundation piles to accommodate deeper installation for relatively-small-OD (30 to 84-in.) tubes. Shallow drilling hazards (including gas or water flow, hydrates, and weak near-mudline soils) are forcing operators to take costly measures to mitigate environmental and economic risks associated with these geologic conditions. Current practice is to install structural pipe by jetting or drilling and cementing. However, load-carrying capability and integrity of the formation/ structural-pipe seal achieved by these methods can be questionable. Use of suction provides the installation force necessary to install the pipe economically and improves the structural and seal integrity. Combining suction technology with other installation techniques (such as drilling, jetting, or driving) offers a possible means to install structural pipe to depths near the hazard zone [generally, at 500 to 900 ft below mudline (BML)] and to eliminate a casing string, which is often needed for integrity while drilling through hazard zones. Suction technology is gaining momentum for installation of platform foundations, caissons, and anchor piles in deepwater environments. The complexity and cost of driving piles and installing anchors thousands of feet below the water surface has prompted development of new methods, including suction techniques. Suction technology also offers many of these same advantages for installing structural casing for deepwater wells. A significant advantage is that it preserves seal integrity between the pipe and formation.
THEORY AND DEFINITIONS CONCEPT DESCRIPTION

Installation of a skirted foundation (can, caisson, or tubular) with suction is governed by three criteria. 1. Create sufficient suction (reduced pressure inside the skirted foundation) to overcome soil resistance on the foundation. 2. Maintain suction pressure below cavitation pressure. 3. Keep suction pressure (i.e., differential pressure between outside and inside of foundation) sufficiently low so that the soil at the bottom (or tip) of the foundation is not just sucked into the foundation without effecting any penetration of the foundation tip into the soil. As a suction caisson is lowered to the seafloor, it will penetrate a certain distance under its own weight, until resistance of the soil along the inner and outer surface of the foundation counterbalances the weight of the caisson. Suction pumps at the top of the suction caisson are turned on to create a decreased pressure inside the suction caisson. A suction force is created equal to Fsuction = p x A, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1) where Fsuction = downward suction force, p = pressure differential between inside and outside the caisson, and A = gross cross section of the caisson. Resistance of the soil to penetration by a caisson is the sum of the resistance along the inside and outside walls plus the resistance of the wall tip. In practice, inner- and outer-skin friction are assumed to be essentially equal, while walltip resistance is neglected because it is small and can be assumed to have been taken into account by making the inner-skin friction equal to the outer-skin friction.

This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 39336, Using Suction Technology for Deep Installation of Structural Pipe in Deep Water, by Gary L. Faul, SPE, Jean M.E. Audibert, and Thomas K. Hamilton, Fugro-McClelland Marine Geoscience Inc., originally presented at the 1998 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, 36 March.
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Use of suction technology to install structural casing adapts existing drilling tools to a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and subsea-pump technology. A subsea pump can be mounted on an ROV to supply suction pressure by means of a hot stab into the structural-pipe running tool. Inducing a pressure differential of 500 to 800 psi provides a highly efficient downward force on the casing equivalent to hundreds of thousands of pounds. The ability to provide such a magnitude of suction pressure and the resulting available downward force is unique to deep water and corresponds to the hydrostatic pressure at the seafloor. The amount of suction pressure available is limited to the partial pressure of the fluid at depth. For example, a vacuum of only 14.7 psi is available at surface, while approximately 1,350 psi is available at 3,000-ft water depth. The initial structural-casing-installation concept involves use of a deepwater rig, drillpipe, conventional wellhead running tools, and a subsea or ejector pump. Structural pipe (30 to 42-in. OD) can be run conventionally with a wellhead running tool on drillpipe. A jetting assembly below the running tool can be used to clean out a soil plug from the inside of the casing and supply assistance to work the pipe to the desired depth. A pressure differential can be induced by either a subsea or ejector pump. The subsea pump would be deployed and powered by the ROV A vacuum-relief valve . can be used to prevent casing collapse caused by oversuction. A drill-ahead-type wellhead running tool can be used to allow both disconnecting from the casing and drilling of the next hole section without making a trip to surface. Also, the ROV can be used to interface with many of the operations functions because it will be used to observe the casing-penetration progress at the seabed. An ejector (venturi) pump with connections to the casing and drillpipe could be used as an alternative to the subsea pump. Instrumentation and valves control the flow diverted to the ejector pump for suction or down the drillpipe for cleaning out the soil plug inside the casing.
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Mudline

+/ 60 ft. Freefall Penetration +/ 150 ft. Suction Penetration

Final Penetration Drill Ahead

Fig. 1Conceptual installation sequence for suction installation of structural casing.

Suction-installation procedures for structural casing are projected to be very similar to jetting. Fig. 1 presents a conceptual sequence for the installation operation. Initial pipe penetration would reach approximately 60 ft BML because of the pipes weight. Applying suction pressure with a subsea or ejector pump increases pipe penetration to approximately 150 to 200 ft BML. Additional penetration will likely require combining adapted jetting, drilling, or driving procedures. The fulllength paper presents a typical batch-set procedure for installing structural casing by use of suction technology. Time estimates are included to compare suction installation with conventional methods. One concept with significant potential to improve installation costs for structural casing is use of an alternative vessel to preinstall casing before the deepwater rig arrives on location. The vessel and support equipment should have a daily cost considerably less than that of the rig and should accelerate operations for a high-demand deepwater drilling rig. With an alternative vessel, either a subsea or ejector pump could be used to supply the suction pressure. A flexible line would be required to supply power fluid to an ejector-pump arrangement. Installation by alternative vessels may require added technology and development of additional procedures, depending on vessel type.
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CONCEPT VALUE

Application of suction technology to deepwater operations adds value from exploration through development. The following areas have been identified as having potential value for application of suction technology. Well Structural Casing. Installation at conventional depths of 150 to 300 ft BML with the drilling rig could improve integrity and possibly reduce installation time. Installation at conventional depths with an alternative vessel could reduce installation costs and improve integrity. Deep installation, to depths of 500 to 900 ft BML, could improve integrity and mitigate shallowhazard risks and, ultimately, could eliminate a shallow casing string. Caissons and Foundation Piles. The bearing capacity of smaller-diameter caissons is increased. The integrity and holding capacity of foundation piles also is increased. Installation. Current practices for installing structural casing to conventional depths include jetting into place or drilling the hole then running and cementing the pipe. Where soil conditions allow, jetting is used to install structural pipe and is a very efficient operation. The integrity of well and development locations is important for deepwater operations. Shallow-gas and

-water flows and well settling are also concerns in deep water. The process of jetting alters soil conditions immediately opposite the pipe and can provide a path to the seabed for formation fluids. Jetting also reduces the vertical load-bearing capacity of the structural pipe because of the altered soil conditions. Cementing the structural pipe in a drilled hole requires adequate placement and bonding of the cement to pipe and formation, which can be difficult objectives in a low-fracture-resistance environment. Pipe installed with suction methods should provide a more reliable pipe/formation seal. Typical practice is to install 30- or 36-in.OD structural pipe to approximately 200 ft then set a string of 26-in.-OD casing just above a hazard interval. If structural casing is installed to just above the hazard, the 26in.-OD string can be eliminated or set deeper to provide valuable hole size for the deeper sections in the well. Suction technology should allow installation of structural pipe without exposing the operation to shallow flows. Installing the structural casing just above a hazard allows the hazard to be drilled safely. Reaching the deeper penetration BML will likely require combining suction with other techniques, such as jetting, drilling, driving, or hammering. Flexibility to use a vessel of opportunity, such as construction barge, work boat, or well-intervention vessel, to preinstall the pipe before arrival of the deepwater drilling rig offers considerable savings. Presetting structural pipes should increase integrity by being in place many days before subsequent drilling operations begin. Over time, the formation around the pipe reverts to near-original properties, increasing the structural and pressure-sealing capabilities. Also, flexibility is gained to set surface pipe at any time after the location is selected, allowing the operator to schedule the operation with the lowestcost-option vessel available and to perform the installation somewhat at the contractors discretion. As structural capacity for foundation piles and anchors increases, it may be advantageous to use smaller-diameter pipes and install them deeper vs. making the foundation piles larger in diameter. Collapse rating and expense will limit the diameter of a pile. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed.
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RISER RECOIL DURING UNSCHEDULED DISCONNECTIONS

In a deepwater emergency disconnect, sudden release of the lower-marine-riser-package (LMRP) connector can cause the riser string to reach destructive velocities and displacements. Impact between the telescoping-joint (TJ) outer barrel and diverter housing must be avoided. Likewise, the LMRP assembly must lift a sufficient distance from the blowout preventer (BOP) stack to avoid impact resulting from oscillatory displacements caused by rig motion. The objective that must be met by any riser-recoil system is to reduce the risk of damage to the LMRP BOP stack, riser , string, and substructure (with associated equipment), so that operations can resume without delay when conditions that forced the emergency-disconnection sequence no longer exist. An LMRP and riser emergency disconnect under operational conditions of high tension and undisplaced drilling mud requires additional actions to ensure adequate control. Tension pull and riser mass are much greater in a deepwater environment. Two essential, but not mutual, events occur in a controlled disconnection: displacement of the LMRP and displacement of the TJ outer barrel. The LMRP must initially clear and remain higher than the top of the BOP stack, and the TJ outer barrel must not impact the diverter housing. Correct modeling of physical forces involved can assist in applying control mechanisms to increase the envelope of safe operation of a tensioner system equipped with a riser-recoil system (Fig. 1). One such disconnection/riser-recoil test has been conducted on a deepwater rig in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico. The test used sensing equipment set up, monitored, and recorded by unbiased, independent oil-industry test engiwater) applies an external, negative shear force that tends to slow the risers vertical motion as it ascends. LMRP. The LMRP is primarily lifted off the re-entry mandrel by the riser, with assistance from the hydrostatic head exerted by the drilling mud between the re-entry mandrel and connector cage. The surface area of the LMRP combines with that of the riser and with the downward push of the mud, affecting the speed at which the stretch and riser acceleration is constrained. When the riser stretch has dissipated, displacing the LMRP the remaining LMRP displacement , is affected primarily by force applied by riser tensioners through the riser. This force is dampened somewhat by the viscous drag of seawater. In the long term, motion of the riser and LMRP is oscillatory. Patterns of LMRP and riser movement are modeled as simple sinusoidal motion. Mud Exiting the Riser. Drilling mud within the riser has a hydrostatic-pressure gradient from the surface to the wellhead. As the LMRP clears the re-entry mandrel, mud exits the riser at high pressure. At the moment of release, a change in hydrostatic pressure starts in the bottom of the mud column and migrates rapidly upward as mud begins to accelerate and exit the riser. Eventually, the mud velocity increases and creates a boundary-layer shear force (which is large in heavier mud weights) at the riser wall. This force plays a significant role in dampening the motion of the ascending riser during deepwater disconnections. Sea States. Without sophisticated riser analysis, determining precise LMRP-movement behavior relative to the rig is extremely difficult. In modeling the system, sea states greater than 5-ft heave have been shown to contribute significantly to riser displacement after a controlled disconnection. The amplitude of the LMRP motion can momentarily allow the LMRP to descend to the level of the BOP stack. Particular care must be taken to examine this effect in advance to ensure that sufficient system volume and pressure are present before a
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Fig. 1Riser-recoil-system schematic.

neers. In addition to underwater sensors, several video recorders were positioned throughout the rig to observe the upward movement of the drillstring.
VARIABLES

To understand the forces at work at the moment of disconnection, physical effects on various system components have been modeled. In the analysis, the authors examine effects of the riser and LMRP both before and after being set in motion. Effects caused by mud exiting the riser along with sea-state effects also are examined. Riser. The riser is stretched under normal operating conditions. The stretch amount is directly proportional to the force applied and riser length. For example, at 6,200 ft with an overpull of 1,000 kip, the riser will stretch 5.2 ft. This stretch results in release of a significant amount of stored energy when the LMRP is disconnected. Considerable stretch in the wire ropes also exists, which adds a sling-shot effect. Following disconnection, riser stretch is eliminated rapidly. Its natural period is very short (approximately 2 seconds at 6,000 ft with the LMRP attached). If mud is present, it begins to fall from the riser, causing a downward drag force as its velocity increases. This effect decreases as mud exits the riser. As the riser velocity increases, just after disconnection, a viscous-friction drag at the boundary layer (associated with sea-

This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 39296, Riser Recoil During Unscheduled Lower-Marine-Riser-Package Disconnects, by William F. Puccio and Reid V. Nuttall, Varco Shaffer, originally presented at the 1998 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, 36 March.
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Fig. 2Phase-shift illustration.

As Fig. 2 shows, the rig motion and risertensioner stroke are always 180 out of phase. Therefore, when the rig is on the upward portion of its heave excursion, the riser tensioners are contracting and expelling fluid. The reverse is also true. Regardless of direction at the moment of release, the riser-tensioner cylinders will stroke out. Riser-tensioner force is the same at the moment of release, regardless of whether the air-pressure vessels (APVs) are fully on line or isolated because the system pressure is momentarily the same. The upward force of the riser tensioners, combined with the rapid contraction of the stretched riser, contributes to a sharp acceleration and, consequently, to a rapid increase in kinetic energy because of increased velocity. In certain cases, this velocity can be so large that the wire-rope tension could momentarily go to zero. However, this occurs only under extreme circumstances, and measures need to be taken to reduce tension.
RISER-TENSIONER CONTROL

pistons stroke out to lift the riser string reduces the speed of the tensioner. Speed is controlled without reducing the tensioners ability to lift the weight of the riser string while suspended on the tensioners. The orifice reduces the flow rate of hydraulic fluid from the cylinder to the high-pressure bottle. The orifice is needed only for the strokeout motion of the riser tensioners. Fluid flow should not be restricted during the rigs upward-heave excursion. A checked fluid-flow passage is provided to relieve fluid pressure in the cylinder during the contraction of the cylinder. Total-System Pressure and Volume Control. Typically, the total-system APV volume for a single tensioner is approximately five times the total cylinder displacement. The large volume provides a nearly constant wire-rope tension. In an uncontrolled disconnect, where the original system volume remains available to the tensioners, it is possible for the tensioner cylinder to stroke 6 ft and displace the LMRP and riser 24 ft from the tensioner midstroke, with tension loss as low as 12%. Two control methods exist. The first system depends on a dedicated bank of APVs at a prescribed pressure setting. This pressure setting is intended to propel the LMRP and riser to a position of equilibrium after disconnection. The second system requires only that isolation valves (Item 2 in Fig. 3) be placed in the path of each APV and that

controlled disconnection so that the riser can be boosted to the lock position.
EMERGENCY DISCONNECT

Elements of Control. In a passive riser-tensioner system, motion of the riser can be controlled only in the vertical direction. Other means of control are either physically impossible to impose or impractical considering the time available. Usually, there is insufficient time to reduce mud weight through circulation. Reducing tension without reducing mud weight makes the risk of excessive stress damage to the riser possible, particularly when the rig is offset from the well centerline by a large distance and when mud weight places a heavy vertical burden on the riser. Physical variables cannot be changed. The sea state, riser mass, mud weight, and other such factors are not modifiable at the time of an emergency disconnection. Therefore, other measures must be taken to control displacement of the riser and the LMRP . The forces applied by standard riser tensioners are transmitted exclusively through wire rope, which makes it impossible to apply a dampening, or downward, force. Control through the tensioners can be achieved only by varying the amount of energy imparted to the riser through the pulling force of the tensioners. A large portion of the immediate response to an LMRP disconnection is release of the energy imparted to the riser by the tensioners. Therefore, riser tensioners must be controlled. This control may be actuated either before the disconnection of the LMRP or on release of the LMRP .
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Tensioners are controlled through alteration of the tensioner hydraulic-fluid flow rates and changing the system pressure and volume. Fig. 3 shows equipment that provides additional control of the hydraulicfluid flow rates and system volume. Controlling Tensioner Hydraulic-Fluid Flow Rates. Introducing an orifice valve (Item 1 in Fig. 3) to reduce the flow rate of hydraulic fluid entering the cylinder as the

Fig. 3Riser-tensioner control system.

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the number of APVs left available to each tensioner is controllable. APV conditions must be altered either through use of a dedicated bank or through isolation of a discrete portion of the system volume so that the TJ outer barrel will reach an equilibrium position without impacting the substructure.
RISER-RECOIL-CONTROLMECHANISM TIMING

pistons stroke out rapidly, requiring the orifice valve to control a high-velocity flow and to do so equally over the number of tensioners in the system. Conversely, if the orifice valves are engaged moments before disconnection, all tensioners contribute to the riser motion equally. Consequently, wire-rope tensions are approximately equal and the trajectory of the riser is nearly vertical.
SYSTEM-CONTROL AUTOMATION

Timing of the orifice-valve engagement influences equipment design and operation significantly. Systems constructed for actuation before an LMRP disconnection provide a larger control envelope (i.e., greater range of sea states, mud weights, and water depths). A system designed to engage an orifice restriction before an LMRP disconnection can be less complex. When the orifice piston moves through a moderate flow of hydraulic fluid, less force is required; this should improve effectiveness and dependability while reducing maintenance. If the riser-recoil valve is introduced after a signal is received, advising that the LMRP is in motion, valuable time needed to control the velocity of the tensioner may have been lost. As the riser accelerates, the tensioner

During any emergency-disconnection sequence, reaction must be immediate. To decrease risk, it is essential that the riser-recoil system require little or no attention. A smart controller, with algorithms to calculate and automatically control riser-recoil equipment, is available. Because the speed of the advancing riser is fixed by the orifice valve, only one calculation is necessary (the correct number of APVs). The many variables associated with calculation of the riser-recoil displacement are collapsed into a single, controllable variable (residual system volume to each tensioner).
TESTING

On 27 November 1997, the riser-recoil system was tested in the Gulf of Mexico in a

water depth of approximately 6,200 ft with seawater in the riser. The 2-million-lbfcapacity riser had a wet weight of 440,000 lbm, including an LMRP Total vertical ten. sion was calculated at 590,000 lbf, creating an effective overpull of 100 kip. Sea state was mild; average vessel heave was 0.5 ft, with an average period of 7 seconds. The drillship was moved to a 2% stern offset to replicate an off-station condition. The test was fully instrumented to measure pressure, wire-rope tension, and displacement of the TJ outer barrel on a time basis. When disconnection occurred, the riser lifted the LMRP off the BOP stack in a slow and controlled manner, moving 120 in. The equilibrium position was reached in 17 seconds, coming to rest at an average pressure of 615 psi. The riser and LMRP were boosted to the locked position by use of four 300-gal standby APVs charged to 1,800 psi. Boosted-and-locked final pressure was 700 psi. The boost was incremental, at approximately 1-second pressureincrease intervals from the remote tensioner-control-system panel. The release-time values, obtained during deck testing before deployment of the sys-

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tem, averaged 9 seconds for three trial emergency-disconnection-sequence events. The release time at 6,200 ft appeared to be approximately 13 to 15 seconds. When the TJ outer barrel reached an equilibrium position, the equilibrium pressure and wire-rope angle reached final values. Appendix A of the full-length paper outlines a nondynamic approximation and the results. The full treatment of the recoil-system-value predictions is also provided in graphs. The initial pressure level of the four 300-gal standby APVs was 1,800 psi. To ensure that these APVs have sufficient volume and pressure to boost the riser and LMRP to the locked position, a standard standby-APV boost analysis was conducted and is detailed in Appendix B of the full-length paper. Appendix C of the full-length paper gives a riser-tension calculation used as a check.
RESULTS

TJ to the locked position was controllable at the sea state experienced. Post-Test Operations. Boosting the LMRP and riser to the locked position was a critical maneuver. Control of boost displacement was accomplished with the remote tensionercontrol system. Sensitivity and responsiveness of the system avoided a heavy impact against the diverter housing/drill floor. From data and through observation at a vessel heave of 0.5 ft, the suspended riser was not excited, and boost to the riser lock was accomplished smoothly by boosting the entire tensioner system with the four 300-gal standby APVs in 1-second increments. The corresponding displacement averaged 1.25 ft/boost. Several additions to the existing system have been proposed. A dual-orifice system (a retrofit to existing orifice valves) would enable the system to accomplish the boostto-locked position by changing the orifice size, allowing the TJ a terminal velocity boost to the locked position after opening the isolated or standby APVs, depending on the severity of vessel heave and period. This process would be automated by an addition to the programmable-logic-controller code.

SUMMARY

The riser-recoil system performed generally as expected. Data gathered during the test indicate that the ascent of the LMRP and TJ was in reasonable agreement with the model. Maintenance of the system after disconnect proved manageable. Boosting the

Under certain conditions, displacement of the LMRP and TJ outer barrel can be controlled to prevent impact against the BOP stack and diverter housing, respectively, through alteration of the tensioner hydraulic-fluid flow rate and reduction of the system volume. A test of a system in approximately 6,200 ft of seawater appeared to agree with predictions of a model that uses an analysis of forces in effect during a deepwater emergency disconnection. Application of a riserrecoil valve (to control the tensioner hydraulic-fluid flow rates) and APV isolation valves (to control system air volume) operated as expected in controlling movement of the riser string after disconnection. The current equipment increases the envelope in which sufficient riser-string control can be effected to prevent contact with the BOP stack or diverter housing. Additional work is needed to expand this envelope of control. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed.

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AUTONOMOUS BUOY FOR OFFSHORE WELL CONTROL AND MONITORING

Conventional subsea control systems require expensive electrohydraulic umbilicals that limit the maximum distance between platform and well. Umbilical-free subsea control systems are limited by the communication media and problems related to generating enough power locally to run the subsea-equipment hydraulic valves and the control system itself. A proposed control-buoy concept is a hybrid well-control system with the reliability of conventional umbilical-based systems and the long-distance cost advantages of umbilicalfree systems. Well 4-ALS-39 is a marginal gas well offshore the state of Alagoas, northeast Brazil, in 25-m-deep water. Its production development became economically feasible with the use of an autonomous control buoy for well control and monitoring. The project moors a buoy near the well. A control and dataacquisition system installed on the buoy monitors wellhead pressure and temperature and controls the wet-Christmas-tree valves and production choke through a conventional electrohydraulic umbilical. A radio link between the buoy and shore ensures permanent supervision and interlock with the onshore pipeline valves and metering station. Because the onshore plant is normally unmanned, a dialed cellulartelephone line allows remote well monitoring and operation. The small buoy (3.5-m diameter and weighing 3.0 tons) is completely autonomous in terms of energy. All energy required to power the system is generated locally by solar panels and a low-power, electrically driven hydraulic-power unit.
SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

Fig. 1Autonomous control buoy basic concept.

Fig. 1 shows the basic control-system concept, a buoy moored near the subsea equip-

This article is a synopsis of paper OTC 8793, Autonomous Buoy for Offshore Well Control and Monitoring, by O.J. de Pinho, M.L.L. Euphemio, and O.B. Correia, Petrobrs, originally presented at the 1998 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 4-7 May.
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ment (e.g., Christmas tree, manifold, and template). The buoy has a permanent connection with the control station through a communication link and supports the control and monitoring system responsible for equipment integrity and environmental safety. The short-distance connection between the buoy and subsea equipment uses a conventional electrohydraulic umbilical. The long-distance link between the buoy and the control room is completely wireless and needs no umbilicals. Therefore, cost of the control system is not influenced by distance. A main design point of an umbilical-free control system is that the nonphysical communication link required between the control room and controlled equipment can become unavailable for various reasons, depending on the communication technology (e.g., radio, satellite, or acoustic). The communication link is particularly important when environmental safety is involved, and the control system is the only way to safely shut in well flow. Any decision regarding emergency safety actions cannot rely on the communication link to take place. A reliability and risk analysis must be made to determine the level of redundancy required to ensure appropriate automatic

system actions. The buoy control system must be completely autonomous when processing shut-down logic.
SYSTEM BLOCKS

The buoy-based control system can be divided into six sections, or subsystems. Each block has its own requirements for evaluation and integration into those of the control system. Electric-Power Generation. Solar panels and high-efficiency, maintenance-free sealed batteries are used in most cases. Hydraulic-Power Generation. A small, high-efficiency, electrically driven hydraulic pump and a hydraulic accumulator bank provide pressure to operate subsea-equipment valves, provided electric power is available. A permanent-magnet, direct-current electric motor working at the same voltage as the batteries avoids the need for a voltage converter. The hydraulic circuit is a closed system, and leakages are not tolerated. Electronics. Many off-the-shelf options are available, including high-quality, lowpower-consumption programmable-logic
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controllers and remote-terminal units. Most integration work (e.g., communication protocol, interfaces, and control logic) is related to this part of the system. Solenoid Valves. Dual-coil, hydraulically latched solenoid valves are recommended to save power, although a permanently energized spring-return solenoid is included in the hydraulic circuit to ensure fail-safe operation. Assembly of the solenoid valves in a standard block manifold improves reliability and saves space. Communication Link. Selection of the communication link depends on distance. For distances up to 50 km, an ultrahigh-frequency data radio is available from many suppliers, has low power consumption, is small, and is low cost. For distances greater than 50 km, a satellite link can be used; however, because the application is in real time, satellite services that use "store-andforward" techniques are not suitable. Control Station. The buoyed control station can be integrated with the plants control system in the platform control room. Another option is use of a standard personal computer (PC) running a commercially available plant-control software.
PROTOTYPE DESCRIPTION

Well 4-ALS-39 was chosen for installation of the prototype buoy. A diver-assisted, wet Christmas tree was installed on the wellhead, followed by a spool with a hydraulically operated choke. The 500-m-long control umbilical supports nine hydraulic functions and has three electric pairs. The control system used in the buoy is a dry version. Differences from the original project are locally generated electrical and hydraulic power and control by means of radio instead of a cable pair. This system was chosen for its extremely low power consumption, small size, low weight, limited radio interface, open architecture, and high reliability and because it is a fieldproven system. The system-control philosophy also was changed. In the original project, the remote subsea unit was not able to make decisions, executing only functions requested by the platform operator. Now, it can close the well in case of critical well operation or if a group of malfunctions makes the control system work blindly. This system also controls the battery charge and hydraulic pressure (pump on/off). The hydraulic-power unit uses a lowflow, high-pressure chemical-injection
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pump. The motor is turned on and off by the control system to keep the pressure in the hydraulic accumulators in an acceptable range to actuate the Christmas-tree valves. The water-based hydraulic fluid works in a closed circuit, and any leakage is monitored with a level meter installed in the tank and with pressure transmitters in the accumulator line and at the solenoidvalve input header. Electric power is generated by eight solar panels and stored in six sealed, maintenance-free, lead/acid batteries. The communication link uses 2-W, 450-MHz radios with a nondirectional antenna on the buoy and a directional antenna over a 22-m-high pole at the onshore station. The components in the buoy are distributed in modules weighing less then 50 kg each to facilitate handling during maintenance operations. The onshore station is on a coconut farm on the coast (near the connection of the gas-production line with an existing gas pipeline) and is unmanned. Connection to the control room, 80 km away, is with a modem and a dialed telephone line. A separator vessel with pressure, temperature, and flow transducers to measure gas and condensate production is installed at this station. Only one electronic board is used to measure gas and condensate production; to check radio-link integrity, buoy status, and production-line pressure; and for station housekeeping. The onshore station, as well as the buoy, is autonomous and can shut down the well in an emergency by means of the radio link without operator intervention. A modem and a PC running supervision software are installed in the control room. During normal conditions, the system is accessed by the control room only once a day to obtain daily gas and condensate production. This system allows operation from any place in the world once access is established through a dialed-telephone line.
RESULTS

arranged (most control-system maintenance can be performed without shutting in the well). The radio-link performance has exceeded expectations, working properly under all weather and sea conditions. The system even worked safely during a critical failure of the wellhead-pressure transducer by use of the onshore transducer as reference. Housekeeping functions included in the design have been very useful, warning the operator of failures before they became critical. The onshore-station dialed cellular-telephone line has proved too noisy for high-speed data transmission, and only low baud rates can make a stable connection. However, satisfactory system operation is maintained. The prototype buoy is the weakest point in the project and is responsible for most system problems. Its design does not suit requirements for a control buoy (it was originally constructed for meteorologicaldata acquisition). The excessive heave, poor system-module location, and many manufacturing difficulties have caused unexpected problems (e.g., a water-inputpump failure, short-circuiting connectors and subsequent battery explosion, and hard-to-access control-module compartments). After retrieval of the buoy and a complete rebuild, most of these problems were solved; however, excessive heave is still causing wear and premature need for replacement of the mooring chains.
CONCLUSIONS

Use of a control buoy reduced controlumbilical cost and saved at least U.S. $2.5 million in this well development. Field tests and failure in the pump-control relay have shown that the system can work for weeks after an electrical or hydraulic primarypower-source (pump or solar panel) failure because of its ability to store energy. No duplicate equipment is used for these functions because the battery and hydraulic accumulator bank are considered the primary backup source, having enough energy stored to keep the system working until the appropriate corrective maintenance can be

Autonomous control-buoy-based systems are a good alternative for long-distance (>10 km) subsea-equipment control and monitoring. Technologies and equipment required to assemble a system are readily available. Dividing the control system into functional blocks and defining the requirements of each (open-architecture philosophy) reduce the cost. Easy maintenance, early fault detection (permanent autodiagnosis), good-quality components, and careful design reduce the need for redundancy. A specific control-buoy-hull and mooring-system design is important for success of the project. This control system is also a good choice for short-term production systems.

Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed. Copyright Offshore Technology Conference.
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SHARED-ACTUATOR MANIFOLD MINIMIZES COSTS

Subsea manifolds have been used in Campos basin since 1979, with 46 production/injection manifolds installed. These subsea-completion manifolds minimize the number of risers connected to surface facilities. Although most manifolds are very simple, with direct hydraulically actuated valves that require diver-assisted maintenance, discovery of giant fields in water depths greater than 300 m limits work with divers. Completion of fields far from the production unit increases the size and complexity of manifolds with respect to the control system and diverless-intervention methods. This complexity increases costs associated with a subsea manifold. Optimizing the design resulted in a sharedactuator manifold (SAM).
TYPIC AL MANIFOLD

Several types of manifolds have been used in Campos basin. Most are diver-assisted types with a direct hydraulically controlled system. Three generations of subsea, diverless manifolds have been used in the basin since 1990. The first-generation manifolds were installed in the Albacora field in December 1995 in 620-m water depth. Main characteristics include the following. A connection system that has a vertical flowline. Valve and choke modules are guidelineless and retrievable. Function actuation and data acquisition from the manifold and its 8 satellite subsea trees use a multiplexed control system with guidelineless, retrievable control pods. The sub-base can be used as a shallow foundation (gravity base), compensating for the 5 seabed slope. Installation is by a crane barge.

The system is designed to allow pig passage for wax removal. Second-generation manifolds were built with the following characteristics. All resident equipment (i.e., valves, actuators, and adjustable chokes) have a mean time between failures compatible with the project life. A multiplexed control system is used for function actuation and data acquisition from the manifold and its eight satellite subsea trees. Installation is by crane vessel or drilling rig. Pigging facilities are included. A cradle provides for subsea multiphase-flowmeter installation. If this device proves reliable, test lines can be retrieved and the respective header can be eliminated on future manifolds. Third-generation manifolds also include a provision to retrieve chokes.
IMPROVEMENTS

SAM-DESIGN PRINCIPLES

The most significant feature of the design is that all valves on the manifold are manual (i.e., nonhydraulically actuated). Valves are arranged in two parallel rows, spaced at regular intervals with their stems oriented toward the upper part of the manifold. The valves are positioned at varying elevations in the manifold structure to suit the process piping. Each valve has its stem fitted with a drive shaft connected to a valve interface, which forms part of the manifold structure. This arrangement allows the valves to be operated from above by an automated tooling module (ATM) on the valve-interface structure that can operate any of the valves under the command of its control system. The ATM can be retrieved and reinstalled independently of the manifold without impacting production operations. Launch and recovery of the ATM is a diverless/ guidelineless operation that uses a lift frame and ROV intervention.
ATM DETAILS

This article is a synopsis of paper OTC 8794, Shared-Actuator ManifoldAn Innovative Conception To Minimize Costs, by C.C. Moreira, L.P Ribeiro, . M.B. Cerqueira, A. Garcia, and L.G. Cosentino, Petrobrs, originally presented at the 1998 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 47 May.
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Because water is deeper than diver access and improved system availability reduces cost, an analysis indicated the following aspects for possible improvements. Valve-actuator failure requires that the manifold/valve module be recovered to surface for repair by mobilizing a highcost intervention vessel or that a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) be used to operate the valve. Manifold design is large and heavy, requiring large vessels for installation and retrieval. Valve-module connectors designed similarly to Christmas-tree connectors are too robust for this application. Control systems required to operate the actuated valves are expensive and complex. Unlike a Christmas tree, a manifold is not a safety device for the system. The manifolds main function is to gather production from wells. An analysis resulted in making only the components that cause a majority of the interventions retrievable, the hydraulic actuators.

The main components include the structural frame (which houses and protects the ATM from dropped objects) and the tool-positioning module with its subsea control module. Fig. 1 shows the toolpositioning module, which consists of a carriage that can move along the length of a rail and stop precisely above each valveinterface location. This carriage has two arms, each with a torque-tool assembly, suspended directly above the two rows of valve interfaces. The assembly can be independently lowered and engaged into any of the valve interfaces on the manifold to operate the associated process valve. Movement of the tool-positioning module to the required valve interface, lowering of the torque tools, and actuation is made possible by the ATMs subsea control module. The control module is similar to conventional control-pod systems. Electronic sensors on the tool-positioning module have been replaced by hydraulic flowmeters to infer the position of the hydraulic actuators on the ATM. To reduce weight and minimize marineAUGUST 1998

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growth problems, parts (such as the rail, pistons, and torque tool) are built with titanium.
TESTING

Although the SAM design used fieldproven components, a test program was performed. The main objective was to verify system performance and repeatability. An ATM prototype was built comprising the structure, rail, carriage with walk actuator, vertical actuator, torque tool, and a dummy manifold to simulate valve interfaces. Tests were performed in shallow water to simulate 5 years of operations and to determine the number of actuations needed. A manifold for eight production wells with gas-lift injection was used. Ball valves replaced gate valves (requiring fewer cycles from the torque tool). Each well was tested once a month, and chokes were adjusted during the tests by 25% of their stroke. Results. Tests were concluded successfully after 2 months. The system conception is reliable and improves the availability of the system. In case of ATM failure, intervention to retrieve it does not stop field

Fig. 1Tool-positioning module.

production. A life-cycle-cost analysis compared the SAM with second-generation diverless manifolds where all valves and actuators are resident. The analysis showed a 33% savings was achieved with the SAM.

Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed. Copyright Offshore Technology Conference.

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