Ring theory

In mathematics, ring theory is the study of rings, algebraic structures in which addition and multiplication are defined and have similar properties to those familiar from the integers. Ring theory studies the structure of rings, their representations, or, in different language, modules, special classes of rings (group rings, division rings, universal enveloping algebras), as well as an array of properties that proved to be of interest both within the theory itself and for its applications, such as homological properties and polynomial identities. Commutative rings are much better understood than noncommutative ones. Due to its intimate connections with algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory, which provide many natural examples of commutative rings, their theory, which is considered to be part of commutative algebra and field theory rather than of general ring theory, is quite different in flavour from the theory of their noncommutative counterparts. A fairly recent trend, started in the 1980s with the development of noncommutative geometry and with the discovery of quantum groups, attempts to turn the situation around and build the theory of certain classes of noncommutative rings in a geometric fashion as if they were rings of functions on (non-existent) 'noncommutative spaces'.

Contents

1 History 2 Elementary introduction o 2.1 Definition 3 Some useful theorems 4 Generalizations 5 References

History
The study of rings originated from the theory of polynomial rings and the theory of algebraic integers. Furthermore, the appearance of hypercomplex numbers in the mid-nineteenth century undercut the preeminence of fields in mathematical analysis. Richard Dedekind introduced the concept of a ring. The term ring (Zahlring) was coined by David Hilbert in the article Die Theorie der algebraischen Zahlkrper, Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker Vereinigung, Vol. 4, 1897. The first axiomatic definition of a ring was given by Adolf Fraenkel in an essay in Journal fr die reine und angewandte Mathematik (A. L. Crelle), vol. 145, 1914. In 1921, Emmy Noether gave the first axiomatic foundation of the theory of commutative rings in her monumental paper Ideal Theory in Rings.

Elementary introduction
Definition
Formally, a ring is an Abelian group (R, +), together with a second binary operation * such that for all a, b and c in R,

a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c a * (b + c) = (a * b) + (a * c) (a + b) * c = (a * c) + (b * c) also, if there exists a multiplicative identity in the ring, that is, an element e such that for all a in R, a*e=e*a=a then it is said to be a ring with unity. The number 1 is a common example of a unity. The ring in which e is equal to the additive identity must have only one element. This ring is called the trivial ring. Rings that sit inside other rings are called subrings. Maps between rings which respect the ring operations are called ring homomorphisms. Rings, together with ring homomorphisms, form a category (the category of rings). Closely related is the notion of ideals, certain subsets of rings which arise as kernels of homomorphisms and can serve to define factor rings. Basic facts about ideals, homomorphisms and factor rings are recorded in the isomorphism theorems and in the Chinese remainder theorem. A ring is called commutative if its multiplication is commutative. Commutative rings resemble familiar number systems, and various definitions for commutative rings are designed to recover properties known from the integers. Commutative rings are also important in algebraic geometry. In commutative ring theory, numbers are often replaced by ideals, and the definition of prime ideal tries to capture the essence of prime numbers. Integral domains, non-trivial commutative rings where no two non-zero elements multiply to give zero, generalize another property of the integers and serve as the proper realm to study divisibility. Principal ideal domains are integral domains in which every ideal can be generated by a single element, another property shared by the integers. Euclidean domains are integral domains in which the Euclidean algorithm can be carried out. Important examples of commutative rings can be constructed as rings of polynomials and their factor rings. Summary: Euclidean domain => principal ideal domain => unique factorization domain => integral domain => Commutative ring. Non-commutative rings resemble rings of matrices in many respects. Following the model of algebraic geometry, attempts have been made recently at defining non-commutative geometry based on non-commutative rings. Non-commutative rings and associative algebras (rings that are also vector spaces) are often studied via their categories of modules. A module over a ring is an Abelian group that the ring acts on as a ring of endomorphisms, very much akin to the way fields (integral domains in which every non-zero element is invertible) act on vector spaces. Examples of non-commutative rings are given by rings of square matrices or more generally by rings of endomorphisms of Abelian groups or modules, and by monoid rings.

Some useful theorems

Artin-Wedderburn theorem

In abstract algebra, the ArtinWedderburn theorem is a classification theorem for semisimple rings. The theorem states that a semisimple ring R is isomorphic to a product of ni-by-ni matrix rings over division rings Di, for some integers ni, both of which are uniquely determined up to permutation of the index i. In particular, any simple left or right Artinian ring is isomorphic to an n-by-n matrix ring over a division ring D, where both n and D are uniquely determined.

As a direct corollary, the ArtinWedderburn theorem implies that every simple ring that is finite-dimensional over a division ring (a simple algebra) is a matrix ring. This is Joseph Wedderburn's original result. Emil Artin later generalized it to the case of Artinian rings. Note that if R is a finite-dimensional simple algebra over a division ring E, D need not be contained in E. For example, matrix rings over the complex numbers are finite-dimensional simple algebras over the real numbers. The ArtinWedderburn theorem reduces classifying simple rings over a division ring to classifying division rings that contain a given division ring. This in turn can be simplified: The center of D must be a field K. Therefore R is a K-algebra, and itself has K as its center. A finite-dimensional simple algebra R is thus a central simple algebra over K. Thus the ArtinWedderburn theorem reduces the problem of classifying finitedimensional central simple algebras to the problem of classifying division rings with given center.

Examples
Let R be the field of real numbers, C be the field of complex numbers, and H the quaternions.

Every finite-dimensional simple algebra over R must be a matrix ring over R, C, or H. Every central simple algebra over R must be a matrix ring over R or H. These results follow from the Frobenius theorem. Every finite-dimensional simple algebra over C must be a matrix ring over C and hence every central simple algebra over C must be a matrix ring over C. Every finite-dimensional central simple algebra over a finite field must be a matrix ring over that field.

Generalizations
Any ring can be seen as a preadditive category with a single object. It is therefore natural to consider arbitrary preadditive categories to be generalizations of rings. And indeed, many definitions and theorems originally given for rings can be translated to this more general context. Additive functors between preadditive categories generalize the concept of ring homomorphism, and ideals in additive categories can be defined as sets of morphisms closed under addition and under composition with arbitrary morphisms.

Division ring
In abstract algebra, a division ring, also called a skew field, is a ring in which division is possible. More formally, a ring with 0 1 is a division ring if every non-zero element a has a multiplicative inverse (i.e. an element x with ax = xa = 1). Division rings differ from fields only in that their multiplication is not required to be commutative. The condition 0 1 is only there to exclude the trivial ring with a single element 0 = 1. Stated differently, a ring is a division ring if and only if the group of units is the set of all non-zero elements. All fields are division rings; more interesting examples are the non-commutative division rings. The best known example is the ring of quaternions H. If we allow only rational instead of real coefficients in the constructions of the quaternions, we obtain another division ring. In general, if R is a ring and S is a simple module over R, then the endomorphism ring of S is a division ring; every division ring arises in this fashion from some simple module. Much of linear algebra may be formulated, and remains correct, for (left) modules over division rings instead of vector spaces over fields. Every module over a division ring has a basis; linear maps between finite-dimensional

modules over a division ring can be described by matrices, and the Gaussian elimination algorithm remains applicable. Differences between linear algebra over fields and skew fields occur whenever the order of the factors in a product matters. For example, the proof that the column rank of a matrix over a field equals its row rank yields for matrices over division rings only that the left column rank equals its right row rank: it does not make sense to speak about the rank of a matrix over a division ring. The center of a division ring is commutative and therefore a field. Every division ring is therefore a division algebra over its center. Division rings can be roughly classified according to whether or not they are finitedimensional or infinite-dimensional over their centers. The former are called centrally finite and the latter centrally infinite. Every field is, of course, one-dimensional over its center. The quaternion ring forms a 4dimensional algebra over its center, which is isomorphic to the real numbers. Wedderburn's (little) theorem: All finite division rings are commutative and therefore finite fields. (Ernst Witt gave a simple proof.) Frobenius theorem: The only finite dimensional division algebras over the reals are the real numbers, the complex numbers and the quaternions. Division rings used to be called fields in an older usage. In many languages, a word meaning "body" is used for division rings, in some languages designating either commutative or non-commutative division rings, while in others specifically designating commutative division rings (what we now call fields in English). A more complete comparison is found in the article Field (mathematics). While division rings and algebras as discussed here are assumed to have associative multiplication, nonassociative division algebras such as the octonions are also of interest.

Glossary of ring theory

Definition of a ring
Ring A ring is a set R with two binary operations, usually called addition (+) and multiplication (*), such that R is an abelian group under addition, a monoid under multiplication, and such that multiplication is both left and right distributive over addition. Note that rings are assumed to have multiplicative identities unless otherwise noted. The additive identity is denoted by 0 and the multiplicative identity by 1. Subring A subset S of the ring (R,+,*) which remains a ring when + and * are restricted to S and contains the multiplicative identity 1 of R is called a subring of R.

Types of elements
Central An element r of a ring R is central if xr = rx for all x in R. The set of all central elements forms a subring of R, known as the center of R. Divisor In an integral domain R, an element a is called a divisor of the element b (and we say a divides b) if there exists an element x in R with ax = b.

Idempotent An element r of a ring is idempotent if r2 = r. Unit or invertible element An element r of the ring R is a unit if there exists an element r-1 such that rr-1=r-1r=1. This element r-1 is uniquely determined by r and is called the multiplicative inverse of r. The set of units forms a group under multiplication. Irreducible An element x of an integral domain is irreducible if it is not a unit and for any elements a and b such that x=ab, either a or b is a unit. Note that every prime element is irreducible, but not necessarily vice versa. Prime element An element x of an integral domain is a prime element if it is not zero and not a unit and whenever x divides a product ab, x divides a or x divides b. Nilpotent An element r of R is nilpotent if there exists a positive integer n such that rn = 0. Zero divisor A nonzero element r of R is a zero divisor if there exists a nonzero element s in R such that sr=0 or rs=0.

Homomorphisms and ideals

Factor ring or quotient ring Given a ring R and an ideal I of R, the factor ring is the ring formed by the set R/I of cosets {a+I : aR} together with the operations (a+I)+(b+I)=(a+b)+I and (a+I)(b+I)=ab+I. The relationship between ideals, homomorphisms, and factor rings is summed up in the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms. Finitely generated ideal A left ideal I is finitely generated if there exist finitely many elements a1,...,an such that I = Ra1 + ... + Ran. A right ideal I is finitely generated if there exist finitely many elements a1,...,an such that I = a1R + ... + anR. A two-sided ideal I is finitely generated if there exist finitely many elements a1,...,an such that I = Ra1R + ... + RanR. Ideal A left ideal I of R is a subring of R such that aI I for all aR. A right ideal is a subring of R such that IaI for all aR. An ideal (sometimes called a two-sided ideal for emphasis) is a subring which is both a left ideal and a right ideal. Jacobson radical The intersection of all maximal left ideals in a ring forms a two-sided ideal, the Jacobson radical of the ring. Kernel of a ring homomorphism The kernel of a ring homomorphism f : R S is the set of all elements x of R such that f(x) = 0. Every ideal is the kernel of a ring homomorphism and vice versa. Maximal ideal A left ideal M of the ring R is a maximal left ideal if M R and the only left ideals containing M are R and M itself. Maximal right ideals are defined similarly. In commutative rings, there is no difference, and one speaks simply of maximal ideals. Nil ideal An ideal is nil if it consists only of nilpotent elements. Nilpotent ideal An ideal I is nilpotent if its powers Ik are {0} for k large enough. Every nilpotent ideal is nil, but the converse is not true in general. Nilradical

The set of all nilpotent elements in a commutative ring forms an ideal, the nilradical of the ring. The nilradical is equal to the intersection of all the ring's prime ideals. It is contained in, but in general not equal to, the ring's Jacobson Radical. Prime ideal An ideal P in a commutative ring R is prime if P R and if for all a and b in R with ab in P, we have a in P or b in P. Every maximal ideal in a commutative ring is prime. There is also a definition of prime ideal for noncommutative rings. Principal ideal A principal left ideal in a ring R is a left ideal of the form Ra for some element a of R. A principal right ideal is a right ideal of the form aR for some element a of R. A principal ideal is a two-sided ideal of the form RaR for some element a of R. Radical of an ideal The radical of an ideal I in a commutative ring consists of all those ring elements a power of which lies in I. It is equal to the intersection of all prime ideals containing I. Ring homomorphism A function f : R S between rings (R,+,*) and (S,,) is a ring homomorphism if it satisfies f(a + b) = f(a) f(b) f(a * b) = f(a) f(b) f(1) = 1 for all elements a and b of R. Ring monomorphism A ring homomorphism that is injective is a ring monomorphism. Ring isomorphism A ring homomorphism that is bijective is a ring isomorphism. The inverse of a ring isomorphism is also a ring isomorphism. Two rings are isomorphic if there exists a ring isomorphism between them. Isomorphic rings can be thought as essentially the same, only with different labels on the individual elements.

Types of rings
Artinian ring A ring satisfying the descending chain condition for left ideals is left artinian; if it satisfies the descending chain condition for right ideals, it is right artinian; if it is both left and right artinian, it is called artinian. Artinian rings are noetherian. Boolean ring A ring in which every element is idempotent is a boolean ring. Commutative ring A ring R is commutative if the multiplication is commutative, i.e. rs=sr for all r,sR. Dedekind domain A Dedekind domain is an integral domain in which every ideal has a unique factorization into prime ideals. Division ring or skew field A ring in which every nonzero element is a unit and 10 is a division ring. Domain (ring theory) A domain is a ring without zero divisors and in which 10. This is the noncommutative generalization of integral domain. Euclidean domain An integral domain in which a degree function is defined so that "division with remainder" can be carried out is called a Euclidean domain (because the Euclidean algorithm works in these rings). All Euclidean domains are principal ideal domains. Field

A commutative division ring is a field. Every finite division ring is a field, as is every finite integral domain. Field theory is in fact an older branch of mathematics than ring theory. Integral domain or entire ring A commutative ring without zero divisors and in which 10 is an integral domain. Invariant basis number A ring R has invariant basis number if Rm isomorphic to Rn as R-modules implies m=n. Local ring A ring with a unique maximal left ideal is a local ring. These rings also have a unique maximal right ideal, and the left and the right unique maximal ideals coincide. Any ring can be made local via localization. Noetherian ring A ring satisfying the ascending chain condition for left ideals is left noetherian; a ring satisfying the ascending chain condition for right ideals is right noetherian; a ring that is both left and right noetherian is noetherian. A ring is left noetherian if and only if all its left ideals are finitely generated; analogously for right noetherian rings. Prime ring A non-trivial ring R is called a prime ring if for any two elements a and b of R with aRb = 0, we have either a = 0 or b = 0. This is equivalent to saying that the zero ideal is a prime ideal. Every simple ring and every domain is a prime ring. Primitive ring A left primitive ring is a ring that has a faithful simple left R-module. Every simple ring is primitive. Primitive rings are prime. Principal ideal domain An integral domain in which every ideal is principal is a principal ideal domain. All principal ideal domains are unique factorization domains. Semisimple ring A semisimple ring is a ring R that has a "nice" decomposition, in the sense that R is a semisimple left Rmodule. Every semisimple ring is also Noetherian, and has no nilpotent ideals. Any ring can be made semi-simple if it is divided by its Jacobson radical. Simple ring A non-zero ring with no non-zero two-sided ideals is a simple ring. Trivial ring The ring consisting only of a single element 0=1. Unique factorization domain or factorial ring An integral domain R in which every non-zero non-unit element can be written as a product of prime elements of R. This essentially means that every non-zero non-unit can be written uniquely as a product of irreducible elements. Zero ring A ring in which the product of any two elements is 0 (the additive neutral element).

Miscellaneous
Characteristic The characteristic of a ring is the smallest positive integer n satisfying nx=0 for all elements x of the ring, if such an n exists. Otherwise, the characteristic is 0. Direct product of a family of rings This is a way to construct a new ring from given rings by taking the cartesian product of the given rings and defining the algebraic operation component-wise. Krull dimension of a commutative ring The maximal length of a strictly increasing chain of prime ideals in the ring. Localization of a ring

A technique to turn a given set of elements of a ring into units. It is named Localization because it can be used to make any given ring into a local ring. To localize a ring R, take a multiplicatively closed subset S containing no zero divisors, and formally define their multiplicative inverses, which shall be added into R. Rng A rng is an algebraic structure satisfying the same properties as a ring, except that multiplication need not have an identity element. The term "rng" is meant to suggest that it is a "ring" without an "identity". Semiring A semiring is an algebraic structure satisfying the same properties as a ring, except that addition need only be an abelian monoid operation, rather than an abelian group. That is, elements in a semiring need not have additive inverses.