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Feasibility Study to See If PEM Fuel Cell Is a Viable Replacement for The Convention Aircraft Batteries

BSc Aircraft Maintenance Engineering

April 2012

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Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 2 PEM Fuel Cells and Subsystems .................................................................................................... 2 What is a PEM Fuel Cell ............................................................................................................ 2 Constituents of a PEM Fuel Cell ................................................................................................ 6 Sub Systems Components of PEM Fuel Cell & Why They are Needed .................................... 8 Control Unit ............................................................................................................................ 8 Water Management System .................................................................................................. 10 Hydrogen Storage ................................................................................................................. 13 Chapter 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 15 Aircraft Batteries ........................................................................................................................... 15 Modern Aircraft Batteries ......................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 20 Emergency Battery Replacement With a PEM Fuel Cell Proposal .............................................. 20 Fuel Cell Insulation ................................................................................................................... 26 Aerogel Insulation Proposal ...................................................................................................... 27 Fuel cell Start-up ....................................................................................................................... 28 Chapter 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 28 Is the Fuel Cell a Feasible Replacement ....................................................................................... 28 How Can a Fuel Cell Be Used On Aircraft If Not for Batteries ............................................... 30 Airbus Proposal to replace the RAT with a PEM Fuel Cell System ........................................ 34 En Route Alternate Airports ..................................................................................................... 34 What Can Be Done About the Emergency Power .................................................................... 36 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 38 Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... 40 References ..................................................................................................................................... 41 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 43 Referenced Diagrams .................................................................................................................... 43

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Abstract
The report will be looking to see whether a PEM Fuel Cell system will be a viable replacement for the conventional battery on aircraft for emergency power situations. The report will discuss the nature of the PEM Fuel Cells operation along with the operation of a Nickel Cadmium Battery. As it turns out, the weight and volume of the Fuel Cell system is impractical. Furthermore the explosive force of hydrogen on board an aircraft during an emergency situation is not recommended. However the PEM Fuel Cell system when utilized as an Auxiliary Power Unit or a Ram Air Turbine becomes an advantageous piece of technology. The emergency Nickel Cadmium Battery will be replaced with a Lithium Ion battery, a new generation for aircraft batteries. This new generation of Aircraft batteries has a higher power, energy density than Nickel Cadmium batteries and is 35% lighter.

Introduction
The power demands on aircraft are increasing as our dependence on technology increases. As a result of this the energy storage devices currently used on aircraft nowadays is insufficient i.e. Nickel Cadmium and Lead Acid batteries. The purpose of this study is to determine whether a PEM fuel cell system can meet the power demands in a safe manner for the essential services. By giving a brief layout on how the fuel cell functions and the subsystems involved an explanation will be given on how these 1 User ID: 09044337

systems can be retrofitted in an aircraft environment. The ultimate reason for this paper is to help save lives. If the aircraft is to crash land there is generally 15 minutes left of vital power i.e. Emergency Lights. If the aircraft is to crash in the ocean at night time the 15 minutes time interval is inadequate. Maybe a little bit extra time could be given to the poor souls to give them a better fighting chance for survival.

Chapter 1 PEM Fuel Cells and Subsystems

What is a PEM Fuel Cell
A Proton Exchange Membrane is a fuel cell which converts chemical energy to electrical energy. It converts hydrogen into electrical current, heat and water. The chemical energy is hydrogen gas it is fed into the fuel cell and it is composed of 3 major components the anode (-), cathode (+) and electrolyte which is in between the anode and cathode. The hydrogen gas is fed into the anode side of the cell and it diffuses into the gas diffusion layer (GDL) where it meets the anode side of the electrolyte. Oxygen is fed into the Cathode. The hydrogen is oxidized at the anode side of the electrolyte where it gives up its electrons with the help of the platinum catalyst. 2H2 4 H+ + 4 e The hydrogen protons are able to pass through the electrolyte and the electrons are not able to pass through. The electrons are forced through an external circuit to generate electrical power making their way towards the cathode. Electrons are negatively charged and due to the positive nature of the cathode this is why they make their way to 2 User ID: 09044337

the cathode unlike charges attract. The Protons pass through the electrolyte arriving at the cathode where the hydrogen protons combine with the electrons and the oxygen to produce water. O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e 2H2O

Figure 1 PEM Fuel Cell

There are several different categories of fuel cell technologies in the market which are still in the development stage. Each one of these technologies has their own advantages and disadvantage where they are used for different applications. The 3 User ID: 09044337

classification of these different types of fuel cells is based on chemical reactions, the catalyst required, fuel, operating temperatures and other factors. The types of fuel cells include: Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells Direct Methanol Fuel Cells Alkaline Fuel Cells Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Regenerative Fuel Cells

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Figure 2: A Table Representing the Different Types of Fuel Cells

Constituents of a PEM Fuel Cell

To make the PEM fuel cell work efficiently there are other crucial parts to make it work. The left and right end plates are what encase a fuel cell or fuel cell stack. A fuel cell stack is more than 1 fuel cell connected in series, the more fuel cells the more voltage can be obtained. The end plates are there for support and they have gaskets to seal in the air, water and hydrogen within the fuel cell. The left end plate is the 1 st part of the build. The left bus plate made out of graphite (anode) will be placed on top of the left end plate. The bus plate will be connected to an external circuit where the electrons will make its path to the cathode. The hydrogen frame is a nonconductive material which directs the hydrogen to the flow field. The hydrogen frame has gaskets to make a seal, the hydrogen is fed from the top to the bottom of the manifold any excess hydrogen will be recirculated back into the system. This of course will be electronically controlled and depending on the design criteria and power output requirements of the PEM fuel cell, this will depend on the demand of hydrogen being fed into the system. The flow field will be of a vertical setup for the hydrogen channel in a serpentines configuration. Dry hydrogen will flow down the flow field and diffuse in the Gas Diffusion Media (GDM) also known as Gas Diffusion Layer (GDL). The GDM is a paper or cloth like material made from 99% carbon coated with Teflon. Teflon is a hydrophobic material, this means water will not be able to stay there and will repel or runoff. The GDL is a porous material which means it has a high surface area due to the woven carbon fibres and due to the 6 User ID: 09044337

materials hydrophobic nature there will be no congestion. The next component is the Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA), it is made from Nafion which is a sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer. In the use of PEM fuel cells it consists of small amounts of platinum 0.4 mg/cm, Haile, S.M., 2003. The MEA is the medium which splits the hydrogen into protons and electrons and transports the protons to the cathode area of the MEA. The MEA will be in contact with another GDL on the cathode side, this is where the oxygen is delivered. The Air/Oxygen meets with the hydrogen protons and electrons to produce water. An air manifold flow field lies on top of the MEA where the air is delivered to the GLD from the air manifold. The GDL has a flow field on top which is also of serpentine configuration, but in a horizontal setup. It is of horizontal arrangement so that the hydrogen and air are separated from each other. A graphite cooling plate is placed on top of the air flow field. The graphite cooling plate delivers ionized water to the power assembly. The process is allowed to repeat to form another power cell assembly. Another hydrogen frame will be added repeating the process mentioned earlier, but after adding the air flow field a graphite separator plate will be added. The graphite cooling plate and separator plate will alternated in between each power assembly. Once the desired amount of power cells are installed the anode plate will be placed above the air flow field completing a fuel cell stack. Connected to a fuel cell stack there may be a humidification system depending on the design for the fuel cell. The diagram below is an exploded view of the fuel cell stack with a humidification subassembly.

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Figure 3: Exploded View of a Fuel Cell Stack

Sub Systems Components of PEM Fuel Cell & Why They are Needed Control Unit
A PEM fuel cell cant work independently, it has to have subsystems in order for it to operate. Subsystems are there to improve efficiency of the fuel cell stack, to ensure the fuel cell stack does not flood and to manage flow rate of the air, hydrogen into the system and temperature. The main component to the PEM fuel cell system is the control unit. The control unit is the brain of the whole operation. It controls the amount of hydrogen into the fuel cell 8 User ID: 09044337

with the use of flow sensors and a solenoid valve. There is a purge solenoid to remove any excess water and impurities on the anode side which is also controlled by the Control unit. The control unit will also control the amount of air which may be fed in the system by controlling the RPM of either, a fan, a blower or a compressor, depending on the setup. There will also be a purge solenoid on the cathode side to remove any excess water and impurities. The control unit will essentially sense a power demand and open the solenoid valves accordingly. This of course will be preprogramed during the design phase of the PEM fuel cell. Needs a little bit more Stoichiometry is a term which means the ratio of the reactant gases given to produce the product. The reaction for water involves 4 moles of hydrogen and 2 moles of oxygen. This mean there is a 2:1 ratio relationship. This does not mean that the feed of hydrogen has to be double the amount of oxygen, on the contrary. Any excess air will be exhausted out from the cathode into the atmosphere. Air is delivered to the system at a higher pressure so that it can remove the product from the reaction (water) to avoid flooding, though the cathode exhaust. It is imperative that the control unit is programmed to meet the design requirements for if does not the fuel cell will suffer from fuel starvation, oxygen starvation or dehydration. Fuel starvation is when there is an absence or minute amount of hydrogen which is a case of low stoichiometry. With an insufficient amount of hydrogen gas not able to meet the electrical and power demands of the system a reverse reaction will occur. Instead of producing water it will undergo electrolysis of the moisturised air. This reaction sustains the current. H2O O2
+

H+ + 2e9

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Another reaction occurs which produces CO2 because the carbon starts to corrode. C + 2H2O CO2 + 4H+ + 4eThe current will be sustained while the carbon corrosion continues. The carbon catalyst support will become transformed into CO2 which could leave clusters of Platinum and Ruthenium. Of course this depends if the MEAs contain such catalytic material. Oxygen starvation is when there is insufficient air meeting the demand of the hydrogen. This could happen during start up, when a load change occurs and the most obvious no oxygen or air supply. Starving the MEAs cathode side of oxygen this will allow hydrogen to pass through to sustain the current creating a hydrogen pump. Hydrogen will form in the absence of oxygen. Once all moisture has been depleted the MEA may start to corrode and decay. Another way oxygen starvation can occur is if there is too much moisture which will block the passage of air by flooding the cathode section.

Water Management System

The humidification system plays an important role for the PEM fuel cell. The vaporized water acts as a channel for the protons to pass through the MEA. The vaporized water humidifies the air which is being fed into the fuel cell at a certain pressure. This pressure allows back diffusion of the vaporized water, this travels from the cathode GDL, increasing the surface area because of its porous structure. The Water molecules will enter into the MEA porous structure. Haile, S.M., 2003. Fuel cell materials and components. Acta Materialia 51, 59816000.

The water molecules act as a channel for the protons in the MEA. There is a 10 User ID: 09044337

phenomenon known as Electro Osmotic Drag. This is a sort of friction produced by water molecules being dragged by the proton flow from the anode to the cathode. This Electro Osmotic Drag dries up the anode side of the MEA from the heat produced. It is imperative that the membrane has to be moist at all times and that sufficient air pressure is supplied to allow the back diffusion of water. The MEAs achieve this milestone by making the MEA as thin as <18 m allowing water to pass through easily and not far to go. Bele, T.F 2009. By having the MEA thin the pressure of the air would not need to be as excessive. This increases the efficiency of the system as a whole. Another technique carried out by Gore is the chemical composition of a Nafion PFSA product which is a composition of Teflon and PFSA. Teflon is hydrophobic it is a fluoropolymer resin and has good heat conduction. The Teflon is put their mainly to prevent water ingest and flooding. The PFSA is a Perfluorosulfonic Acid polymer, it is extremely hydrophilic and can absorb water at room temperature. The two work together to have a balance of water in the MEA at any one time. By having that advantage of absorbing the moisture from the air to the membrane the chemical composition of the MEA makes it more efficient. http://www2.dupont.com/FuelCells/en_US/assets/downloads/dfc301.pdf There are 2 types of humidification systems an internal and an external. The external system involves a humidifier. A company named Humidicore has manufactured a humidifier which operates at higher temperatures and pressures for the utilization of PEM fuel cells. It is a heat exchanger known as an enthalpy wheel. Hot moist air enters into the core of the device (fuel cell inlet) from the cathode exhaust of the fuel cell. Cold dry air enters into the system via a fan, blower or compressor and travels to the core. 11 User ID: 09044337

The core material is composed of ceramic material called cordierite coated with a drying agent. The drying agent absorbs the moisture along with the sensible heat. Enthalpy is a measure of total energy which consists of sensible heat and latent heat. Sensible heat is is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a specific quantity of a substance by a degree in temperature. Latent heat is the amount of heat absorbed or released which is at a constant pressure and temperature undertaking a change of state. A motor is used to rotate the enthalpy wheel which can go up to 60 RPM which of course will be controlled by the control unit. The heat and moisture will be exchanged, high potential energy always seeks lower potential energy. The cold inlet air becomes warm and moist which wil this will then enter into the fuel cell. The internal humidification system is separated by the cathode. It consists of 6 Components: 1) A Water Flow Transition Plate 2) Humidification Water Plate 3) Humidification Membrane 4) Humidification Air Plate 5) Humidification Membrane 6) Final Water Plate Components 2 till 5 are repeated which will depend on the design of the fuel cell. Normally at a ratio of 2:1 for if there is more there would be a pressure drop of air and water. This would require a larger pump and blower. This would make the system as a whole less efficient. Engel, R, 2012. Refer to figure 3 for the Humidification cell diagram. The internal humidification system works similar to the enthalpy wheel design. The moisturised air passes though the humidification wet plate. Moisture is passed over to the semi permeable humidification membrane, humidifying the air passing though the 12 User ID: 09044337

dry air plate. This phenomena is called diffusion. Heat will also be transferred to the dry air. The excess water and air is then exhausted through the cathode exhaust.

Hydrogen Storage
There are 3 main types of hydrogen storage which is being studied extensively for onboard vehicular travel. There are targets to be met which are conformability, durability, safety, volumetric capacity, gravimetric capacity, cost etc. These targets need to be met so that it will be a viable replacement for current energy mediums used in todays world. The three major methods of storing hydrogen is by compressed hydrogen gas, liquid hydrogen or by the use of metal hydrides. Compressed Gas: The method of compressing hydrogen gas requires a lot of energy to do so. Compression technologies need to be addressed in order to make it more efficient. By compressing the gas to such extreme pressures this does create heat, which is why safety provisions cant be taken lightly when refuelling a gas cylinder. Quantum technologies has been able to compress hydrogen gas up to 10,000 psi with in there cylinders. Quantum Technologies has developed it out of carbon fibre epoxy resin composite for the inside layer of the tank. It has a safety factor of 2.35 which mean it can reach to 23,500 psi which will then explode if any more pressure is added. An outer shell is placed which resists impact and damage resistance. The high cost of the tank revolves around the carbon fibrous materials involved in developing such a cylinder. Unlike conventional petroleum tankers for cars they arent that conformable which will also need to be addressed. Research and development in the materials used 13 User ID: 09044337

to bring the cost down and for materials which have high surface area so that more hydrogen may be stored in the tanks.

Liquid Cryogenic Storage: Storing hydrogen as a liquid is tricky due to the pressure and temperature requirements. Although you can store more hydrogen in a given volume than compressed gas tanks it requires temperatures of about 77K. The energy used to cool the hydrogen is 30% of what the energy is stored in the hydrogen. Only 70% remains where further losses will continue down the line such as hydrogen boil off and out gassing. The atoms of hydrogen are the smallest of all atoms this is why hydrogen gas is able to escape which is called outgassing. Metal Hydrides: The method of storing hydrogen gas in metal hydrides is one of the safest methods. The reason why it is the safest is because the hydrogen is unreactive for it has metallic bonds to metals such as palladium, magnesium, lithium etc. when stored in these mediums. Another advantage of metal hydrides is that it can store more hydrogen by volumetric energy density compared to liquid hydrogen and compressed hydrogen. The problem with metal hydride technology at the moment is that they are too heavy for the amount of hydrogen they store, they take a long time to refuel which requires high heat and pressure to refuel. The Compressed gas method is the one that is mostly employed in todays world. There are needs for improvement which is under way, one of which is to increase the specific surface areas (SSA) and narrow pore size distributions (PSD), this increases adsorption. Adsorption is the attraction of a substance to the surface of the molecule

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with a strong van-da-walls force. This will ultimately increase the up take of hydrogen and and capacity of the storage medium. http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress11/iv_c_5_liu_2011.pdf Research and development for both cryogenic storage and metal hydrides are commencing. Liquid cryogenic hydrogen storage would be favourable over compressed gas however too much energy is already consumed in getting hydrogen to a liquid state. The extra refrigerant components needed to maintain the temperature, this makes the volume of the storage medium larger. With metal hydrides there are different alloys, materials and methods being explored. Till they are able to meet the Department of Energies needs, metal hydrides should be the favourable method of hydrogen storage.

Chapter 2 Aircraft Batteries

The 2 main types of batteries used in the aerospace industry for commercial jets are either nickel cadmium or sealed Lead acid Batteries. They are in the class of a secondary battery, which means they can be recharged a number of times. Like the PEM fuel cell it converts chemical energy into electrical energy. However the chemical energy is already stored unlike the PEM fuel cell where the fuel is fed in. Batteries have 3 main parts an anode, cathode and an electrolyte. For a Nickel Cadmium battery the cathode is Nickel while the anode is cadmium. While the battery is under load this

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reaction takes place. Cathode / Positive: Ni(OH)4 + 2K = Ni(OH)2 + 2KOH Anode / Negative: Cd + 2OH = Cd(OH)2 The transfer of electrons from the anode to the cathode is how the electricity is being produced When the battery is being charged or under voltage these reactions take place. Cathode / Positive: Ni(OH)2 + 2OH = Cd(OH)2 Anode / Negative: Cd(OH)2 + 2K = Cd + 2KOH This reaction brings the cell to its original state ready for another discharge cycle. Nickel Cadmium is most commonly used battery for commercial aircrafts. Nickel Cadmium batteries are capable of: Delivering high currents, Tolerant to over-discharging and overcharging, They can be rapidly charged hundreds of times in a shorter time, Can be charged or discharged any number of times without any damage, Staying idle longer in any state of charge and keeping a full charge when stored for a long period of time. Nickel Cadmium batteries with all these advantages they do poses disadvantages where the main one being is that they are heavier than the lead acid battery. They can also have a memory effect where they behave as if they had lower capacity compared to their original manufactured power rating. The reason being is because crystalline structures grow on the electrodes. It is important that the battery be fully charged once it has been fully discharged to avoid this phenomenon. Trickle charge takes place to 16 User ID: 09044337

avoid discharge while the battery is being used for light loads or if it is dormant. This does not harm the battery it merely keeps the battery at its fully charged state. Trickle charge will depend more on the batterys voltage rather than the current. Strike, C, 2007 A batterys capacity is measured in Ampere-Hours, this tells the user how much current may be withdrawn from the battery for a whole hour. For example a 20 ampere-hour battery, it may withdraw 20 amps for 1 hour or 10 amps for 2 hours. Batteries are used for emergency situations on aircraft and are used as a last line of defence. The Battery supplies Essential and vital services. Essential services are those in which can ensure a safe flight during a mid-flight emergency situation. For the Airbus a320 the essential services would involve navigation, communications, basic flight controls and ignition of fire protection systems if needed. Essential services also involve the deployment of the landing gear which will have a free fall and the airbrakes which have stored nitrogen accumulators. Vital services are those which will be required after an accident or major incident has occurred. These include emergency lights, switch operation of fire extinguishers and emergency audio. Strike, C, 2007

Modern Aircraft Batteries

The Airbus A320 has on board two 23 amp hour batteries with a normal voltage of 24 volts. The batteries are on board the aircraft for only 2 reasons. The first is that the battery can supply power to the start-up motor through an accessory gear box to turn the High Pressure compressor spool. This is the 1st step in starting the engine, however not all aircrafts use this mode of start-up; rather a ground power unit will be used to 17 User ID: 09044337

supply bleed air to turn the high pressure spool. The 2nd reason is to supply power to essential and vital systems on the aircraft in case of an emergency situation. The supply from the battery would only occur if the aircraft was to run out of fuel during mid-flight. If there is no fuel then this means the Auxiliary Power Unit cant be utilized. This has happened before and one of the more recent events is in 2001, Air Transit Flight 236 had a fuel leak loosing 1 gallon of fuel per minute. It did however have a safe landing because the Ram Air Turbine (RAT) deployed supplying essential electrical power. The RAT free falls into the airstream which will excite the turbine from the aerodynamic forces this will produce electrical and hydraulic power. If it were not to deploy then the tertiary line of defence would be the Batteries. Although unlikely the RAT would fail to deploy and that there has been no documented occurrences that does not mean that it cant happen. A Boeing 767 skids along the runway on its belly because the landing gear failed to deploy. The main hydraulics for the landing gear was inoperable and the free fall blow down system didnt work either. This happened on November 1st, 2011. Thankfully there were no casualties. As mentioned earlier there are 2 batteries. Battery one will supply power to the AC bus bar through a static inverter. The static inverter will step the voltage up from 24 volts to 115 volts single phase with a frequency at 400 Hz. This power will be supplied at the AC essential bus bar. The load on it would be avionics equipment like the Navigation Display, navigation equipment, VHF1 radio for Air Traffic Control and the primary address (to alert flight crew and passengers of their impending fate). Battery 2 supplies power to the DC essential bus bas, the power is then channelled to transformer rectifier units distributing power to the loads. The loads involved are not 18 User ID: 09044337

clear for such information remain confidential. However the flight controls are powered by electro hydraulics. The flight controls involved in manoeuvring the aircraft to a safe flight path would involve trim tabs on the rudder, elevator and ailerons. The trim tabs are the only chance for the pilot to get the aircraft to its designated flight path. Primary Flight controls are not an option, for the battery cant meet those power requirements for very long. This is due to the amount of aerodynamic forces acting on the large surface area of the flight controls which would desire a lot of current.

Figure 4: The Diagram Above Represents an Emergency Power Configuration

CAP 562 states that the power source would have to last for a minimum of 60 minutes where 30 minutes is available for the Instrument meteorological conditions, while the 19 User ID: 09044337

battery is at an 80 85% charge. Instrument meteorological conditions mean conditions that are under bad weather. It is mentioned in the CS -25 document that an allowance of 15 minutes is required while the aircraft is at sea level. This power would be reserved mainly for lighting and radios which are the Vital Services. There are 2 batteries on board the a320 and because of this each one would have to supply their own bus bar power for 60 minutes. There is a 1.5 safety factor included in all aviation components. At an average load both batteries combined withdraw an average current of 70 amps at a temperature of 0C. Nigel, T.(2012) This information was obtained by Saft Batteries who are a leading manufacturer and distributer of batteries to Airbus. The 70 amps is an average and can spike when flight controls are utilized. That information unfortunately is deemed classified. In a hypothetical scenario the total current withdrawal for any instance of time is 115 amps. The battery can withdraw up to 115 amps, because it can withdraw 1100 amps for 15 seconds at a voltage of 12 volts. Component Maintenance Manual (2758).

Chapter 3 Emergency Battery Replacement With a PEM Fuel Cell Proposal

A fuel cell would have to be rated at a power rating of 2760 Watts. The batteries output voltage is 24 volts and by multiplying that by the maximum current withdrawal 115 amps the power rating is obtained. Also a safety factor of 1.5 would have to be taken into consideration. The Fuel Cell would have to be rated at 2801.4 Watts. A 2.8 Kilowatt fuel 20 User ID: 09044337

cell rating would be required to replace the battery. Other criterias will have to be taken into consideration such as the subsystems required to maintain the PEM fuel cells operation. A 2.8Kw fuel cell would not be sufficient enough to power the aircraft emergency configuration and the subsystems. The fuel cell performs well when it is at a voltage of 0.7 volts and has a current density of approximately 600mA per cm-2. This is a reference to the PRIMEA Series 57 MEA.

Figure 5: The Diagram above shows the power density curve of the Latest MEA by Gore Practical PEM fuel cells for stationary or automotive applications require active areas of 200600 cm2. Yan, W.-M, 2011. In Yans study it shows the criteria needed to achieve 21 User ID: 09044337

optimum power ratings. This is when there is a cell temperature at 75C and the air humidification is at 70C. Yans experiment also shows that the fuel cell at 0.7 volts generates almost 600mA. There is a difference between Gores testing data and Yens for the testing criterias are different. Gore is showing the durability of the MEA with no hydration of air at 80C, while Yen is comparing Gores PRIMEA predecessor Series 5621 to the current version GORE-TEX PRIMEA 57.

Figure 6: The Diagram above shows the optimum performance when stack temperature is at 75C and the humidity is at 70C Connecting individual fuel cells together in series builds up voltage and wiring them in parallel builds current. Same as if it were a battery. With a voltage requirement of 24 volts there would have to be 34 cells to achieve this voltage, each of which contributes to 0.7 volts. Each cm generates 0.6 amps; with each cell having a surface area of 300 cm this would generate 180 amps. In this setup it would generate 4320 Watts or 4.3Kw of power. More power than required which is not a bad thing. By the analogy presented 22 User ID: 09044337

there would be no need to arrange any of the plates in parallel. Even if the surface area were to be 200 cm for that would have a current rating of 120 amps.

The hydrogen which would be required to be stored for the fuel cell would be 1020 litres. That is enough hydrogen to last for 60 minutes at an average power rating of 1.7 KW. A rule of thumb is that for every 100 Watts of power 1 Standard Litre (SL) of Hydrogen is required. Schatz Energy Research Centre 2008. That would mean 17 Standard Litres of hydrogen would be consumed per minute (SLM). A 1.7Kw fuel cell would consume 17 litres of hydrogen per minute. So to achieve 1.7 Kw of power for 60 minutes that would be 1,020 litres of hydrogen. There is 11000 litres of hydrogen that is equivalent to 1kg of mass of hydrogen at ambient pressure. With 1020 litres of hydrogen that is equivalent to 92.72 ~ 93 grams of hydrogen. When hydrogen is compress at 700 bar almost 10,000 psi 40 grams of hydrogen makes up 1 litre volume. This would require a 2.325 litre bottle when compressed at 700 bar. Scuba Diving cylinders typically have an internal volume of between 3 and 18 litres and a maximum pressure rating from 200 to 300 bars. At 300 bar 24 grams of hydrogen makes up 1 litre. This would require 3.87 ~ 4 Litre volume tank at 300 bar to supply the hydrogen required for the fuel cell. The system which would be the most sophisticated and would require the most amount of power would be the air system. The air relationship in regards to hydrogen can be 3:1 for air is free and does not compromise the fuel cell stack. More air is needed for there is 20% oxygen in the air and also the pressure of the air gets rid of excess water within the fuel cell stack. For when the aircraft is at 30,000ft in the air the density of air is 23 User ID: 09044337

reduced and also the radiant heat will reduce. At sea level the density of air is 1.225Kg/m3. The average cruising altitude of commercial jet aircraft is at 30,000ft and can go up to 42,000ft. The aircraft may fly higher than 30,000ft depending if there is traffic or if Mount Everest is on route. At 30,000ft the density of air is 0.458Kg/m 3 with a temperature of -44.44C. This means that there would need to be a compressor in the subsystem to give the Fuel cell sufficient oxygen and to heat up the air. The idea of this has already been thought of and researched by Lukas Barchewitz. He proposed a 2 stage radial compressor electronically driven, it has been proven that the compressor can be operated at any altitude away from surge zone.

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Figure 7: Shows That the Power Modulation throughout All the Altitudes throughout Flight Is Nowhere Near the Surge Zone

Figure 8: The Graph Shows the Advantage of the Optimised Turbine Lukas Barchewitz designed a 2 stage compressor which not only compresses the air but from the rotational speed he optimised the turbine to generate electricity from it. Guided Vaned compressors are needed for a sudden high change in power requirements. The guided vanes would open to supply a higher compressor mass flow. Lukas Barchewitz depicted that guided vaned diffusers are not necessary but are there for future options for improving operational flexibility.

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Figure 9: This Graph Shows That with a Change of the Guide Vane Position, the Efficiency of the Compressor Improves L, Barchewitz, 2008 The graphs presented here have been generated in a software called Turbomachinery a link is provided to see the software in operation. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PdjcbnuB8W8&feature=share A heat exchanger would need to be added before entering the humidifier and fuel cell stack to cool down the excess temperatures of 680 - 980 kelvin (407 707 C). The enthalpy wheel Humidicore states that one of the advantages is that Higher allowable inlet temperatures eliminate the need for an after cooler in high pressure applications. Humidicore Application Manual

Fuel Cell Insulation

The fuel cell stack would have to remain insulated for at altitudes of 30,000 feet for the temperature is -44.44C. This is not at all acceptable for these cold temperatures course 26 User ID: 09044337

delamination to the MEAs, a series of tests were carried out on Nafion 112 membrane by Gavello, G. The fuel cell was operated at 80C for 7 hours and then it was turned off and was kept in an environment of -20C for 10 hours. Before the freezing occurs the fuel cell is purged to remove any excess water, for if water was allowed to remain inside the water would freeze, expand and crystalized. This would for sure ruin the MEA. After 20 freezing and thawing cycles the MEAs power density decreased by 7.6% and after 30 freeze thawing cycles 19.3% power density was lost. Gavello, G., Zeng, J., Francia, C., Icardi, U.A., Graizzaro, A., Specchia, S., 2011. Experimental studies on Nafion 112 single PEM-FCs exposed to freezing conditions. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 36, 80708081.

Aerogel Insulation Proposal

The best insulating material which has not been studied yet for the insulation of PEM Fuel Cells is Aerogel. It is one of the lightest and lowest density solid, it is made up of Nano-meter sized particles of Silicon Dioxide. It is interconnected in a porous network which increases the surface area. It composes of 99.8% of free space which allows air to be present in. The aerogel can support 4000 times its weight which gives it a high compression resistance but it is brittle. The best characteristic of this material is that it is highly resistant to heat. The aerogel can be moulded into any shape and the Aerogel can be a material which could be included for the casing of the PEM fuel stack. Any produced heat in the encasing from the fuel cell stack would stay trapped within, whilst cold temperatures or hot temperatures from the outside would not be allowed to enter. There would need to be ducting so that air cooling can occur which would be controlled by the fuel cell control unit via a thermostat. A thermostat would have to be located in 27 User ID: 09044337

and out of the fuel cell stack encasing to measure the differential temperature so that the right amount of cool air can be passed through. The cooling air could be released by a solenoid valve, tapped of an intercooler which has been tapped of the compressor. The compressor would deliver hot so the intercooler would cool it down by the ram air. The unit would not be of a considerable size for the fuel cell stack only contributes to 34 cells, which means the volume of the case would be relatively small. A fan can be inserted in the case to circulate the air whilst a pressure relief valve would also be needed to prevent over pressurisation.

Fuel cell Start-up

In an emergency situation on an aircraft there is no time for delay when it comes to power. Once the relay is tripped for the emergency configuration the fuel cell would generally take 30 seconds for it to warm up. Currently fuel cells have a battery connected in parallel to the fuel cell till it is at its optimum temperature. The idea of the study is to rid the aircraft of the battery. There is an option for ultra-capacitors which have high power/ current densities however the energy densities are too low.

Chapter 4 Is the Fuel Cell a Feasible Replacement

To replace the battery with the Fuel cell system proposed it would take up a lot of volume, increase drag and would weigh a lot more than the nickel cadmium batteries. There is no evident proof that it would weigh more than the battery but the air system 28 User ID: 09044337

would generally have a large contributing factor. The compressor and ducting would have to withstand a lot of heat which means heavy alloys would need to be used to withstand that heat. The weight of the aircraft will have an effect on the endurance where the endurance will decrease for the rate of decent increases. Drag is also a factor which will decrease the endurance of an un powered glided flight. The compressor is fed with RAM air. Like the APU which has inlet doors so would require the compressor for the fuel cell. If what is mentioned above is no cause for concern then having an explosive gas on board an aircraft might. The first thing the pilot does when there is going to be an emergency landing is that he would dump the fuel. The reasons why fuel needs to be dumped is to obtain the centre of gravity, reduce the weight and most importantly to avoid the kerosene igniting which will cause more damage and more risk for injuries and fatalities. Kerosene burns slowly and there is 43 MJ/Kg of stored energy whilst hydrogen will explode and has 123 MJ/Kg of stored energy. With the system being as sophisticated as it is and the aircraft crashes into the water or ground, it is doubtful that the design proposed would not survive the impact. Another problem is, is that there is no RAM air to supply the fuels cell stack. It wouldnt work for very long and the MEA will break down. This can be avoided if the Fuel cell was to have a separate air tank on board to supply the fuel cell with air. With that notion we have 2 potential hazards on board the aircraft. If the system was designed to withstand shock and is able to survive a controlled crash that is all well and good, but an uncontrolled crash, unlikely. An uncontrolled crash such as a flying control could become jammed not able to change its orientation and slow down the aircraft before crashing. When the aircraft hits the water 29 User ID: 09044337

or ground it would not be a happy ending for most passengers. With the presence of hydrogen and air tanks on board if any of them were to rupture and ignite there would be another example of the Hindenburg disaster. It would be highly unlikely that anyone could survive through that ordeal. Although there is oxygen tanks on board they would be consumed while the aircraft is at high altitude till the aircraft descends to a safe altitude generally 8000ft.

How Can a Fuel Cell Be Used On Aircraft If Not for Batteries

The Fuel Cell is not a viable replacement for the emergency battery for the reasons stated above. However the PEM Fuel Cell is a viable replacement for the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU). Boeing and a company called Hydrogenics have partnered up to produce a fuel cell system to replace the APU. As the PEM Fuel Cell systems power output increase the volume and weight issue can become acceptable, although future development is on course to gradually decrease those aspects. With the increased power output there will be more water produced by the reaction of the 2 gases. By having more water produced on the aircraft, on board storage of water before take-off can be greatly decreased. The water produced from the fuel cell will be at temperature at around 80C from Osmatic Drag plus the residual air from the cathode exhaust will be at the same temperature. This by-product of heat as proposed by Boeing can be utilized to supply hot water, heat for the Galley and to heat the Kerosene fuel. As mentioned earlier in this paper not all the hydrogen is able to generate electricity and that a small percentage is able to escape. This small percentage of hydrogen, instead of feeding it back into the fuel cell system it can also be used to provide heat as a naked flame. 30 User ID: 09044337

That may sound dangerous and although not mentioned in the brochure but with an accumulation of hydrogen in a small container a build-up of pressure occurs. The hydrogen can be release by a pressure relief valve and ignited to heat the galley or reheat the water if required. From the build-up of pressure the ignited hydrogen will not be able to back track. A safety feature would need to be put in place to shut the device down and continued residual hydrogen flow should be channelled to the atmosphere. There is no designated requirements, standards or legislative rules set by EASA or the CAA for hydrogen storage or hydrogen gas at this moment in time. The only mention of hydrogen is that the lead acid batteries vent of There is however set standards required for hydrogen storage such as SAE J 2600 which clarifies design criterias and safety standards. SAE J 2579 also defines design, construction, operational, and maintenance requirements for hydrogen fuel storage and handling systems in on-road vehicles. The latest published paper is SAE J 2601 in 16/03/2010 which defines additional safety requirements. Part 21 which are design requirements for aircraft could transition or tailor these safety and design criteria standards and apply them to the aerospace industry. One safety standard a hydrogen tank must meet is if it is engulfed in flames, a bonfire. It is a general rule that when the temperature increases the pressure will increase which is why a company like Quantum Technologies has retrofitted a system which vents out hydrogen in a controlled method so that there will be no explosion. A safety factor of 2.35 exists on the Quantum Technology tanks however composite materials when exposed to a propane flame it generally lasts for 20 minutes. Stephenson, R (2010) That is why there is a pressure relief device to let the hydrogen out in a controlled fashion to avoid an explosion. 31 User ID: 09044337

Figure 10: Hydrogen Compress Gas Tank by Quantum Technologies The hydrogen tanks stored on board the aircraft are rated at 350 bar, more stringent safety features would need to be taken into consideration in order to be situated onboard the aircraft. There has been no paper published on the emergency dumping of hydrogen fuel while at altitude and at high velocities. How would the hydrogen behave in such an environment? What would be the hydrogens likely path with it being lightest element up, but could this cause a problem? That area of research would not be a bad idea. With the PEM fuel cell generating power and the source of fuel is hydrogen, there is no need to store as much Kerosene on board the aircraft. This would save on weight making the aircraft more efficient. The Tanks for the Kerosene can be reduced in 32 User ID: 09044337

volume which will also save on weight. Once the Fuel cell technology matures, all safety concerns are met and can meet up to all the aircrafts power demands, the aircraft engines would no longer need to generate electricity. This will decrease the load on the turbine engines meaning less fuel is required making them more efficient. The start-up sequence of the engines can be initiated by the battery, APU or a Ground Power Unit (GPU). When starting up with the battery, it consumes a lot of power which is not highly desired for it will take up the emergency power. The ground power unit is basically a mobile APU which is powered by diesel and is more efficient than the APU. However the APU and GPU will still emit carbon Monoxide while the PEM Fuel Cell would not. While the aircraft is on the ground it emits higher levels of Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide for it has a fuel rich mixture and the low temperatures involved unable to process them. The turbine engines while on the ground is where it is the most inefficient, it is said to be at 10% efficiency while the turbine engine is idling. If the Turbine engine were to alter the stoichiometric ratio the turbine engines will emit NOx. These NOx are lung damaging agents. With a PEM fuel cell with direct hydrogen as the fuel it will not emit any CO2, CO and NOx, as well as the elimination of noise. Replace the gas turbine engine with a PEM Fuel cell will give it a gain of 50% efficiency. Curtin, S (2009). A PEM Fuel Cell APU would eliminate the need for a GPU. This would save the airline money on labour and rent for the GPU if the airline does not own one. An organisation called European Union Emission Trading Scheme seeks to combat climate change. They do this by charging aircraft 13 per ton of CO2 emitted over European airspace.

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This will motivate Airliners and aircraft manufactures to improve on the efficiency and reduce their carbon foot print.

Airbus Proposal to replace the RAT with a PEM Fuel Cell System
Airbus proposes to see whether it is a viable for the Ram Air Turbine to be replaced with a PEM fuel cell. The emergency configuration is only at its full potential when the Turbine velocity for the RAT is greater than 100 knots. The constant Motor/ Generator supplies the AC essential Bus and the DC Essential Bus. As the speed of the RAT decreases between 50 and a100 knots the emergency batteries take over supplying power for essential services. Once the RAT is below 50 Knots it is unable to supply any useful power and full battery emergency configuration would take place. ATA 24-28-00 Airbus a320 (2011). With a PEM fuel cell supplying power it will remain constant; however the RAT is used for emergencies. When the RATs turbine speed decreases it may be due to that the aircraft is at its final decent and that the aircraft is at a low altitude. Would there be enough time to dump the hydrogen off board the aircraft? As mentioned earlier having an explosive gas during an emergency situation is not the safest of solutions to solve current issues. http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/fuel-cell-could-replace-ram-air-turbine-on-nextairbus-narrowbody-224309/

En Route Alternate Airports

Extended Operations (ETOPS) has a feature of where an aircraft can land at a suitable Aerodrome. A suitable Aerodrome would have to be equipped with the adequate 34 User ID: 09044337

facilities prepared for worst case scenarios. The aircraft has a minimum of 60 minutes of power so the aircraft can land, with alternate aerodromes in place. An Airbus a330 had an incident with fuel starvation and managed to glide to the alternative airport. The Diagram below represent alternative airports based in 2003.

Figure 11: Shows a Map of the Alternative Aerodromes When aircraft set out to their destination an alternative routes are already preprogramed in the navigations computer. The Pilot has generally 60 minutes to land the aircraft safely and with all the alternate aerodromes available a flight path has to be carefully constructed so there is always a point of return.

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What Can Be Done About the Emergency Power

With our increasing dependence on technology the power requirements will forever increase. With the power demand increasing what will be the solution in order to continue meeting these heavy power demands? Although batteries have a high power density, their energy density has not greatly improved. Batteries have been kept relatively the same for a number of years. Not much technological advancement has been made in the battery department. Saft Batteries Company has developed a new Lithium-Ion battery which has a 35% weight reduction compared to the Nickel Cadmium batteries. The energy and power density has increase. The Normal Voltage is 25.2 volts while the Normal capacity is 45 Ah. It is a maintenance free battery with a high cycle life capability. These batteries have been able show great improvement mainly due to the Nano structure imbedded within the battery cell. Nano technology is an important step in the future of technological advancement. The MEA, GDL, the Aerogel, and now the Lithium Ion battery, all these have shown improvement due to the increase of surface area. The Saft Lithium Ion battery could in principle replace two of the Nickel Cadmium batteries used on the A320 with only one Lithium Ion Battery. This would be a weight saving of about 20kg.

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Figure 12: The Next Generation Aircraft Battery The 3 main constituents of the Lithium Ion Battery is the Cathode, Anode and the Separator. The cathode the positive electrode of the Lithium Ion battery is composed of a pure lithium metal Cobalt oxide. There is research in different materials such as lithium mixed cobalt/nickel/manganese oxides. Cathode materials such as Lix(MnNi)O2 are being looked into for they do not de-oxygenate when charged, this reduces the risk of a fire and an explosion. This material has an energy output of >1Wh g1 with a cell voltage of 2.5 4.6 volts. The anode is composed of a carbon based material graphite. Research is being taken under way for the graphite cracks under cycles. It has been found out the this is reduced when Nano particles of Tin are used. Such an alloy is Li4Ti5O12. The electrolyte is the medium where the Lithium ions transfer from the 37 User ID: 09044337

cathode to the anode during discharge and when charging the ions move from the anode to the cathode. There are many chemical compositions for the electrolyte one that Bates and co-workers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory developed a solid state lithium phosphorus oxynitride (LIPON) which is capable of 300Whkg1.There is a separator in between the electrolyte called the Separator, which is used to electrically insulate the anode from the cathode. It is a Microporous material which is generally 2nm wide. This will increase the surface area tremendously allowing quicker discharge and charging rates. A, Ritchie (2006) Jun Young Kim at Massachusetts Institute of Technology used plasma technology to modify a polyethylene membrane to create a high performance separator for practical applications in rechargeable lithium ion polymer batteries. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_separators

Conclusion
Further advancements are underway and although a late boomer Lithium Ion Batteries hold grate potential. Further technological advancements are needed for maturity in battery technology so that when our power demands increase the battery will be ready for it. The battery is the perfect last line of defence when it comes to emergency power. It is a self-contained highly efficient energy storage medium which emits no hazardous emissions. There are several other types of batteries which have been investigated, amongst them are the lithium aluminium iron -sulphide, nickel - metal hydride and lithium-polymer. Lithium-ion batteries are the newest and fastest growing technology when it comes to rechargeable batteries. 38 User ID: 09044337

PEM Fuel cells show a lot of promise for the aerospace industry in regards to the Auxiliary Power Unit. Research and development must continue in this field in order to make the aircraft a cleaner mode of transport. Research would generally have to be focussed on the exhaust of gasses over board the aircraft and monitor its behaviour. The location of the PEM APU should be considered because it does not have to exhaust greenhouse gasses, it can be located anywhere on the aircraft. Research in that criterion is advisable along with design changes such as the kerosene fuel tanks, for their volume could be decreased. Ground gas turbine engines produce low NOx this is because there is steam water vapour being inserted in the combustion chamber. Unfortunately there is a high maintenance cost and frequent maintenance required. Research into this is also a good idea for the PEM fuel cell is continuously producing hot water which makes it quite efficient if it were to be feasible. Wellington, S 1999

Aside from the technical data which is presented above what is about to be mentioned is not as alarming as it is disturbing. Throughout the research which was carried out a lot of the current up-to-date research on PEM Fuel Cells, Aircraft PEM APU and Lithium Ion batteries were not free and were inaccessible. This is understandable for these are trade secrets and with the competitiveness between large firms, that sort of information is not desired to come into the wrong hands i.e. Competitors. The Obama Administration decided to cut the funding for hydrogen fuel cells for other technologies are more likely to prosper before the Fuel Cell. US secretary of Energy stated that there are 4 major hurdles needed to be accomplished and the hydrogen infrastructure is not yet available. The fuel cell and a suitable hydrogen storage mechanism have still not 39 User ID: 09044337

been able to meet the Department of Energy Requirements. If funding is reduced then this hinders the ability of achieving breakthroughs. Thorium Plasma Battery Technology is a battery which supposedly can last up to 5 10 years without a single recharge. It is basically a nuclear plasma battery which is classed as a safe green battery, for the radiation emitted is no more dangerous than the radiation emitted from our mobile phone. Four of the five inventers have disappeared and in which 2 have been murdered. If this is to be true and a technological marvel such as the Thorium Plasma Battery exists and is being supressed, this is not the way forward in life. Although it would harm the oil driven economy the benefits and applications of such a device would be endless. However devices such as these have been supressed ever since the 1940s, where a scientist named Nikola Tesla was able to harness the energy from the surrounding heated air by induction. Very high voltage but low current, when that is stepped down usable current is available. Recent promising perpetual devices also have been suppressed and laughed at by the media. With that all said, without these hurdles in the way the world would be a better place instead of filled with greed and lust for power. The earth has carried mankind for years on end and all we have done is abuse our home planet. Maybe its time we nurtured it for our future generations. With the sharing of information, this will accelerate our technological evolution.

Acknowledgments
Id like to acknowledge my Professor G, C, Premier for allowing me to do this topic. I want to thank R, Engel from Schatz Energy Research Centre for his generous support. I would finally like to thank T, Nigel for helping me with the battery specifications. And a 40 User ID: 09044337

special thank you for all the other people who helped and provided me with intellectual knowledge.

References
Sun, H., Zhang, G., Guo, L.-J., Dehua, S., Liu, H., 2007. Effects of humidification temperatures on local current characteristics in a PEM fuel cell. Journal of Power Sources 168, 400407. http://www.sciencedirect.com.ergo.glam.ac.uk/science/article/pii/S037877530700571X Accessed on: 19/04/2011

Gavello, G., Zeng, J., Francia, C., Icardi, U.A., Graizzaro, A., Specchia, S., 2011. Experimental studies on Nafion 112 single PEM-FCs exposed to freezing conditions. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 36, 80708081. http://www.sciencedirect.com.ergo.glam.ac.uk/science/article/pii/S0378775307009433 Accessed on: 19/04/2011

Stephenson, R (2010), Fire Safety of Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles: System-Level Bonfire Test, Motor vehicle Fire Research Institute. http://conference.ing.unipi.it/ichs2005/Papers/410082.pdf Accessed on: 19/04/2011

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Curtin, S (2009), Fuel Cells - Flying High!, www.fuelcell .org, Accessed on: 19/04/2011 http://www.fuelcells.org/info/aircraft.pdf

Strike, C, 2007, Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures & Systems, Barry College, Chapter 6

Ritchie, A., Howard, W., 2006. Recent developments and likely advances in lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources 162, 809812. http://www.hybridcars.com/components/expert-lithium-ion-batteries-will-help-hybridsmore-electric-cars-26284.html Accessed on (23/04/2012)

Wellington, S.L., Mikus, T., Vinegar, H.J., Karanikas, J.M., 1999. Flameless combustor. Obtained by Wassim Aktar

L, Barchewitz, 2008, In-flight Air Supply System for PEM Fuel Cells, http://en.youscribe.com/catalogue/rapports-et-theses/savoirs/in-flight-air-supply-systemfor-pem-fuel-cells-elektronische-1429790 (accessed on 02/04/2012)

Gavello, G., Zeng, J., Francia, C., Icardi, U.A., Graizzaro, A., Specchia, S., 2011. Experimental studies on Nafion 112 single PEM-FCs exposed to freezing conditions. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 36, 80708081. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com.ergo.glam.ac.uk/science/article/pii/S0306261910002527 Accessed on (20/04/2012) 42 User ID: 09044337

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_separators Accessed on (20/04/2012)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme Accessed on (20/04/2012) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GcbrHAPmoh8 Accessed on (20/04/2012)

Bibliography
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PjyJhe7Q1g http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/annual_progress11_fuelcells.html#c http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pAWpUP8zNKI&context=C4d9916fADvjVQa1PpcFM V0NMj1Ww11SmsO2IGdQ95rbwam5W3Fvs= http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzuCKwJxnwU&feature=channel&list=UL Barbir, F., 2005. PEM Fuel Cells: Theory and Practice. Academic Press Inc.

Referenced Diagrams
Figure 1 http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_pem.shtml

Figure 2 43 User ID: 09044337

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html

Figure 3 Engel, R., Richard.Engel@humboldt.edu (2012) Internal Humidification. [email] Message to Egab, A. (09044337@glam.ac.co.uk). Sent 12/04/2012

Figure 4 ATA chapter 24 electrical system Airbus A320

Figure 5 http://www.gore.com/MungoBlobs/primea_57_mea_datasheet.pdf

Figure 6 http://www.sciencedirect.com.ergo.glam.ac.uk/science/article/pii/S0306261910002527 Accessed on (20/04/2012)

Figures 7,8,9 L, Barchewitz, 2008, In-flight Air Supply System for PEM Fuel Cells, http://en.youscribe.com/catalogue/rapports-et-theses/savoirs/in-flight-air-supply-systemfor-pem-fuel-cells-elektronische-1429790 (accessed on 02/04/2012)

Figure 10 http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/zevprog/2006symposium/presentations/abele1_storage.p df 44 User ID: 09044337

Accessed on 02/04/2012

Figure 11 http://www.boeing.com/commercial/airports/faqs/etopseropsenroutealt.pdf Accessed on 25/010/2011 Figure 12 http://www.saftbatteries.com/MarketSegments/Aircraft/tabid/362/Language/enUS/MarketSegments/Aircraft/Technology/Cellsrange/tabid/374/Default.aspx Accessed on 12/03/2012

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