Chapter 6

Fundamentals of
Hydraulic Transients
BAYARD E. BOSSERMAN II
WILLIAM A. HUNT
CONTRIBUTORS
Robert C. Glover
Joseph R. Kroon
M. Steve Merrill
Gary Z. Watters
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview
of the problems caused by hydraulic transients and an
insight into the circumstances that make a more thor-
ough analysis necessary. The fundamental theory of
hydraulic transient analysis is described simply, with
no attempt to present rigorous mathematical or ana-
lytical methods. Simple numerical examples include
surge pressure calculations, attenuation of surge pres-
sure by programmed valve closure, and the design of
pipe to resist upsurge and downsurge pressures.
For more complete discussions of hydraulic tran-
sients, see Parmakian [1], Rich [2], Wylie and Streeter
[3], Watters [4], and Chaudhry [5].
6-1. Introduction
Hydraulic transients are the time-varying phenomena
that follow when the equilibrium of steady flow in a
system is disturbed by a change of flow that occurs
over a relatively short time period. Transients are
important in hydraulic systems because they can
cause (1) rupture of pipe and pump casings; (2) pipe
collapse; (3) vibration; (4) excessive pipe displace-
ments, pipe-fitting, and support deformation and/or
failure; and (5) vapor cavity formation (cavitation,
column separation).
Someof theprimarycauses (andfrequencyof occur-
rence) of transients are (1) valve movementsclosure
or opening (often), (2) flow demand changes (rarely),
(3) controlled pump shutdown (rarely), (4) pump fail-
ure (often), (5) pump start-up (rarely), (6) air venting
from lines (often), (7) failure of flow or pressure regu-
lators (rarely), and (8) pipe rupture (rarely).
The identification and calculation of pressures,
velocities, and other abnormal behavior resulting
from hydraulic transients make possible the effective
use of various control strategies, such as the
. selection of pipes and fittings to withstand the
anticipated pressures;
. selection and location of the proper control devices
to alleviate the adverse effects of transients; and
. identification of proper start-up, operation, and
shutdown procedures for the system.
The analysis of unsteady flow in pipe systems is
generally divided into two major categories.
Rigid water column theory (surge theory). The
fluid and pipe are inelastic, and pressure changes
propagate instantaneously. These flow conditions
are described by ordinary differential equations.
. Solution: closed-form integration or finite differ-
ence numerical integration.
6.1
. Advantages: the analysis can be applied by a person
with little numerical analysis skill and with limited
computational facilities.
. Disadvantages: the solutions, which are always ap-
proximations, are applicable only to simple pipe-
lines. Considerable experience is required to know
whether the results are applicable.
Elastic theory (water hammer). The elasticity of
both fluid and pipe affect the pressure changes. Pres-
sure changes propagate with wave speed, a, which
varies from about 300 to 1400 m/s (1000 to 4700 ft/s).
Flow conditions are described by nonlinear partial
differential equations.
. Solution: arithmetic, graphical method or method
of characteristics using finite difference techniques.
. Advantages: the theory accurately represents system
behavior andis, therefore, applicable toa wide range
of problems. Pipe friction, minor losses, and varying
valve closure procedures can be incorporated.
. Disadvantages: applying the theory requires a sub-
stantial initial effort on the part of the user to learn
it, a digital computer programmed for the method
of characteristics, and a knowledge of the oper-
ational characteristics of system components to
set up the solution for the computer.
6-2. Nomenclature
In Chapters 6 and 7, velocity always means ve-
locity of water and speed means the velocity of
pressure waves. The symbols used in Chapters 6 and
7 are defined as follows.
a Elastic wave speed in water contained in a pipe
[in meters per second (feet per second)]
C Coefficient whose value depends on pipe
restraint
D Inside diameter of a pipe [in meters (inches or
feet)]
e Wall thickness of a pipe [in meters (inches or
feet)]
E
j
Longitudinal joint efficiency in welded pipes
(dimensionless)
E Modulus of elasticity of pipe material [in new-
tons per square meter (pounds per square inch
or pounds per square foot); see Table 6-1].
g Acceleration due to gravity [in meters per
second squared (feet per second squared)]
h Head due only to surge [in meters (feet)]
Dh Change of head due to surge [in meters (feet)]
h
a
Allowable head due to surge [in meters (feet)]
K Bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid [in new-
tons per square meter (pounds per square inch
or pounds per square foot); see Table A-8 or
A-9]
L Length of pipeline [in meters (feet)]
DP Change of pressure due to surge [in newtons per
square meter (pounds per square inch)]
DP
a
Allowable pressure change due to surge [in new-
tons per square meter (pounds per square inch)]
P
atm
Atmospheric pressure [in newtons per square
meter (pounds per square inch); see Table A-6
or A-7]
DP
c
Difference between external and internal pres-
sure on a pipe [in newtons per square meter
(pounds per square inch)]
P
v
Vapor pressure of water [in newtons per square
meters (pounds per square inch); see Table A-8
or A-9]
SF Safety factor (dimensionless)
s
y
Yield stress [in newtons per square meter
(pounds per square inch)]
t Time (in seconds)
t
c
Critical time (2L/a; in seconds)
V Volume [in cubic meters (cubic feet)]
v Velocity [in meters per second (feet per second)];
in this chapter, velocity is average velocity of
fluid flow
Dv Change in velocity [in meters per second (feet
per second)]
Dv
a
Allowable change in velocity [in meters per sec-
ond (feet per second)]
r Density [in kilograms per cubic meter (slugs per
foot; see Table A-8 or A-9)]
m Poissons ratio (dimensionless; see Table 6-1)
g Specific weight of water [in newtons per cubic
meter (pounds per cubic feet; see Table A-8 or
A-9)]
6-3. Methods of Analysis
Methods of analyzing pipelines for the effects of hy-
draulic transients, with or without various means of
controlling them or reducing the severity, can be
summarized as follows:
. Graphical [1]
. Arithmetic [2]
. Algebraic [3]
. Method of characteristics [3,4,5]
. Finite element
. Implicit differentiation
These are methods of analysis, not methods of
design. In analysis, the system is described mathemat-
ically, and the behavior of the system is predicted by
the analysis. In design, the desired physical results are
6.2 Chapter 6 Fundamentals of Hydraulic Transients
described and alternative means for attaining these
results are compared, which leads to a selection of
one or more control measures. Analysis should be
performed as a part of the design process.
All of the above methods involve the equations of
motion and continuity used to describe the velocity
and pressure variation in the pipeline. For computer
modeling, the most widely used is the method of
characteristics, in which the partial differential equa-
tions of motion and continuity are converted into
four first-order equations represented in finite differ-
ence form and solved simultaneously with a com-
puter. The method provides for
. the inclusion of many possible pipeline or system
features, such as junctions, pumping stations, air
chambers, air release valves, reservoirs, and line
valves;
. the inclusion of fluid friction;
. the retention of small or secondary terms in the
original equations so that accuracy is retained; and
. the computation of pressure and velocity as a func-
tion of time at various points throughout the entire
pipeline system.
6-4. Surge Concepts in Frictionless Flow
Water hammer can occur in a pipeline flowing full
when the flow is increased or decreased, such as when
the setting on a valve in the line is changed. When a
valve in a pipeline is closed rapidly, the pressure on
the upstream side of the valve increases, and the pulse
of increased pressure travels upstream at the elastic
wave speed, a. This pulse (called an upsurge) de-
creases the velocity of flow. Downstream from an in-
line valve, the pressure is reduced and the wave of
decreased pressure travels downstream, also at the
elastic wave speed, a. This pulse (called a down-
surge) decreases the velocity of flow. If the velocity
is reduced too rapidly and the steady-state pressure is
low enough, the downstream pressure can be reduced
to vapor pressure, which creates a vapor pocket. A
large vapor pocket (called column separation) can
collapse with a dangerous explosive force produced
by the impact between solid water columns and can
cause the pipe to burst. This phenomenon can also
occur upstream of the valve when the reflected posi-
tive wave returns to the valve.
The events following a sudden closure of a valve
located a distance (L) downstream from a reservoir is
described in Figure 6-1. Friction is neglected, and the
energy gradeline (EGL) and hydraulic gradeline
(HGL) are assumed to coincide because velocity
heads are small compared with water hammer pres-
sure heads. The steady-state EGL is called H, and the
added-pressure head pulse is called h. The velocity of
the fluid under steady-state conditions is v
o
just be-
fore the valve is closed (at t 0).
The sequence of events between the valve and the
reservoir occurs in a four-phase cycle; the duration of
each phase is the time for the pressure wave to travel
between the valve and the reservoir (the length of the
pipeline divided by the elastic wave speed, L/a). The
sequence occurs as follows:
Table 6-1. Physical Properties of Pipe Materials
Modulus of elasticity
U.S. customary units
Material Poissons ratio SI units (N=m
2
) lb=in:
2
lb=ft
2
Aluminum 0.33 7.30 E 10 1.05 E 7 1.51 E 9
Asbestos-cement 0.30 2.30 E 10 3.40 E 6 4.90 E 8
Brass 0.34 1.03 E 11 1.50 E 7 2.16 E 9
Copper 0.30 1.10 E 11 1.60 E 7 2.30 E 9
Ductile iron 0.28 1.66 E 11 2.40 E 7 3.46 E 9
Gray cast iron 0.28 1.03 E 11 1.50 E 7 2.16 E 9
HDPE 0.45 1.0 E 9
a
1.5 E 5
a
2.2 E 7
a
PVC 0.45 2.70 E 9 4.00 E 5 5.76 E 7
Steel 0.30 2.07 E 11 3.00 E 7 4.32 E 0
Concrete 4:73 10
6

f
0
c
_
b
57,000

f
0
c
_
c
a
At 168C (608F). Increases greatly with decreasing temperature and vice versa.
b
f
0
c is ultimate strength in newtons per square meter.
c
f
0
c is ultimate strength in pounds per square inch.
6-4. Surge Concepts in Frictionless Flow 6.3
1. 0 # t # L=a. At t 0, the fluid just upstream
from the valve is compressed and brought to rest.
Part of the pipe (section BC) is expanded and
stretched, as shown in Figure 6-1a. This process is
repeated for each successive increment of fluid as the
pressure wave travels upstream. The fluid upstream
from the wave front continues to flow downstream
until it is stopped by the advancing pressure wave
front. When the pressure wave reaches the reservoir
at t L=a, the fluid (at rest in the pipe) is under a
total pressure head H h, or h greater than the static
head in the reservoir.
2. L=a # t # 2L=a. The pressure head difference
at t L=a at the reservoir causes the fluid to flow
from the pipe back into the reservoir with a velocity
v
o
. The pressure along AB is reduced to the original
steady-state level, H, and a negative wave producing
normal pressure propagates back to the valve, as
shown in Figure 6-1b. At t 2L=a, the pressure is
normal (equal to H) along the pipe but the velocity
throughout the pipe is negative; that is, water is flow-
ing away from the valve.
3. 2L=a # t # 3L=a. At t 2L=a, there is no fluid
available to maintain the upstream flow at the valve,
and the normal pressure head, H, is reduced by h to
bring the fluid in section BC to rest (Figure 6-1c). This
wave of reduced pressure propagates back toward the
reservoir, all fluid comes to rest, and the reduced
pressure allows the fluid to expand and the pipe walls
to contract. At t 3L=a, the reduced pressure, H h,
exists all along the pipe, the velocity is zero throughout
the pipe, and the static pressure head in the pipe is less
than the pressure head in the reservoir.
4. 3L=a # t # 4L=a. At t 3L=a, the unbal-
anced pressure head at the reservoir causes the fluid
to flow back into the pipe at a velocity v
o
. A wave of
pressure at the original static pressure head level
propagates downstream toward the valve, but in sec-
tion BC, the pressure is still reduced to H h (Figure
6-1d). At t 4L=a, the pressure throughout the pipe
is normal (equal to H), and the velocity is the same as
the original v
o
prior to the valve closure. But when
the velocity, v
o
, reaches the valve, the four-phase
cycle repeats and continues to repeat periodically
every 4L=a time period.
The variation of pressure with time during a 4L/a
interval is shown at several points along the pipeline in
Figure 6-2. Friction in a real pipe system eventually
dampens the increasedwater hammer pressure head, h.
The principal concepts indicated by the events
following a sudden valve closure are as follows:
. The time L/a is a significant parameter for water
hammer analysis.
Figure 6-1. Sequence of events for one cycle after sudden valve closure.
6.4 Chapter 6 Fundamentals of Hydraulic Transients
. The time 2L/a is critical because the pressure head
at the valve reaches a maximum at 2L/a. A valve
closed in any shorter time produces the same max-
imum pressure head rise at the valve, whereas the
pressure rise is reduced if the valve is closed in a
longer time interval. Hence,
t
c

2L
a
(6-1)
where t
c
is the critical time, L is the length of the pipe,
and a is the elastic wave speed.
Pressure Head Change
A momentum analysis of the flow conditions for the
valve closure shows the pressure head change, Dh, is a
function of the change in flow, Dv.
Dh
aDv
g
(6-2)
where Dh is the change in pressure head in meters
(feet), a is elastic wave speed in meters per second
(feet per second), Dv is the change in velocity (of
water) caused by the event in meters per second
(feet per second), and g is the acceleration due to
gravity in meters per second squared (feet per second
squared). Use the negative sign for waves traveling
upstream, use the positive sign for waves traveling
downstream, and note that Dv v
2
v
1
, where v
1
is
the velocity prior to the change in flow rate and v
2
is the velocity following the change. If the flow is
suddenly stopped, Dv v
1
and Dh av
1
=g. Note,
too, that Dh is positive if Dv is negative. If the valve
on the downstream end of a pipe is closed incremen-
tally, Equation 6-2 becomes
Figure 6-2. Head fluctuations at selected points in the pipeline of Figure 6-1 after valve closure.
6-4. Surge Concepts in Frictionless Flow 6.5
SDh
a
g
SDv (for t < t
c
) (6-3)
Transient pressure heads due to valve closure can
be reduced by slowly closing the valve over a time
interval greater than t
c
, as discussed in Section 6-5.
Elastic Wave Speed
The pressure head change due to a change in the flow
rate requires the calculation of the elastic wave speed
in the pipe. The wave speed depends on both the fluid
properties and the pipe characteristics.
a

K=r
1 C
K
E
_ _
D
e
_ _

_
(6-4)
where K is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid
in newtons per square meter (pounds per square
foot), E is the modulus of elasticity of pipe material
in newtons per square meter (pounds per square
foot), D is inside pipe diameter in meters (feet), e is
the pipe wall thickness in meters (feet), C is a correc-
tion factor for type of pipe restraint, and r is the
density of the fluid in kilograms per cubic meter
(slugs per cubic foot). The bulk modulus given in
Table A-8 must be changed from kilopascals to new-
tons per square meter, and in Table A-9 it must be
converted from pounds per square inch to pounds per
square foot.
For thin-walled pipes (those with D=e > 40), the
correction factor, C, varies according to pipe re-
straints. Values for three cases are
. C
1
1:25 m for pipes anchored at the upstream
end only (Wylie and Streeter [3] use 1:0 m=2; the
difference has little practical significance);
. C
2
1:0 m
2
for pipes anchored against axial
movement; and
. C
3
1:0 for pipes with expansion joints through-
out.
The symbol m is Poissons ratio (see Table 6-1 for
properties of pipe materials). Expressions for C
3
for
thick-walled pipes (D=e < 40), which are more com-
plex, are given by Wylie and Streeter [3]. Buried pipes
are best represented by the factor C
2
. Typical values
for wave speed for water in pipes are given in Table
6-2. Because the elastic wave speed, a, for steel and
ductile iron pipe is often close to 980 m/s (3200 ft/s),
the change in pressure head from Equation 6-2 is,
roughly, 100v. For PVC, h 34v.
The speed of the pressure wave in a pipeline carry-
ing liquids is greatly reduced if bubbles of free gas are
entrained, as shown in Table 6-3. A detailed discus-
sion of this phenomenon is given by Wylie and
Table 6-2. Typical Wave Velocities in Pipe for Water
Containing Dissolved Air
Wave velocities
Pipe material m/s ft/s
Asbestos cement 8201200 27003900
Copper 10001300 34004400
Ductile iron 9801400 32004500
HDPE
a
180370 6001200
PVC 300600 10002000
Steel 6001200 20004000
a
For a modulus of elasticity of 1:03E 9 N=m
2
(150,000 lb=in:
2
).
Table 6-3. Effect of Air Entrainment on Wave Speed
a
Wave speed
V
air
=V
total
m/s ft/s
0 1200 4000
0.001 610 2000
0.002 460 1500
0.004 300 1000
0.008 210 700
a
After Wylie and Streeter [3].
Example 6-1
Effect of Pipe on Wave Speed and Pressure
Problem: For 300-mm (12-in.) pipes of ductile iron, steel, and PVC, find the effects of pipe
material, bedding, and joint conditions on wave speed and water hammer pressure. Assume the
pipes are 3000 m (9840 ft) long and carry 0:15 m
3
=s (5:3 ft
3
=s) of water at a temperature of
158C (598F).
Solution: The wave speeds are based on Equation 6-4. The calculation of wave speed to the
nearest 30 m/s (100 ft/s) is usually sufficient, because the accuracy of the data does not justify
greater precision. The critical valve closure times, t
c
, are based on Equation 6-1. Valve closure
6.6 Chapter 6 Fundamentals of Hydraulic Transients
Streeter [3]. There seems to be no way of predicting
air volume entrainment. Neglecting the effect of air
entrainment provides a conservative analysis. How-
ever, as the wave speed decreases, L/a increases and
the time for closure of valves must be increased.
6-5. Slow Closure of Valves
To limit the pressure rise, the maximum deceleration
of the water during the critical time period, t
c
, must
be limited. The maximum allowable deceleration can
be calculated by using the ratio
DP
a
DP

Dh
a
Dh

Dv
a
Dv
(6-5)
where DP is pressure rise, Dh is the head rise, Dv is
the change in velocity, and the subscript, a, means
allowable. The terms in the denominator are for in-
stantaneous valve closure.
Manufacturers can provide either (1) curves of the
valve headloss coefficient, K, in Equation 3-15
wherein h Kv
2
=2g (shown for a butterfly valve in
Figure 6-3) or (2) values of flow coefficients, C
v
,
wherein C
v
equals water flow in gallons/minute at
708F and 1 lb=in:
2
pressure differential shown for
ball and eccentric plug valves in Figure 6-4 (see
Appendix A for conversion to SI units). Both K and
C
v
vary greatly with valve opening, so either is a
convenient aid for solving valve problems.
Equation 6-5 can lead either to simplified equa-
tions or to computer solutions for determining the
allowable rate of valve closure so that a given pres-
sure is not exceeded. To be valid, a method of solu-
tion must include
. the change of valve coefficient, K, in the formula
for headloss (Equation 3-15), or
. the shape of the valve closure curve, C
v
=C
vo
, and
the nonlinear action of some valve stems, and
. the effect of the increasing pressure, which tends to
sustain the original flow through the valve. The
pressure, for example, depends on the shape of an
associated pump curve and the location of the
valve as well as on other characteristics of the
system.
Because resistance to flow is relatively small in the
initial stages of closure, a valve can be quickly closed
to near shut-off if the final closure is slow. Of the
three gate valve closure programs occurring in the
same interval, 3t
c
, as shown in Figure 6-5, the least
pressure is generated by a 95% closure in 0:5t
c
with
the remainder of the closure occurring in 2:5t
c
.
A valve poorly selected with respect to C
v
closure
characteristics can often be the difference between a
in any time interval less than t
c
subjects the pipe to the maximum pressure, Dh, given by
Equation 6-2. Note that K 2:15 10
9
N=m
2
(4:49 10
7
lb=ft
2
) for water.
SI Units U.S. Customary Units
Ductile iron Steel PVC Ductile iron Steel PVC
OD [m (ft)] 0.335 0.324 0.324 1.10 1.063 1.063
e [m (ft)] 0.0094 0.0048 0.0149 0.0308 0.0157 0.0259
E [N=m
2
(16=ft
2
)] 1:66 10
11
2:70 10
11
2:70 10
9
3:46 10
9
4:32 10
9
5:76 10
7
m 0.28 0.30 0.45 0.28 0.30 0.45
C
1
1:25 m 0.97 0.95 0.80 0.97 0.95 0.80
C
2
1 m
2
0.92 0.91 0.80 0.92 0.91 0.80
C
3
1:0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Wave speed, a [m/s (ft/s)], from Equation 6-4:
C
1
1:25 m, no air 1220 1150 280 4000 3770 930
C
2
1 m
2
, no air 1210 1130 280 3970 3710 930
C
3
1:0, no air 1190 1110 260 3920 3640 840
C
3
1:0, 0.2% air 490 490 230 1620 1600 760
For C
3
1:0 and no air:
t
c
2L=a (in s) 5.0 5.4 23 5.0 5.4 23
Flow [m/s (ft/s)] 1.8 1.8 1.9 5.9 6.0 6.2
h [in m (ft)] 219 206 49.4 718 676 162
P [in kPa (lb=in:
2
)] 2150 2020 480 310 290 70
6-5. Slow Closure of Valves 6.7
problem situation and no problem at all. Ball valves
(with their worm and compound lever actuators)
have the ideal characteristic of closing rapidly at
first followed by very slow closure without any com-
plicated control gear. The capacity of the valve is
reduced 80% at about 20% closure (see Figure 5-2).
Figure 6-3. Headloss coefficient for a butterfly valve.
Figure 6-4. Valve closure functions. (a) Plug valve (DeZurik Series 100), the plug angle is linear with the time of
closure; (b) ball valve (Williamette List 36), actuator travel is linear with the time of closure.
6.8 Chapter 6 Fundamentals of Hydraulic Transients
In contrast, the eccentric plug with linear valve stem
angle (or percentage of closure) has a near linear
characteristic and would require either a much longer
time for closure or a programmed closure to equal the
ball valves control of surge pressure.
As a rule, valves should not be closed in less than 2
to 10 times t
c
. Insist on a computer solution wherever
more certainty than this is needed, or when the prob-
lem is important because of the size of the pipe, the
amount of flow, or the dynamic pressure involved.
Example 6-2
Seating a Valve
Problem: A 200-mm (actually, a 203-mm or 8-in.) butterfly valve discharges a flow of 12.6 L/s
(200 gal/min) to atmosphere from a level pipe 4.83 km (3 mi) long with a gauge pressure of
690 kPa (100 lb=in:
2
) just upstream of the valve. The valve design is such that it will close from
its fully open position in 50 s.
Find the initial valve position (percentage of opening) and estimate the surge pressure when
the valve closes.
Solution: First, find the percentage of valve opening from Equation 3-15 and a manufacturers
curve of K as shown in Figure 6-3. Then find the approach velocity in the pipe.
SI Units U.S. Customary Units
v
Q
A

0:0126 m
3
=s
(p=4)(0:200)
2
0:401 m=s
v
Q
A

2:00 gal=min
(p=4)(8=12)
2
_ _
0:00223 ft
3
=s
gal=min
_ _
1:28 ft=s
The differential head across the valve is (see Tables A-8 and A-9):
h
P
g

690,000 N=m
2
9789 N=m
3
70:5 m h
P
g

100 lb=in:
2
62:3 lb=ft
3

144 in:
2
ft
2
231 ft
Figure 6-5. Water hammer caused by various gate valve closure programs. After Watters [4, p. 195].
6-5. Slow Closure of Valves 6.9
The assumption of a steady pressure upstream
from the valve is often erroneous. The pressure usu-
ally changes with a change in flow as the system
follows the characteristic pump H-Q curve. For
pumps with type numbers greater than about 85 (spe-
cific speeds greater than about 4400), the head devel-
oped by a pump increases substantially as the flow
decreases. If the type number is about 125 (specific
speeds about 6600) or more, the increase in head is
dramatic, as shown in Figure 10-16.
If the time of closure in Example 6-2 were greater
than t
c
, the resulting pressure surge would be less
than the 40 m (130 ft) calculated, and a computer
analysis would be used to reveal the pressure rise.
Note that the shape of the valve closure curve
would be very important in such an analysis.
6-6. Surge Concepts in Flow with Friction
The explanation of water hammer in Section 6-4 is
simplified by omitting friction. Such simplification
can be justified in some systems, such as those with
short force mains in which friction head is a small
part of the total design head. In most systems, how-
ever, friction contributes substantially to the total
head, and it is important to understand its effect.
Figure 6-6 is similar to Figure 6-1a except for the
hydraulic grade line, which slopes during steady-state
flow. Shortly after sudden closure of the valve at
point O, the wave front would arrive at point A.
Consider the anomalies that would ensue by follow-
ing the construction shown for frictionless flow in
Figure 6-1a in which the pressure rise for the wave
front at B forms rectangle abcd. Its counterpart is
trapezoid oabc in Figure 6-6, but because the hy-
draulic grade line bc is sloping, water continues to
flow past point A (corresponding to point B in Figure
6-1); therefore, v (and, hence, h) would be less in
Figure 6-6 than in Figure 6-1a for the same original
velocity. But flow continues only until the HGL be-
comes level. Meanwhile the wave front progresses to
point B (Figure 6-6) and the same phenomenon oc-
curs again, with more water flowing past point A, the
SI Units U.S. Customary Units
From Equation 3-16
K
2gh
v
2

2 9:81 70:5
(0:401)
2
8600 K
2gh
v
2

2 32:2 231
(1:28)
2
9080
The discrepancy between SI and U.S. units is due only to rounding off the difference between
200 mm and 8 in. From Figure 6-3, the valve is open about 78 (nearly closed).
The wave speed can be calculated from Equation 6-4 or simply estimated as about 100 g.
For linear valve closure, the last 78 of valve movement would require (7=90)50 3:9 s.
a 100 9:81 % (980) a 100 32:2 % (3200)
t
c

2L
a

2 4830
980
% 10 s t
c

2L
a

2 3 5280
3200
% 10 s
Because the valve will close in 3.9 s (less than the critical time, 10 s), it closes quickly enough to
generate the full transient pressure given by Equation 6-2.
Dh
aDv
g

980 0:401
9:81
% 40 m Dh
aDv
g

3200 1:28
32:2
% 130 ft
And the total pressure in the pipeline is
P 690 kPa 40 9:81 1080 kPa
P 100 lb=in:
2
130 0:433
lb=in:
2
ft
156 lb=in:
2
6.10 Chapter 6 Fundamentals of Hydraulic Transients
pressure rising, the pipe expanding, and the water
compressing. Wylie and Streeter [3] call this occur-
rence packing. As the wave front approaches the
reservoir, friction decreases v and h, a phenomenon
called attenuation. Eventually, the pressure builds
to a maximum above the level of the reservoir and
finally dies to the reservoir level.
Depending on the length of the pipeline, the pres-
sure surges at the valve might appear, as shown in
Figure 6-7. With each reversal of the pressure wave,
friction decreases the pressure changes, so pressure
eventually coincides with the reservoir level.
6-7. Column Separation
In the preceding sections, the pipelines are assumed to
be level, but in real systems pipes may slope and down-
surges result when power fails or when valves at the
upstream end (the usual configuration) close quickly.
Under some conditions, the downsurges can cause
column separationa condition to be avoided at any
cost by a proper control strategy. As shown in Figure
6-8, a knee (a reduction in gradient or a change from a
positive to a negative gradient) makes a pipeline espe-
cially vulnerable. If the power fails, the pumps stop
quickly with an effect like closing a valve. The up-
stream flow (near the pumping station) stops whereas,
due to inertia, flow continues at the downstream end
(near the discharge). The static hydraulic gradeline
begins to decay as shown by successive curves labeled
t 1 s, t 2 s, t 3 s, until, at t 4 s, a slight nega-
tive pressure occurs between the pump and the knee.
At t 4:5 s, vapor pressure exists over a considerable
length of the pipeline, and the water is boiling and
forming large pockets of vapor. Column separation
has occurred. On the upsurge of pressure that follows,
the vapor pockets collapse and the two liquid columns
can come together at literally express-train speed.
Since the water is almost incompressible, the forces
at impact can be enormous.
The knee makes the situation in Figure 6-8 worse,
but note that column separation would occur with or
without the knee and would occur even if the pipeline
hadauniformgradient. However, if the pipeline profile
were flat near the pumpandthe steepgradient occurred
near the reservoir, columnseparationmight be avoided
a useful control strategy that is maintenance free.
Figure 6-6. Packing and attenuation in a long pipe with friction.
Figure 6-7. Surges at a valve in a pipe with friction.
6-7. Column Separation 6.11
Acomputer analysis of asimilar problemis givenby
Watters [4, pp. 235 ff], and the results of still another
somewhat similar problem with and without surge
control devices are shown in Figures 7-12 and 7-13.
The hydraulic gradelines after power failure can
sometimes be crudely estimated at several time inter-
vals if thedecelerationtimeof thepumpis knownor can
be estimated. Flow through centrifugal pumps after
power failure is a functionof many variables, including
. inertia and speed of the pump, driver, and water
within the casing;
. length and profile of the pipe;
. steady-state hydraulic gradeline;
. velocity of flow; and
. suction conditions in the wet well.
The true shape of the hydraulic gradelines requires
solution by a computer.
6-8. Criteria for Conducting Transient
Analysis
Every pump and pipeline system is subject to transi-
ent pressures, but in practice, it is impractical to
spend the time and expense necessary to analyze all
of them. The following empirical guidelines, which
seem to be satisfactory in most (though certainly
not all) situations, can be used to decide whether a
complete transient analysis is required.
Do Not Analyze
. Pumping systems with flow less than 23 m
3
=h
(100 gal/min). Discharge piping is usually such
that velocity is low and transient pressures are
low. Even if transient pressures are high, small
diameter (100-mm or 4-in.) piping has a high pres-
sure rating and can usually withstand the pressures.
. Pipelines in which the velocity is less than 0.6 m/s
(2 ft/s).
. Distribution systems or pipe networks (as in
community potable water systems). The many
junctions significantly dissipate the pressure
waves.
. Reciprocating pumps, because virtually every re-
ciprocating pump should have a pulsation damp-
ener on the discharge (see Ekstrum [7] for methods
of sizing such dampeners).
. Pumping systems with a static differential pressure
between suction and discharge of less than about
9 m (30 ft).
Warning: it is possible that a very low static head
coupled with a relatively high dynamic head could
result in a column separation problem.
Figure 6-8. Successive hydraulic gradelines following power failure. Adapted from Watters [4, p. 271].
6.12 Chapter 6 Fundamentals of Hydraulic Transients
Do Analyze
. Pumping systems with a total dynamic head greater
than 14 m (50 ft) if the flow is greater than about
115 m
3
=h (500 gal/min).
. High-lift pumping systems with a check valve, be-
cause high surge pressures may result if the check
valve slams shut upon flow reversal.
. Any system in which column separation can occur:
(1) systems with knees (high points), (2) a force
main that needs automatic air venting or air
vacuum valves, or (3) a pipeline with a long [more
than 100 m (300 ft)], steep gradient followed by a
long, shallow gradient.
. Some consultants analyze anyforce mainlarger than
200 mm (8 in.) when longer than 300 m (1000 ft).
Checklist
Some additional insight can be gained from the fol-
lowing conditions, which tend to indicate the serious-
ness of surge in systems with motor-driven centrifugal
pumps. A serious surge may well occur if any one of
these conditions exists. If two or more conditions
exist, a surge will probably occur with a severity
proportional to the number of conditions met [811].
. There are high spots in pipe profile
. There is a steep gradient: length of force main is
less than 20 TDH
. Flow velocity is in excess of 1.2 m/s (4 ft/s)
. Factor of safety (based on ultimate strength) of
pipe (and valve and pump casings) is less than 3.5
for normal operating pressure
. There can be slowdown and reversal of flow in less
than t
c
. There is check valve closure in less than t
c
. There is any valve closure (or opening) in less than
10 s
. There can be damage to pump and motor if
allowed to run backward at full speed
. Pump can stop or speed can be reduced to the point
where the shut-off head is less than static head
before the discharge valve is fully closed
. Pump can be started with discharge valve open
. There are booster stations that depend on oper-
ation of main pumping station
. There are quick-closing automatic valves that be-
come inoperative if power fails or pumping system
pressure fails.
Criteria for determining whether to use simple
hand calculations or a more detailed computer pro-
gram are also given in Pipeline Design for Water and
Wastewater [8, p. 65].
Shut-downs will occur, so plan for them. They can
result in low pressures and column separation at
knees in steep pipelines. Air venting valves that
close too rapidly while an empty pipe is being filled
also cause destructive hydraulic transients. Even on
low-lift pumping stations, depending on the pipe pro-
file, column separation can occur in the vicinity of the
discharge header or farther downstream.
Computers
There is no simple, easy way to perform reliable
transient analyses. Computer modeling is the most
effective means available, but there are practical con-
straints on time and cost. Both computer time and
the labor needed to analyze and review are expensive,
so the extent of the analysis should be related to the
size and cost of the project. For example, spending
$1000 to $5000 to analyze transients for a $1,000,000
project is probably worthwhile even if no problem is
found.
6-9. References
1. Parmakian, I., Waterhammer Analysis, Dover, New
York (1963).
2. Rich, G. R., Hydraulic Transients, Dover, New York
(1963).
3. Wylie, E. B., and V. L. Streeter, Fluid Transients, Feb
Press, Ann Arbor, MI (1982, corrected copy 1983).
4. Watters, G. Z., Analysis and Control of Unsteady Flow in
Pipelines, 2nd ed., Butterworths, Stoneham, MA (1984).
5. Chaudhry, M. H., Applied Hydraulic Transients, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1979).
6. Wood, D. J., and S. E. Jones, Water hammer charts for
various types of valves, Journal of the Hydraulics Div-
ision, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil En-
gineers, 167178 (January 1973).
7. Ekstrum, J. D., Sizing pulsation dampeners for recipro-
cating pumps, Chemical Engineering (January 12, 1981).
8. Pipeline Design for Water and Wastewater, American
Society of Civil Engineers, New York (1975).
9. AWWA M11, Steel PipeA Guide for Design and In-
stallation, p. 54, American Water Works Association,
Denver, CO (1985).
10. Kerr, S. L., Minimizing service interruptions due to
transmission line failures: Discussion, Journal of the
American Water Works Association, 41, 634 (July 1949).
11. Kerr, S. L., Water hammer control, Journal of the
American Water Works Association, 43, 985999 (De-
cember 1951).
6-9. References 6.13