I begin with the Name of Allaah, the most Merciful, the One Who bestows mercy

8 March 2011

Thermal Insulation

A Critical Analysis of Solutions for 1 January 2011

By Hasanul Islam
Building Engineering City University London School of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences
i Hasanul Islam, 2011

Contents

Preface

Introduction

Sustainability

Heat Loss from Buildings

Methods of Thermal Insulation

Innovation in Thermal Insulation

10

Conclusions

12

References

13

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Preface Thermal Insulation is an important feature to consider when constructing new buildings, particularly in countries where a higher rate of energy is consumed for heating buildings. Statistics show that more than half of the energy used in European buildings is utilized for heating, and the energy used in buildings account for 50% of total energy use. Thermal Insulation is not only beneficial for conserving energy but it also provides numerous additional benefits to the structures. This essay seeks to identify an ideal solution for thermal insulation by comparing the available methods, and to discuss any further improvements that may be made in order to improve energy efficiency. In the preliminary section of this essay, thermal insulation is defined; its development throughout history is explored, and sustainability issues are discussed. The latter portion discusses how heat is lost from building and analyses different modes of thermal insulation and innovations in that regard.

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1. Introduction 1-1 WHY THERMAL INSULATION? Heat is pumped into buildings to keep the people inside warm and to provide warm water for daily use. Thermal Insulation is the method of conserving that heat energy in the desired environment. Thermal Insulation is one of the most important key to reducing energy consumption and carbon emissions by minimizing heat loss from buildings. According to a research conducted by the XC02 (2002), it was found that in Europe, half of the total energy usage is within (mainly residential) buildings of which half of the buildings energy consumption is used for
Figure 1: Carbon Emission

heating. Basically, 25% of energy usage in Europe is dedicated towards heating buildings; transport and industry contribute towards the other 50% of total energy use in the EU. Energy consumption in buildings contributes to air pollution, acid rain, nuclear waste and global warming. Reduction of carbon emissions may be achieved by using renewable sources of energy and this should be done, but energy efficiency in terms of conserving the available energy is a cheaper method and it is easy to establish. It is known that pre-1965 more than half of the buildings walls in Europe were not insulated. In a bid to reduce carbon emissions the XCO2 (2002) quote EuroACE that enhancing thermal insulation can give savings of up to 185 million tonnes of CO2 per annum, which amounts to the reduction of 5% of the total EU emissions. Thermal Insulation was found to be the greatest contributor to reducing carbon emission. 1-2 HISTORICAL USE OF THERMAL INSULATION Different forms of thermal insulation were present since the creation of the Earth; it took the form of fur protecting the body of animal, then after being hunted down its wool/fur providing thermal insulation to mankind.

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Richard T Bynum (2000) stated that Cork was the oft-used material for thermal insulation since the first century CE. The Romans were known to use corks to make shoes to keep their feet warm, and then it was used for insulating roofs in Spain and North Africa. In contemporary times, asbestos was a common form of insulation, although it was actually in use from as far back as 2500 BCE! Asbestos is not a recommended method of insulation since it leads to many diseases such as lung cancer. Another form of insulation used was Urea Formaldehyde Foam
Figure 2: Asbestos Fibre Mat

Insulation (UFFI), which in high quantities poses health risks. For its use the foam was pumped into cavities and left to dry. In countries like Canada and the US, the government had to send special removal teams to remove the UFFI from the homes of people due to the safety concerns. 1-3 STANDARDS CONCERNING BUILDINGS AND INSULATION The BRE (2008) mentions that the PassivHaus concept lays out some standards which buildings may uphold to provide a comfortable condition for the inhabitants during both summer and winter. Its standards require that the buildings have very good levels of insulation with minimal thermal bridges and that the buildings maintain an excellent level of air-tightness. The buildings are also expected to have good indoor air quality whilst having a ventilation system that is highly efficient in heat recovery. 1-4 FURTHER BENEFITS OF THERMAL INSULATION Richard T Bynum (2000) states that depending on the type of material and the design of the insulation method, additional benefits may be incurred when the insulation is applied. Some form of insulation is suitable for the purpose of reducing noise and vibration as well as reducing heat loss. Certain form of insulation may increase the structural strength of the respective building element (i.e. wall/roof/floor) by providing extra support. Thermal Insulation may even provide support to the surface finishes and prevent the transmission of water vapour as well as reducing the damage caused to furnishings which may be exposed to fire.

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2. Sustainability The definition of sustainability is a changing one, albeit according to the Sustainable Building Centre (2011) a sustainable building may be defined as something that has a positive environmental impact, maintains a long lifespan, and provides a good quality of life for its inhabitants. Improving the thermal insulation of a building can provide a lot of benefits towards sustainable development and contribute greatly to long-term performance of the buildings. Given the fact that most forms of thermal insulation are integrated parts of a building fabric, careful consideration has to be taken whilst installing these features to take into account the long term impact on carbon emission. Apart from reducing carbon emissions one must consider factors that may affect sustainability of a building when applying the insulation. The long term performance of the insulation and its impact on the building over time, the effect on building design (since many forms of thermal insulation require great thicknesses or a certain layout), as well as the ease with which the insulation may be inspected and maintained must be taken into account. One must also take into account the impact of the insulation on the environment in terms the amount of energy and raw materials used in its production. In the case of insulation such as asbestos, on-site work safety had to be considered. The XC02 (2002) states that since different materials for insulation may achieve the same amount of thermal resistance at different thicknesses, the main concern in choosing the insulation material is the longevity of performance, i.e. whether the U-Values can be practically achieved, or if there is a chance of moisture, or vermin affecting the insulation material, or whether the material is durable against fire etc. Simon Rawlinson (2006) mentions that the landfill regulations that were introduced in 2005 make it an ardent task to dispose of plastics-based insulation containing CFCs and HCFCs, and these are now classified as hazardous waste. So it would be wiser to avoid insulation that consists of such chemicals.

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3. Heat Loss from Buildings 3-1 HOW IS HEAT LOST FROM BUILDINGS? In general, thermal energy takes the path of least resistance and travels from a warmer atmosphere to a colder atmosphere. John Bradley (2009) states heat loss in buildings occurs through Fabric Heat Loss and Ventilation Heat Loss. Fabric Heat Loss is of three types, Conduction, Convection and Radiation, which cause heat loss through the fabric of the building possibly as a result of poor design choice. Conduction is the process through which heat is transferred from one solid object (element within building) to another when these are both in contact with each other. Convection is the process via which heat is
Figure 3: Modes of Heat Loss

transferred by the actual movement of the molecules from one place to another, such as in the case of water or air molecules; although with regards to building elements convection may occur primarily due to movement of air molecules. Radiation is the process through which electromagnetic waves transfer the heat from one place to another, such as the Sun transferring energy via electromagnetic waves. In the case of buildings, radiant transmission causes heat loss through transparent materials, such as windows, but other elements of a building may also be subject to heat loss via radiation. Ample thermal energy is lost through this mode of heat transfer. As for Ventilation Heat Loss, then this refers to heat loss through gaps in buildings that are not airtight and hence the atmosphere inside the building is replaced by colder air. This may be something inevitable since the buildings often need to be voluntarily ventilated to allow fresh air to enter the building and to reduce the internal moisture. However making the draughts airtight can prevent excess heat loss since these are not voluntarily left loose.

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The XCO2 (2002) lists that around 25% of heat loss in a residential building occurs through the roof; the windows and draughts contribute to another 25%, the floors lose 15% of the heat, and the walls of a building contribute to a grand 35% heat loss. It is obvious that the roofing and the walls are the greatest contributors to heat loss from a house (since the percentage apportioned to windows and draughts is split further). Insulating these
Figure 4: Heat Loss from a Building

two elements will reduce energy consumption, and depending on the mode of insulation there may be a possible quick return on the investment made. Avillion (2008) states that Cold Bridges occur at junctions of walls/floors or walls/roofs where the thermal resistance of that part of the fabric is less than that of the rest of the building. This results in an increase in heat loss through the external wall construction and ineffectiveness of the insulation. 3-2 WHAT IS THE THERMAL TRANSMITTANCE COEFFICIENT (U-VALUE)? The Thermal Transmittance Coefficient (U-Value; units Wm-2K-1) is defined by James Dulley (n.d.) as the rate of heat transmission through 1 square foot of building envelop for 1 degree Fahrenheit (or Celsius/Kelvin) difference in temperature between indoors and outdoors. A higher U-Value means that the rate of heat loss is high; hence a lower U-Value may be desirable and ideal for energy conservation, which means that the heat transfer through the building element happens much slower. There are many drivers for lowering of U-Values; economical, social and even political. Throughout the decades the lowering of U-Values focused from health issues to overcoming the high demand for oil (during the Muslim Worlds protests over Western support for Israel in conflicts) to reducing CO2 emissions in recent years.

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As par the Building Regulations requirements that came into effect in 1 October 2010, the Approved Document L Part 1A (2010 edition) states the limiting fabric parameters for different element of a building: Table 1 Limiting Fabric Parameters U-Value (Wm-2K-1) Building Element 2006 Ed. Roof Wall Floor Windows 0.25 0.35 0.25 2.20 2010 Ed. 0.20 0.30 0.25 2.00

Comparing these values to that of the 2006 edition it seems that the Government has further limited the acceptable U-Value in the case of roofing, walls and windows in a bid to live up to energy efficiency. The actual U-Values of the building elements will have to be much lower than these set maximum limits. 3-3 WHAT IS THE THERMAL RESISTANCE (R-VALUE)? Thermal Resistance (R-Value; units m2KW-1) is a measure of a materials ability to resist heat transfer. The higher R-Value means that the resistance to heat transfer is greater for a given material. The relationship between the U-Value and the R-Value may be defined as follows:

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4. Methods of Thermal Insulation The methods and forms of thermal insulation vary to tackle different modes of energy loss (i.e. conduction, radiation etc.). In this section these different types of thermal insulation shall be analysed to discover their efficiency and productivity. One form of insulation that is rampant in the
Figure 5: Bulk Insulation

markets is Bulk Insulation that generally contains millions of small pockets of trapped air. Different types of Bulk Insulation shall be analysed here alongside Reflective Insulation. 4-1 RIGID BOARD INSULATION Rigid boards are lightweight elements made from cellular plastic foams or fibrous materials in a rigid or a semi-rigid form, and these are generally used in situations where supplement to structural strength is not expected from the insulation material. Apart from thermal insulation properties, rigid boards are also good for acoustic insulation as well as acting as good air infiltration retarder. This form of insulation may be expensive compared to other modes available and so they are generally used in places where there is a smaller space. Although rigid boards may not be a source of nourishment for insects, the insects still burrow through them to get to more habitable materials; hence some manufacturers apply insecticide to the boards which may be a cause for health concerns. Another disadvantage may arise regarding fire hazard; although plastic insulation is more difficult to burn through, once the insulation is ignited it burns very rapidly and black smoke is excreted. In the case of foams additional thick gypsum boards may have to be used as barriers to prevent the board from igniting. The point of application for this form of insulation ranges from roofing to wall cavities to positioning underneath finish materials. The R-Value of Rigid Boards range from 4-8 per inch thickness; hence increasing the thickness may increase the thermal resistance of the Rigid Boards. These are generally expensive compared to other forms of Bulk Insulation (such as Loose-fill and Blankets).

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4-2 BLANKETS AND BATTS Blanket Insulation may be manufactured from natural wool, glasswool (fibreglass), polyester or rockwool. Blankets are usually used for lofts and may even be used for walls. Natural wool blankets are acquired from sheep and they require treatment to prevent rot and vermin infestation. The advantage of using natural wool is that they are usually manufactured with a mixture of polyester which reduces settlement and compression. Naturally, wool blankets are flame-resistant but when polyester is added flammability of the blankets increase. Rockwool are made from molten volcanic rock into a mat of fibres. Rockwool has a higher thermal resistance compared to glasswool and it also provides acoustic insulation. With these added benefits rockwool is a bit more expensive than its compatriots. Blankets or batts made from polyester fibres have similar characteristics as that of fibreglass and rockwool with an added resistivity to burn. However polyester may melt at high temperatures. Finally, glasswool or fibreglass is manufactured from molten glass into mats of fine fibres. These are easy to cut and shape as required, and also easy to install. The disadvantage with fibreglass is that these cannot be placed under compression otherwise these will settle and the RValue will decrease. Glasswool blankets come in thinner but dense sizes, so in terms of building design, these may be ideal. 4-3 LOOSE-FILL INSULATION Loose-fill insulations are manufactured using loose granulated material and require a barrier to prevent the material from falling out of place. This form of insulation is suited for sloped ceilings. Cellulose fibre, Natural Wool and Granulated Rockwool are different types of loose-fill insulations. Cellulose fibres are made from recycled waste paper which requires treatment to reduce flammability. Cellulose fibre insulation is cheap to purchase and easy to install. A disadvantage to loose-fill insulation is that it may settle over time and hence reduce its thermal resistivity.
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Figure 6: Cellulose Loose-Fill Insulation

Natural wool is acquired from sheep. This requires treatment to prevent rot and to keep vermin away; the treatment is usually done during the scouring process. Natural wool insulation should not be moistened either. Granulated rockwool is the only form of loose-fill insulation that may be used for other than ceilings. After treatment with water-repellent agents, granulated rockwool may be used to fill cavity brick walls. 4-4 RADIANT BARRIERS AND REFLECTIVE INSULATION Radiant Barriers act to hinder transmittance of infrared radiation, which are long wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum that cause molecules to vibrate resulting in the emission of heat energy after the temperature of the molecules are raised. Radiant barriers consist of a single sheet of reflective material and must be put to use at an open airspace to function properly, since the sheet itself does not provide thermal resistance. Reflective Insulation on the other hand is the combination of radiant barrier with the airspace or even a system of radiant barriers to provide thermal resistance. Reflective insulation is manufactured from materials such as aluminium foil with additional backings such as cardboard or even in some cases polyethylene (air) bubbles. Backings of polyethylene bubbles are most common. There are many types of reflective insulation available for use. Foil that is bonded to Bulk Insulation has already been mentioned and this is useful for ceilings and flat roofs. Multi-cell reflective foil products contain more than two layers of laminated foil which are separated by partition. The thermal resistivity of these multi-cell foils depends on the number of layers and the presence of still air between the layers. There have been attempts to make multi-cell foils with up to 9 or 10 layers, although these added layers seem to have little increase in benefit. The property that is required in reflective insulation is the reflectivity of the material, and aluminium is recorded to have an astonishing reflectivity of 0.97, which means it can reflect off a lot of radiant heat, i.e. 97%. Lower emissivity and higher reflectivity means a better reflective barrier. However the disadvantage of using materials such as aluminium is that these are poor thermal conductors, so there is a strict need for a thin air space if the aluminium foil is placed between two other materials.

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4-5 EFFECT OF MOISTURE ON THERMAL INSULATION SIG Insulations (n.d.) describes that Interstitial Condensation occurs when warm and moist air from inside a building infiltrates a wall/roof/floor element and meets a cold surface, thereby condensing and causing rot of timber and corrosion of metal components. In the case of insulations, the moist air may penetrate behind the plasterboard linings and condensate and cause rot, thereby damaging the insulation itself. To counter this one may use proprietary lining board for protection, which is plasterboard backed with aluminium foil.

5. Innovation in Thermal Insulation 5-1 AEROGEL Aerogel is a recent mode of thermal insulation, discovered in the 1930s by the physicist Steven S Kistler. Aerogel appears as solid foam that consists of around 5% Silica (sand) and the remaining 95% are pores filled with air. The dimensions of the pores and silica are in the nanometres. Aerogel is transparent and thus it is ideal for use in elements that require transparency (such as windows). Aerogel is said to be ideal for countering heat loss by conduction, convection and radiation. The small amount of silica particles in the aerogel are well spaced out so the chance of heat transfer through conduction is reduced. The air molecules have limited movement inside the pores due to their nano-size so thermal loss via convection is reduced. The small mass-fractions and the small surface areas also lower the radiative
Figure 7: A Block of Aerogel

conduction. Aerogel is extremely heat resistant (resists heat above 200OC) and it does not burn easily. Since the application of aerogel as a thermal insulator is a fairly recent innovation there is a low demand and hence a higher purchase price. Currently the cost of using aerogel is around five times more expensive than using polyurethane foam!

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5-2 THERMOBLOCK Thermoblocks are polyurethane-based concrete foam moulded into a closed cell. These are extremely strong, and also resistant to mold and bacteria infestation. In terms of pricing it is claimed that thermoblocks are cheap compared to its direct competitors and have good fire resistant rating. This
Figure 8: A Marmox Thermoblock

form of insulation is ideal for reducing the effects of cold bridging as the blocks are laid out and installed in the junctions between roof and wall or wall and floor. This is a fairly new technology and compared to the other methods of insulation, thermal blocks can easily reduce up large amounts of heat loss of a building which may otherwise be lost through cold bridging. To add to the advantages of thermoblocks, these are waterproof so using them for external walls may also prove fruitful and will require less maintenance. 5-3 GAS-FILLED PANEL INSULATION (GFP) This form of insulation consists of low emissivity baffles of multiple layers that are filled with gases of low conductivity that are sealed with a barrier. Gas-filled panels provide twice as much thermal resistance per inch than fibreglass batts (R-Value of 14 per inch). These panels are easy to make due to the existence of the required equipment (which were utilized in the food packaging industry). These panels are a great replacement for the CFC-based insulations, which means that disposal of these panels will be much easier since CFC is classified as hazardous waste. These panels are good for noise reduction and also they are fairly flat in dimension which may be of an advantage in building design. Furthermore, the gas-filled panels are moisture resistant and resist mold growth. Gas-filled panels are suitable for multiple building elements from the roof to the floor.
Figure 9: Cross-section of GFP

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6. Conclusions Thermal Insulation is a key aspect in reducing carbon emission and energy consumption. The largest amount of heat from a building is lost through the roofs and walls of a building and through cold bridging, all of which may be tackled using suitable forms of insulation, such as thermalblocks in the case of cold bridging. The governments lowering of U-Value limits may encourage developers to consider using efficient and sustainable thermal insulation. Refurbishing buildings to install insulation may bring about 30-40% reduction in energy consumption, and the construction of new buildings with integrated insulation system will contribute far greater in the reduction of carbon emission. As for the insulation material, it depends on the type of building the developer wants to build. If a developer seeks to build a completely environmentally-friendly building, they may use materials such as natural wool, whereas if long term sustainability and extraordinary performance is expected then plastic-based insulation material may be desired. Those seeking a cheap and quick solution may use polystyrene based insulation. Innovations in thermal insulation are progressing albeit due to being new products in the market, a lesser demand may mean an increase in cost. Encouraging developers with some benefits to use the more efficient insulation is advisable.

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7. References [1] Bynum, R (2000) Insulation Handbook, 1st ed. McGraw Hill [2] Rawlinson, S (2006), Sustainability: Thermal Insulation, Building Journal, Issue 41 [3] John Bradley (2009) Heat Loss [Online] http://www.lmu.ac.uk/teaching/vsite/classroom/heat_loss.pdf [Accessed 8 March 2011] [4] James Dulley (n.d.) Glossary [Online] http://www.dulley.com/gloss/uvw.htm [Accessed 8 March 2011] [5] XC02 Coinsbee Ltd Consulting Engineers (2002), Insulation for Sustainability A Guide [Online] http://www.brufma.co.uk/pdf/Sustainability%20summary.pdf [Accessed 8 March 2011] [6] HM Government (2006), The Building Regulations 2000: Approved Document L1A (2006 edition) [Online] http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/br/BR_PDF_ADL2A_2006.pdf [Accessed 6 March 2011] [7] HM Government (2010), The Building Regulations 2000: Approved Document L1A (2010 edition) [Online] http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/br/BR_PDF_ADL1A_2010.pdf [Accessed 8 March 2011] [8] Sustainable Engineering Authority (2004), Insulation Types [Online] http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Insulation_types.pdf [Accessed 7 March 2011] [9] Youth Build (n.d.), Glossary [Online] http://ybshadesofgreen.org/glossary [Accessed 8 March 2011] [10] Breithaupt, J (2000) Understanding Physics: For Advanced Level, 4th ed. Nelson Thornes [11] Eco Open Houses (n.d.), Glossary [Online] http://www.ecoopenhouses.org/links/glossary.html [Accessed 4 March 2011] [12] BRE (2008), PassivHausUK [Online] http://www.passivhaus.org.uk/index.jsp?id=668http://www.passivhaus.org.uk/index.jsp?id=668 [Accessed 8 March 2011]

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[13] Sustainable Building Centre (n.d.), What is a Sustainable Building? [Online] http://www.sustainablebuildingcentre.com/what_is_a_sustainable_building [Accessed 4 March 2011] [14] SG Insulations (n.d.), Interstitial Condensation Analysis [Online] http://www.siginsulations.co.uk/condensation.htm [Accessed 5 March 2011] [15] Marmox (2010), Thermal Block [Online] http://www.marmox.co.uk/uploads/product_images/33/MarmoxThermoblockTechnicalInformati on.pdf [Accessed 8 March 2011] [16] Zyn Systems (n.d.), Technology Commercialization Opportunity [Online] http://www.zyn.com/flcfw/fwtproj/GasFille.htm [Accessed 8 March 2011] [17] GFP Insulation (2007, High-Performance Insulation [Online] http://www.gfpinsulation.com/ [Accessed 8 March 2011]

7-1 LIST OF FIGURES [Title Image] Anon. (n.d.) [Photograph] http://www.isover.com/Our-commitment-to-sustainability/Comfort-and-well-being/Thermalcomfort [Accessed 4 March 2011] [Figure 1] Anon. (n.d.) [Photograph] http://energyfromthorium.com/2008/01/ [Accessed 4 March 2011] [Figure 2] Anon. (n.d.) [Photograph] http://www.cockrams-surveying.co.uk/blog/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/asbestos-fibreroof.jpg.jpeg [Accessed 5 March 2011] [Figure 3] Anon. (n.d.) [Photograph] http://blogs.saschina.org/melisa01pd2016/files/2009/10/heat-transmittance-means2.jpg [Accessed 6 March 2011] [Figure 4] Anon. (n.d.) [Photograph] http://www.hastings.gov.uk/energy_efficiency/house.gif [Accessed 6 March 2011]

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[Figure 5] Anon. (n.d.) [Photograph] http://www.dflyonsconstruction.com/images/Insulation.jpg [Accessed 6 March 2011] [Figure 6] Anon. (n.d.) [Photograph] http://img.archiexpo.com/images_ae/photo-m2/cellulose-loose-fill-insulation-303246.jpg [Accessed 7 March 2011] [Figure 7] Anon. (n.d.) [Photograph] http://www.boingboing.net/200602061740.jpg [Accessed 8 March 2011] [Figure 8] Anon. (n.d.) [Photograph] http://www.ecobuild.co.uk/var/uploads/exhibitor/2133/of5np3bs73.jpg [Accessed 8 March 2011] [Figure 9] Anon. (n.d.) [Photograph] http://www.gfpinsulation.com/ [Accessed 8 March 2011]

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