PSY 105 Week 6 Psychology From Science to Practice - Human Development

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Introduction

Welcome to week 6 of Psychology 105. This lecture will

provide an overview of human development from birth to death.

Next slide Slide 2 Overview This lesson focuses on the field of developmental psychology which is the branch of psychology that covers the many ways we change throughout life. In this lesson we will examine how we change physically, socially, and cognitively as we travel on our journey through life. We will discuss changes during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Next slide When you complete this lesson, you will be able to: Trace the course of physical growth and development throughout the lifespan Describe Piagets theory of cognitive development Define Lawrence Kohlbergs stages of moral understanding Describe the eight stages of Erik Ericksons Psychosocial Development Explain the physical changes during adulthood Explain the two cognitive changes during adulthood Describe the five stages of confronting death postulated by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross, and List five ways to help someone grieve successfully Next slide

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Objectives

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Physical Growth Childhood

This slide will cover physical growth and development during childhood. First, we will cover the prenatal influences on development. Ideally, development during the prenatal period proceeds normally. However, there are environmental factors that can damage the fetus and interfere with normal patterns of growth. These factors are called teratogens and their impact can be harmful. The four major teratogens are infections or diseases, drugs, alcohol, and smoking. Next we will discuss the physical development during the early years. Newborns begin life with a number of simple reflexes. Reflexes are an inherited response to stimulation in certain areas of the body. If reflexes are present, then the babys nervous system is assumed to be fine; if they are not, this can be a sign that something is wrong. Motor development proceeds from the head toward the limbs as infants grow. Research has shown that infants can be classically conditioned to stimuli that have survival value for them as babies. Studies have also found that newborns can distinguish between different colors, odors, tastes, and sounds. Although they cannot see very clearly at birth, they do show a preference for patterns and contrasts in visual stimuli. The ability to perceive depth seems to also develop rapidly. The next slide will discuss cognitive development during childhood. Next slide The Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget, concluded children do not think or reason like adults as previously thought. He based his findings on careful observations of his own and many other children. Piagets theory of cognitive development contains many valuable insights, although several aspects of this theory have been challenged by the findings of recent research. This slide will provide an overview of Piagets theory. Piaget suggested that children try to construct an understanding of the world around them through two basic processes. The first is assimilation, which involves the incorporation of new information or knowledge into existing knowledge structures known as schemas. The second process is known as accommodation, and involves modifications in existing knowledge structures or schemas, as a result of exposure to new information or experiences. The next slide will explain the four stages of cognitive development in children. Next slide

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Cognitive Developmen t Jean Piaget

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Cognitive Piaget suggests there are four stages of cognitive Developmen development. t The first stage of cognitive development, called the sensorimotor stage, lasts from birth until eighteen to twentyfour months. During this stage infants gradually learn that there is a relationship between their actions and the external world. Infants know the world through motor activities and sensory impressions. During the second stage, called the preoperational stage, toddlers acquire the ability to form mental images of objects and events. Language begins to develop at the same time. This stage lasts until about age seven. Other characteristics of this stage are: Symbolic play in which toddlers pretend that one object is another. Mental symbols are used but thinking remains somewhat inflexible, illogical, fragmented and tied to specific concepts. Egocentrism which is the inability to understand that others may perceive the world differently than they do. And a lack of conservatism which is the knowledge that certain physical attributes of an object remain unchanged even though the outward appearance of the object is altered. The third stage is Concrete Operations where logical thought begins to emerge. This stage lasts until about age eleven. Children understand reversibilitythat many physical changes can be undone by a reversal of the original action. About age twelve, most children enter the final stage called Formal Operations. Children begin to think abstractly. Not only can they deal with real or concrete events or objects, but also with relationships that do not exist but can be imagined. Another key concept is hypothetic-deductive reasoning, which involves the ability to generate hypotheses and to think logically about symbols, ideas, and propositions. This slide has provided you with an overview of Piagets theory. However, there is now general agreement among developmental psychologists that this theory is in need of some revisions. Next slide

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Cognitive Developmen t Information Processing

The information processing perspective provides insights in terms of childrens growing abilities in the areas of cognition, such as attention, memory, and metacognition. Metacognition is defined as an awareness and understanding of our own cognitive processes. As children grow, they acquire better strategies for retaining information in working or short-term memory. They also acquire strategies for focusing their attention, for using scripts and other mental frameworks such as schemas. Schemas are mental representations of the sequence of events in a given situation. The next slide will cover the moral development of children. Next slide

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Kohlbergs Moral Developmen t Theory

Moral development involves the changes in the capacity to reason about the rightness or wrongness of various actions that occur with age. According to Lawrence Kohlberg, people move through the following stages of moral development and reasoning. At the first level, the pre-conventional level, children judge morality in terms of consequences of behavior. At the second level, the conventional level, children are aware of some of the complexities of the social order and judge morality in terms of what supports the laws and rules of their society. At the third level, the post-conventional level, adolescents judge morality in terms of abstract principles and values rather than in terms of existing laws or rules of society. There are two problems with this theory: The first is research has shown people do not consistently progress through discrete stages; overlapping occurs. The second problem is that Kolbergs theory ignores cultural and gender differences. Next slide

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Social and Emotional Developmen t

Now we will turn to the social and emotional development during childhood where relationships with others are formed. Research suggests that differences in temperament may be present as early as birth. The key dimensions of temperament are: Positive emotionality in which infants show pleasure or are in a good mood; Distress-anger in which infants show distress and the emotion of anger; Fear in which infants show fear in a situation; and Activity level which is their overall level of activity or energy. On the basis of these differences, researchers have divided children into three groups: Easy children; Difficult children; and Slow to warm up. However, there are some children that do not fit into either of these groups.

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Next slide Social and Continuing with social and emotional development is the Emotional development of attachment. Attachment is defined as a Developmen strong affection bond between infants and their caregivers. t cont Three distinct patterns of attachment exist. Secure attachment. Infants feel safe around their caregiver and enjoy exploring their environment. Insecure/avoidant attachment. Infants do not rely on their caregivers for security and seem to avoid close contact. and Insecure/ambivalent attachment. Infants engage in continuous efforts to maintain contact and show patterns of clinging. Research findings suggest that the above patterns result from the complex interactions between an infants temperament and the treatment he or she receives from caregivers. Furthermore, it seems that the pattern of our relationships with others is set to some degree by the nature of the first attachment to our caregivers. Another factor that plays a role in attachment is the close physical contact between infants and their caregivers. This contact comfort involves hugging, cuddling, and caressing, all of which seem to be an essential ingredient in forming an attachment.

At the age of five or six, children have the opportunity to acquire and practice many social skills including forming friendships. Research has shown high quality friendships enhance childrens social adjustment. Friendships allow children to learn and practice social skills needed for effective interpersonal relationships during childhood and throughout life. Slide 11 Gender Identity Theories Next slide Continuing with the study of human development we will next discuss gender development. Gender identity is the understanding of whether you are a male or female and the behaviors and traits that correspond with that identity. Gender identity occurs quite early in life; by the time children are two years old, many have learned to label themselves appropriately and consistently. However, gender stability is usually not in place until the age of four and gender consistency at the age of six or seven. There are several explanations for how children move toward fully understanding their own sexual identity. One of these is social learning theory which emphasizes the role of learning, especially the impact of modeling and operant conditioning. According to this theory, children are rewarded for behaving in accordance with gender stereotypes and gender roles. Research has shown that children tend to imitate models they perceive as being similar to themselves and they tend to adopt the behaviors shown by their same-sex parents. Another view of gender development is cognitive development theory which is the opposite of social learning theory. This theory suggests that childrens increasing understanding of their gender is part of their steady cognitive growth. As a result of this understanding, they then strive to adopt behaviors they view as consistent with this identity. A third view is known as gender schema theory developed by Bem. Bem believes children develop gender schemas or cognitive frameworks, reflecting experiences with their societys beliefs about the attributes of males and females. This gender schema then affects the processing of new social information. Each of these three theories emphasizes different aspects of gender development and provides insights into this process.

Next slide Slide 12 Adolescence Adolescence is the name of the gradual transition period between childhood and adulthood. Cognitive development continues through adolescence and the adolescents mind continues to change and develop. Adolescents begin to develop a relativist approach to knowledge which recognizes that different people may interpret the same information in contrasting ways. However, they continue to believe that there is a set of facts about the world that are completely true, and that differences in opinion stem from differences in available information. Later on, these young adults will realize that while there are no absolute truths, there are just better or worse reasons for holding certain views. This approach is called post-skeptical rationalism. Adolescents also continue to experience emotional and social growth. Research has shown adolescent children, more so than older people, have frequent and larger mood swings that can occur very quickly. However, most adolescents report feeling quite happy and self-confident and not overly stressed. Adolescents strive to become part of a social network defined as a group of people with whom one interacts regularly. The motive for this social network is the need to belong. Friendships and social success play a role in the adolescents quest for personal identity. Next slide

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Psychosocia l Developmen t

Next we will discuss Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development as it relates to childhood. Eriksons theory is also a stage theory as was Piagets. Both suggested that all human beings pass through specific stages or phases of development. Erikson believed that each stage of life is marked by a specific crisis or conflict between competing tendencies. Individuals must negotiate each stage successfully in order to develop in a normal, healthy manner. The first four stages occur in childhood, the next takes place in adolescence and the last three in adulthood. The chart on this slide explains the first four stages. The initial stage, which occurs during the first year of life centers on the crisis of trust versus mistrust. Infants must trust others to satisfy their needs and if they fail to trust others as needs are not met, they remain forever suspicious and wary. The next crisis occurs during the second year of life and involves autonomy versus shame and doubt. During this time toddlers are learning to be independent. If they succeed they develop a sense of autonomy. If they fail and are labeled as inadequate, they may experience shame and doubt about their abilities. The third stage unfolds during the preschool years. This crisis is called initiative versus guilt. Many physical and mental skills are acquired. However, the child must learn to control their impulses, some of which may lead to unacceptable behavior. The final stage of childhood occurs between the ages of six and twelve years of age. During the stage of industry versus inferiority, a child learns to make things, use tools and acquire skills necessary for adult life. A child will form a sense of his or her own competence or suffer from low selfesteem. Next slide

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Psychosocia l Developmen t Adolescence

During adolescence, Erikson postulates, we pass through one major crises: During the crisis of identity versus role confusion, teenagers try to establish a clear self-identity by asking themselves, Who am I? or What am I really like? Next slide

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Psychosocia l Developmen t Adulthood

During adulthood, Erikson postulates, we pass through two major crisis: The crisis of Intimacy versus isolation is when young adults either develop intimate relationships or become socially isolated. Generativity versus self-absorption is when adults either are interested in helping younger people or become preoccupied with selfish needs. The crisis of Integrity versus despair occurs in later years of life, and individuals ask themselves whether life had meaning. If the answer is yes and they feel they reached their goals, they attain a sense of integrity. If the answer is no, they experience despair. In summary, according to Erikson and others, development during adult years follows an orderly plan, reflecting that we all experience the same problems, events, and challenges. The way in which we deal with each turning point determines the course and nature of our lives.

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Adulthood and Aging

Next slide The changes that occur by the time adults are in their forties may vary in individuals but they eventually include a decrease in cardiac output, where the amount of blood pumped by the heart, decreases noticeably and the walls of the large arteries lose some flexibility. There is a decline in sensory abilities. The most dramatic changes occur during the climacteric period of middle adulthood. This is a period during which the functioning of the reproductive system and various aspects of sexual activity change. Although many physical changes do occur with increasing age, a distinction is made between those that are the result of primary aging, changes caused by the passage of time or genetics; and of secondary aging which are changes due to

disease, disuse, or abuse of our bodies. There has been much research in the areas of cognitive changes in adulthood. Short-term memory seems to remain stable. However, some findings suggest that the ability to transfer information from working memory to long-term memory may decrease with age. There may be some decline in episodic memory which is memory for events relating to an individuals life and experience. However, semantic memory or general knowledge remains intact. Procedural memory appears to be the most stable in later years. Next slide Slide 17 Social and Emotional Developmen t As we enter our middle years, we tend to reduce the size of our social networks and then tend to maintain these close ties through the remainder of our lives. This is called the convoy model. As far as emotional experiences, research has shown older persons experience positive emotions as frequently as younger people. The difference is a decrease in the reporting of negative emotional experiences such as anger or sorrow. Older people report a greater control over their emotions than younger people. Next slide The most famous study on how people confront death was done by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross in 1974. Through intensive interviews, she concluded people pass through five distinct stages. Denial. No it cant be true. Anger. Why me? Bargaining. Prayers or good behavior are offered in exchange for death. Depression. And the final stage is acceptance. Dying people seem to accept their impending death with dignity and concentrate on putting their affairs in order. However, these stages have not been confirmed by other research. Bereavement, the process of grieving for the persons we love who die, has been the subject of increasing attention from psychologists. Norris and Murrell suggested a series of stages an individual moves through when confronted with the

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Death and Bereavemen t

death of another person. The first stage is shock. The second stage is protest and yearning. The third stage is deep despair and The fourth stage is detachment and recovery in which the individual goes on with their life. Next slide

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Helping someone Grieve

This slide illustrates what you could do to help someone you care about proceed through the grieving process: 1. Continue your contacts with the grieving person; 2. Sometimes, just be physically present; 3. Listen to the expression of grief; 4. Do not tell them that things will get easier; and 5. Stay in touch as often as you can. Next slide

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Summary

We have reached the end of this lesson. Lets take a look at what we have covered. Beginning with physical growth during childhood we began with the role of teratogens and their possible effects on infants. Infants possess several reflexes which are inherited responses to stimulation. Infants can distinguish among colors, sounds, tastes and patterns as evidence of their perceptual development. Cognitive development during childhood was discussed in terms of the sensorimotor stage of cause and effect, preoperational stage of symbols, concrete operations stage of conservation, and the formal operation stage of logical thought postulated by Piaget. The major stages of moral development, according to Kohlberg, are pre-conventional, where morality is judged in terms of consequences; conventional where morality is judged in terms of laws; and post-conventional where morality is judged in terms of abstract principles.

Gender identity refers to childrens ability to label their own sex and that of others accurately. We covered three theories that explained gender development. Social learning theory emphasized the role of operant conditions and modeling, cognitive development theory emphasized the role of childrens growing cognitive abilities, and gender schema theory emphasized the role of gender schemas. Erik Ericksons stages of psychosocial development of life were explained in terms of a specific crisis or conflict between competing tendencies. The eight stages are trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus selfabsorption, and integrity versus despair. The cognitive changes in memory, intelligence, as well as the social and emotional experiences of adults were covered. We concluded with Kubler-Ross stages of denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance an individual may proceed through when facing death. Norris and Murrell suggested series of stages when confronted with the death of another person. Those stages were shock, protest and yearning, despair and detachment and recovery.