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Asian Review of Mechanical Engineering
Journals Division
THE RESEARCH
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www. t r p . o r g. i n
ISSN 2249 - 6289
Vol. 1 No. 2
July - December 2012
Asian Review of
Mechanical Engineering
A R M E
Special Issue
AFTMME 12
Special Issue
Published from the Proceeding of International Conference
on
Advancements and Futuristic Trends in Mechanical and
Materials Engineering
AFTMME12
October 5 - 7, 2012
Editors
Dr. Buta Singh Sidhu
Dr. H.S. Bains
Dr. Hazoor Singh Sidhu
Er. Pardeep Kumar Jindal
Er. Sukhpal Singh Chatha
Er. Rakesh Bhatia
Er. Harish Garg
Organized by
Punjab Technical University
Jalandhar -Kapurthala Highway
Kapurthala,
Punjab 144 601, India
In collaboration with
Department of Science and Technology (DST)
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
Preface
It is our immense pleasure to publish the papers of International conference on Advancements and
Futuristic Trends in Mechanical and Materials Engineering (October 5-7, 2012) organized by Punjab
Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar.
The world of engineering is rapidly changing and the growth of technological know-how has been
catalytic in the recent achievements and the ones to come in the near future. The success of engineers and our
profession depends on how well we can adapt to these changes. Futuristic trends in mechanical engineering
are the need of the hour. The parameters that determine the standard of achievement are precision, quality,
efficiency, economy, reliability and acceptability. This conference provides a common platform to the
mechanical engineers in the emerging interdisciplinary areas and recent technologies to meet the future
challenges. The contributed papers have been selected through a peer review process by the distinguished
experts. A word of thanks to our team, who has worked hard day in and out in compiling and publishing the
proceedings of this conference. We are greatly indebted DST, DRDO and CSIR without whose assistance; it
would not have been possible to organize such a resourceful event.
A special thanks to all the individuals and institutions who contributed to the success of the conference,
the authors for submitting papers as well as the sponsors for their generous financial, and logistical support.
Editors
PATRON
Dr. Rajneesh Arora (Vice-Chancellor)
CONVENER
Dr. Buta Singh Sidhu (Dean Academics)
CO-CONVENER
Dr. H.S. Bains (Registrar)
ORGANIZING SECRETARY
Dr. Hazoor Singh (Associate Prof., YCoE, Talwandi Sabo)
Er. Pardeep Jindal (Assistant Prof., YCoE, Talwandi Sabo)
CO-ORGANIZING SECRETARY
Er. Sukhpal Singh Chatha (AP, YCoE, Talwandi Sabo)
Er. Rakesh Bhatia (AP, YCoE, Talwandi Sabo)
Er. Harish Kumar Garg (AP, GZSCET, Bathinda)
EVENT CO - ORDINATOR
Ms. Madhu Midha (Asstt. Librarian)
LOCAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Dr. Nachhattar Singh Advisor to VC
Dr. H. S. Bains Registrar
Dr. A. P. Singh Dean, Student Affairs
Dr. R. P. Bhardwaj Director, Recruitment
Mr. S. K. Mishra Director, Finance
Dr. Balkar Singh Director, Secrecy
CONFERENCE COMMITTEE
Dr. Satya Prakash
Emeritus Professor,
Department of Material and Metallurgy Engineering,
IIT, Roorkee, Uttrakhand,India
Prof. Raman Singh,
Director
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering,
Monash University - Clayton Campus,
(Melbourne), Vic 3800, Australia
Prof. Mousa S. Mohsen
Editor-in-Chief,
Jordan Journal of Mechanical and
Industrial Engineering,
Hashemite University,Zarqa, Jordan
Dr. Md. Aminul Islam
Professor of Materials & Metallurgical Engg.,
Bangladesh University of Engg. & Tech.,
Dhaka -1000, Bangladesh
Dr. Manoj Gupta
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,
National University of Singapore,
Singapore - 119260
Dr. R. Arulmani
ESSO-KTT Project,
Singapore
Prof. B. Ben-Nissan
Faculty of Science, University of Technology,
Sydney, Broadway 2007,
NSW, Australia
Prof. M Gwyn Hocking
Professor in Material Chemistry,
Imperial College London,
United Kingdom
Dr. A.S.W. Kurny
Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology,
Dhaka-1000,
Bangladesh
Dr. Shantanu Bhowmik
Senior Scientist, Singapore Institute of
Manufacturing Technology,
Singapore - 638075
International Advisory Board
Dr. Pardeep Kumar
Professor,
Department of Mech. Engg.,
IIT Roorkee, Uttrakhand, India
Dr. Subhash Chander
Department of Mech. Engg., NIT,
Jalandhar,
Punjab,
India
Dr. S.P. Singh
Professor,
Department of Mech. Engg,
IIT Delhi,
India
Dr. RajnishTyagi
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
Uttar Pradesh,
IIT Kanpur, India
Dr. Harpreet Singh
Department of Mech. Engg,
IIT Ropar,
Punjab, India
Dr. D.S. Hira
Vice-Chancellor,
GKU, Talwandi Sabo, Punjab, India
Dr. Sunil Panday
Director,
SLIET, Longowal,
Punjab, India
Dr. Kulwant Singh
Dept. of Mech.Engg.,
SLIET, Longowal,
Punjab, India
Dr. A.S. Khanna
Professor,
Department.of Metallurgical Engg. & Material Sci.,
IIT Bombay, India
Dr. S.K. Roy
Professor,
Department of Metallurgical Engineering &
Material Science,IIT Kharagpur, India
Asian Review of Mechanical Engineering
Volume 1 Number 2 July - December 2012
CONTENTS
Sl. No. Title
Page No.
1. A FEM and Image Processing Based Method for Simulation of 01
Manufacturing Imperfections
Arshad Javed, A. K. Sengar and B.K. Rout
2. Structural and Optical Investigation of Aluminium-Lithium-Borate Glasses 06
Gurinder Pal Singh, Parvinder Kaur, Simranpreet Kaur, Deepawali Arora and D.P. Singh
3. Performance Comparison of Single and Double Layer Microchannel Using 09
Liquid Metal Coolants: A Numerical Study
Deewakar Sharma, Harry Garg and P.P. Bajpai
4. The Thermodynamic Study of Turbocharger Pressure Ratio and Ambient Temperature 18
Variation on Exergy Destruction Estimation of Homogeneous Charge Compression
Ignition Engine Cogeneration System
Shailesh Kumar Trivedi and Abid Haleem
5. Experimental Investigations of Traveling Wire Electro-Chemical Spark Machining 24
(TW-ECSM) of Borosilicate Glass
Basanta Kumar Bhuyan and Vinod Yadava
6. Performance Characteristics of Diesel Engine Fueled by Biodiesel of 30
Jatropha Oil and Soybean Oil
Ashish Malik and Parlad Kumar
7. Machining Study of TI-6AL-4V Using PVD Coated TiAlN Inserts 34
Narasimhulu Andriya, Venkateswara Rao P and Sudarsan Ghosh
8. Investigation of the Structure and Mechanical Properties of 41
Friction Stir Welded Aluminum Alloy
A. Chandrashekar, B. S. Ajay Kumar, V. Anandkumar and P. Raghothama Rao
9. Multi-Objective Optimization of the Electro-Discharge 45
Diamond Surface Grinding Process
Shyam Sunder and Vinod Yadava
10. Enhancing Wear Resistance of Low Alloy Steel Applicable on 51
Excavator Bucket Teeth Via Hardfacing
Shivali Singla, Amardeep Singh Kang and Jasmaninder Singh Grewal
11. Creep Modeling in An Orthotropic FGM Cylinder 55
Ashish Singla, Manish Garg, Dharmpal Deepak and V. K. Gupta
A FEM and Image Processing Based Method for Simulation of
Manufacturing Imperfections
Arshad Javed*, A. K. Sengar and B.K. Rout
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani 333 031, India
*Corresponding Author E-mail: arshadjaved@bits-pilani.ac.in
Abstract - Use of appropriate methods to capture
manufacturing imperfection at the conceptual stage is a major
challenge for the designer and researchers in industry.
Imperfections are observed in almost all type of in macro,
micro and nano-machining domain of manufacturing process.
These imperfections lead to undesirable performance in
application phase. In the present work, a simulation based
approach to handle manufacturing imperfection is
implemented using image processing operators. This method
simulates the image of the component due to manufacturing
imperfections. The usage of these image processing operators
facilitates a realistic simulation of manufacturing errors, in
macro, micro, and nano domain manufacturing. The
simulated image is further processed for its structural
properties i.e. maximum deflection, reactions, Von Mises
stress, and change in amount of material, corresponding to its
intended application. In order to generate these results based
on modified image of beam, the concept of "Solid Isotropic
Material with Penalization"(SIMP) is utilized along with 2-D
finite element routine. An example of a simple cantilever beam
is selected to illustrate the proposed methodology, and the
results are analyzed. The present work discusses a simple and
easy method to predict the behavior of designed component
prior to its manufacturing.
Keywords: Manufacturing imperfection, Nano-fabrication,
Micro-fabrication, FEM, Image processing, SIMP
I. INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing errors and imperfection are a common
part of any product or component. Imperfections emerged
out by various means. One of the approach is to use a very
accurate process, where cost and effort increases
exponentially. Other approach is to reduce the
consequences of manufacturing imperfection, by
performance simulation prior to application. By simulating
the performance, the parameters of boundary can be
adjusted to get the intended results. The imperfections are
observed at macro level and also spread across the domain
of micro and nano scales. At this level, the manufacturing
errors lead to imperfections of the components, which
change the property of the component drastically. Thus, the
required performance cannot be achieved [1-4]. In such
scenario, it is very difficult to produce a precise component.
Hence, consideration of imperfection becomes a vital issue.
Present work focuses on the simulation issue of geometric
imperfection of a structural component. The manufacturing
processes considered are, milling for macro, etching for
micro and electron beam lithography and laser
micromachining for nano domain. To carry out simulation
process, image processing operators i.e. dilate and erode are
used [5, 6]. Presently, researchers are using these operators
for the simulation of geometric imperfections [7], however,
the application is limited. In order to use the image
processing operators efficiently, it is necessary to know its
corresponding effect on the property of the structural
component. To fulfill this requirement, the concept of solid
isotropic material with penalization (SIMP) is applied.
SIMP is a methodology to optimize the topology of a
structural component as well as synthesizing a compliant
mechanism even at nano level [8, 9]. SIMP applies a
particular approach to get the details of structural property
of any arbitrary shape using the image of structural
component. Based on image processing operator and SIMP,
the simulations are carried out and effects on the structural
component are recorded. The objective of this work is to
explore the behavior of the property of a structural
component, over the variation of image processing
operators. A methodology is proposed to fulfill the
objective. It can be applied to any type of shape of structural
component. It will help the designer and practitioners to set
a particular value of image processing operator to simulate a
real time geometric imperfection.
The manuscript is organized in following manner. In
section two, the details of the image processing operators is
presented. The approach of SIMP is given in section three.
The overall methodology to apply the simulation process is
discussed in section four. The details of selected problem
and its simulation results are discussed in section five and
six respectively. Finally conclusion is drawn.
1 ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012
2
II. IMAGE PROCESSING OPERATORS
Image processing operators are used for single
processing of the original image. There are several image
processing operators available to modify or process an
image into desired form. From vast ranges of operators, two
specific operators are selected i.e. Dilate and Erode, for
binary image. This selection is based on their capability to
simulate the actual manufacturing imperfections [7].
Dilation (Dilate) allows the image boundary of empty
(white) region to expand in filled (black) portion. This
makes the total area of empty region to increase. Erosion
(Erode) allows the filled image boundary to expand in the
empty region. Thus, the total area cover by filled region of
the image increases. The effect of Dilate and Erode can be
observed in Fig. 1. These operators simulate the
imperfections corresponding to milling, etching, electron
beam lithography, and laser micromachining. The
operators can be tailored by the proper selection of the
structuring element (SE) that decides exactly how the
object will be dilated or eroded. Based on the suitability to
simulate the manufacturing imperfection few are chosen in
the present work. These SEs are line, disk, square, and ball
(Table I).
III. SOLID ISOTROPIC MATERIAL WITH
PENALIZATION (SIMP)
In the present work, the structural property of the
component is computed using SIMP approach, associated
with finite element method (FEM). In this section, a brief
detail of SIMP is presented. Initially, Bendsoe and Kikuchi
[10] developed a homogenization approach, which is the
basis of the present state of art in SIMP. The problem is
worked out in a descritized approach, where the whole
design domain is considered element wise. Each element is
assigned a density parameter, which expresses the
existence of material or no material. Strictly speaking,
this design parameter is the material presence expressed in
fractional values for the each element and it is constant
within each element. The value of density parameter is
relaxed in a continuous interval from zero to one, by
inclusion of gray elements. Physically, the gray elements
Fig.1 (a) Original image (b) Dilated image(c) Eroded image
are equivalent to an intermediate state between solid or
void. The assumed intermediate states are purely
mathematical and it cannot be implemented at
manufacturing level. To make it feasible, density
parameters are penalized using a power-law approach that
produces an approximate discrete solution. A very high
penalization turns the density parameter near to one or zero
that represents empty or solid condition. Usually
penalization power is taken as three. This technique is
termed as SIMP [11].
In the present work, the SIMP is used in a reversed way.
Here the process starts with a given density value, which is
generated from the simulation of image. The stepwise
methodology of this process is given in next section.
IV. SIMP METHODOLOGY
The proposed methodology is implemented by creating
a MATLAB code. The steps of this process are summarized
below.
Step 1. Selection of a structural component (beam).
Step 2. A black and white image of the beam is created,
where black represents the presence of material.
Step 3. Image is modified using Dilate or Erode
operators. It represents the manufacturing
imperfection.
Step 4. The modified image is read and a matrix of its
corresponding pixel values is generated.
Step 5. The values of the pixel matrix are normalized
between zero to one. Gray elements are
represented by intermediate values.
Step 6. The elements of the pixel matrix, which are
having values equal to zero, are assigned a min
value (0.001). It makes valid operations of
matrixes while applying FEM. The resultant
matrix is called as "density matrix".
Step 7. Different modulus of elasticity values are
generated for each element of density matrix. It is
carried our using power law approach of SIMP.
Step 8. The values of modified elasticity values for the
elements are preceded for FEM based routine.
Step 9. Using FEM, the values of reaction on beam-
supports, nodal deflection, and Von-Mises stress
are computed.
V. EXAMPLE
In the present work, a cantilever beam shown in Fig. 2 is
selected for the application of proposed methodology. The
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012
Arshad Javed, A. K. Sengar and B.K. Rout
3
length of the beam is 20 mm, width is 4 mm and the
thickness if 1 mm. The beam is having internal curves. The
modulus of elasticity and the Poisson's ratio are selected as
200 GPa and 0.3 respectively. At the lower right end of the
beam, a load of 10 N is applied as shown in Fig. 3. The
simulations are performed on this beam, and the results are
provided in the next section.
VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As per the methodology given in section four, the
simulations are carried out. The Dilate and Erode operators
are set for few SEs which are given in Table I.
TABLE I STRUCTURING ELEMENT TYPES SELECTION FOR SIMULATION
The actual image of beam (Fig.2) is dilated and eroded,
for each SE values. Simulated images are shown in Fig.4. In
these images, the effect of dilation (Fig. 4(a)), and erosion
(Fig. 4(b)) can be seen with respect to its SE number. In
dilation, the amount of material of beam is reduced, while in
erosion, the amount of material of beam is increased. The
variation in the material of beam i.e. mass fraction, is
controlled by the SE parameters. The SE parameters are
tuned to produce a particular amount of variation, which are
referred from the actual case of imperfections [12]. The
variation of mass fraction from the actual one, can be
Fig. 2 Dimensions of selected beam, in mm
Fig. 3 The corresponding black and white image of the cantilever beam
SE No. Type
1
Line 1
2
Line 2
3
Disk 1
4
Disk 2
5 Square 1
6 Square 2
7 Ball 1
8 Ball 2
observed in 5(a). It shows that for SE-4, the mass fraction is
having highest and lowest values. For SE-7, the mass
fraction is very near to the actual values. The deflection in
upward and downward direction can be observed from
Fig.5 (b) & (c) respectively. When the load is applied, the
curvature of the curved part of the beam is changed and the
nodes in that region will have the upward deflection. It can
be seen that, deflection in both cases are high for dilated
beam. It is due to the removal of material from the beam.
This relationship is not direct, as for dilated-SE-5 the
upward deflection is increased though the mass fraction is
higher for SE-4. For SE-7, the deflections are near to the
actual values in both cases. The downward deflection is
highest for dilated-SE-4, and lowest for eroded-SE-4.
Maximum reaction values at the fixed end of the beam are
also simulated for the selected beam, as shown in Fig. 5(d).
The reaction is highest for dilated-SE-1 and lowest for
eroded-SE-4. The reactions are almost equal to the actual
value at SE-7, in both cases. For the failure check, Von-
Mises stress is computed for each case of the beam, as
shown in Fig. 5(e). For dilated-SE-1, 3, 6, 7 & 8, it is
approaching to the actual value. It is highest for dilated-SE-
4, where the mass fraction is lowest. Apart from eroded-SE-
2 & 7, the Von-Mises stress values for all SEs are lower than
the actual values. The lowest value is observed at eroded-
SE-4, where the mass fraction is highest.
In these result, the effect of different SEs can be
observed. The highest and lowest effect is made by disc2
and ball1 SE, respectively. Hence, for a fine variation of
properties, ball1 SE should be used in simulation and for
coarse variation, disc2 SE should be used. It can be seen that
the values are in direct relationship with mass fraction,
leaving few cases. The reason for this may be the way in
which material is dilated or eroded from the beam. In
addition, the mirror image property of dilate and erode
operators can also be observed. The maximum variation of
the mass fraction is also same for the dilation and erosion,
i.e. around 9% of the actual value. The obtained values
depend on the topology of the beam. However, the
observation will be similar among the different properties.
The obtained results indicate that the method is beneficial to
simulate the manufacturing imperfections efficiently.
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012
A FEM and Image Processing Based Method for Simulation of Manufacturing Imperfections
4
Fig. 4(a) Dilated images for SE numbers
Fig. 5(b) Variation of upward deflection
Fig. . 5(c) Variation of downward deflection
Fig. 5(d) Variation of maximum reaction
Fig. 4(b) Eroded images for SE numbers
Fig. 5(a) Variation of Mass fraction
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012
Arshad Javed, A. K. Sengar and B.K. Rout
5
Fig. 5(e) Variation of maximum Von-Mises stress
VII. CONCLUSION
In any manufacturing process, imperfections are
obvious. However, it is imperative to simulate the
imperfection before the actual process. In the present work,
the imperfection are simulated which are valid for
machining, etching, electron beam lithography, and laser
micromachining. In this simulation process, image-
processing operators are used along with SIMP method.
The variations among the different SEs are observed for a
selected cantilever beam problem. Their effects on beam
deflection, reaction, and Von-Mises stress are simulated
and analyzed. Present work will be helpful to the
practitioner to select a specific SE to simulate the
imperfections. This work can be extended for fine
examination of each SE in different topologies of structural
components.
REFERENCES
[1] Nicolae L. and Garcia E. (2005), Mechanics of Microelectro
mechanical Systems, New York, Kluwer Academic, pp. 343-381.
[2] Daniel R. K., Dominik V. S. and Robert H. B. (2004), Drastic
Enhancement of Nanoelectromechanical-System Fabrication Yield
Using Electron-Beam Deposition, Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 85,
pp. 157-159.
[3] Steve R. and Robert P. (2001), "A Review of Focused Ion Beam
Appl i cat i ons i n Mi crosyst em Technol ogy", Journal of
Micromechanics and Microengineering, Vol. 11, pp. 287300.
[4] Hyunseok K., Chulki K., Minrui Y., Hyun-Seok K. and H. B. Robert
(2010), Local Etch Control for Fabricating Nanomechanical
Devices, Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 108, pp. 1-3.
[5] William K. P. (2007), Digital Image Processing,
[6] Solomon, C. and Breckon, T. (2011), Fundamentals of digital image
processing: a practical approach with examples in Matlab,
Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.
[7] Sigmund O. (2007), "Morphology-Based Black and White Filters for
Topology Optimization", Structural and Multidisciplinary
Optimization, Vol. 33, pp. 401-424.
[8] Javed A., Rout B. K. and Mittal R. K. (2007), "A Review on Design
and Synthesis of Compliant Mechanism for Microactuation",
Proceedings of 2nd ISSS National Conference on MEMS, micro
sensors, smart materials, structures and systems, Pilani, India, pp. 1-
10.
[9] Elesin Y., Wang F., Andkjr J., Jensen J.S. and Sigmund O. (2012),
Topology optimization of nano-photonic systems, Integrated
Photonics Research, Silicon and Nanophotonics (IPRSN), Theory,
Modeling & Simulations I: Numerical Methods (IM2B), Colorado
Springs, Colorado.
[10] Bendse M. P. and Kikuchi N. (1988), "Generating Optimal
Topologies in Structural Design using a Homogenization Method,
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 71,
pp. 197-224.
[11] Bendse M. P. and Sigmund O. (2003), Topology Optimization:
Theory, Methods and Applications, Berlin, Springer, 2003, pp. 2-68.
[12] Sigmund O. (2009), "Manufacturing Tolerant Topology
Optimization, Vol. 25, pp. 227-239.
John Wiley & Sons.
Acta Mechanica Sinica,
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012
A FEM and Image Processing Based Method for Simulation of Manufacturing Imperfections
Structural and Optical Investigation of Aluminium-Lithium-
Borate Glasses
Gurinder Pal Singh, Parvinder Kaur, Simranpreet Kaur, Deepawali Arora and D.P. Singh
Department of Physics, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143 005, India
E-mail: gp1806@yahoo.co.in
Abstract - Glass samples of compositions xAl O -(30- )
2 3 x
Li CO 70B O with x varying from 0 to 8% mole fraction are
2 3 2 3
prepared by melt quench technique. Decrease in the band gap
from 3.12 to 2.91 eV for lithium borate glasses with an increase
in the Al O content has been observed and discussed. The
2 3
FTIR spectral studies have pointed out the conversion of
structural units of BO to BO . Due to the formation of BO and
3 4 4
AlO units, changes in the atomic structure with Al O
6 2 3
composition are observed and discussed.
Keywords: X-ray diffraction, Optical properties, FTIR
I. INTRODUCTION
The study of oxide glasses has received considerable
attention due to their structural peculiarities [1]. These
glasses have wide applications in the fields of electronics,
nuclear and solar energy technologies and acoustic-optic
devices [2]. In addition, they are often used as dielectric and
insulating materials and it is known that borate glass
constitutes a good shield against IR radiation . It is well
known that the main structural units of the borate network
which are [BO ] triangles and [BO ] tetrahedral, may form
3
different super -structural units; boroxol and meta-borate
rings, meta-borate chains, penta-borate,tri-borate, diborate
and pyro-borate [3].
The addition of alkali oxides can improve many
properties of borate glasses as well as modify, even improve
their preparation conditions. Lithium is an important alkali
cation and Al O is an important modifier. Glasses based on
2 3
the lithium aluminum system have attracted considerable
interest in recent years due to their significant applications
in science and industry. Borate glasses containing Lithium
have been extensively studied due to their technological
applications as solid electrolyte in electro chemical devices
such as batteries [4]. Alkali borate glasses are highly useful
mat er i al s f or vacuum ul t r a vi ol et opt i cs and
semiconductors lithography owing to the presence of stable
glass forming range and transparency from the near UV to
the middle infrared region [5].
4
Another oxide, Al O cannot form a glass by itself. It can
2 3
form glass once it is added with another suitable oxides and
it will take part in the formation of the glass structural unit.
Alkali free alumina lead borate glasses are very stable
against devitrification possess high mechanical strength,
toughness, moisture resistant and excellent electrical
properties. Due to this these glasses have application in
battery sealing and microelectronic packing [6-8]. The
addition of an Al O is anticipated to enhance the chemical
2 3
durability of the glasses while simultaneously increasing
the glass transition temperature and reducing the thermal
expansion coefficient [9-11].
The present work investigates the dominant role of
Al O on structural and optical properties in Li CO -B O
2 3 2 3 2 3
glass system. The structural properties are studied by using
XRD (x-ray diffraction), Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR) techniques. The optical properties of
glasses are determined by using UV-visible spectroscopy
measurements.
II. EXPERIMENTAL DETAIL
A. Sample Preparation
Glass samples xAl O -(30-x)Li CO 70B O with x
2 3 2 3 2 3
varying from 2 to 10 mol % are prepared by the
conventional melt quench technique. The raw materials of
Lithium Carbonate (Li CO ), Aluminium Oxide (Al O ) and
2 3 2 3
Boric oxide (B O ) of appropriate amounts are mixed
2 3
together and melted in silica crucible at temperature range
of 1100 C for 60 minutes until a bubble free liquid was
formed. The melt is then poured in to preheated steel mould
and annealed at temperature of 380 C for 1 hour to avoid
breaking of the samples by residual internal strains. The
obtained samples are grinded with different grade of silica
carbide and polished with cerium oxide in order to obtain
maximum ? atness. The nominal composition of the
prepared glasses is given in the Table I.
The amorphous/crystalline nature of the samples is
confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) study using
(Shimadzu, Japan) X-ray diffractometer at the scanning
rate of 2 degree/min and 2 varied from 1070.
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012 6
The Optical Absorption spectra of polished samples are
recorded at room temperature by using UV-Visible
Spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer) in the range from 200-
800 nm.
The infrared transmission spectra of the glasses are
measured at room temperature in the wave number range
-1
4004000 cm by a Fourier Transform computerized infra-
red spectrometer type (Thermo Nicolet 380 spectrometer).
The prepared glasses are mixed in the form of ? ne powder
with KBr in the ratio 1:100 mg glass powder: KBr,
respectively. The weighed mixtures are then subjected to a
2
pressure of 150 kg/ cm to produce homogeneous pellets.
The infrared transmission measurements are measured
immediately after preparing the pellets.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
A. X-Ray Diffraction
The x-ray diffraction pattern (Fig. 1) does not reveal any
crystalline phase in Al O -Li CO B O glass samples
2 3 2 3 2 3
which indicate the amorphous nature of the samples.
TABLE I NOMINAL COMPOSITION (MOLE %), AND BAND GAP OF
GLASSES
B. FTIR
The infrared transmittance spectra of glasses in the
-1
4004000 cm region shown (Fig.2) has large, medium,
weak and broad peaks.
According to literature survey, the borate spectra are
divided into following three regions [12-14].The regions
are;
-1
(a) 600-800 cm for the B-O-B vibrations
-1
(b) 800-1200 cm for BO groups
4
-1
(c) 1200-1600 cm for BO groups
3
-1
There is another band from 2300-4000 cm , which is
due to hydrogen bonding in OH group [15].
-1
1. The band centered at 699 cm has been assigned to B-O-
B bending vibration of BO and [BO ] groups [16]. Its
3 4
Intensity increases with the increase in contents of
aluminum contents, which is due to presence of [AlO ]
6
group of aluminium in glass network [16].
-1
2. In sample A1, the band observed at 1024 cm is due to
B-O bond stretching of [BO ] groups [15].
4
3. This band is shifting towards the lower wave number
-1
(from 1024 to 981 cm ) side in sample A5 with the
increase in the percentage of Al O . Also, its intensity
2 3
increases with the increase in contents of Al O , which is
2 3
due to increase in tetrahedral [BO ] groups in the borate
4
network [15].
Glass
Code
Al
2
O
3
Li
2
CO
3
B
2
O
3
Band Gap
A1 0 30 70
2.91
A2 2 28 70 2.95
A3 4 26 70 3.00
A4 6 24 70 3.08
A5 8 22 70 3.12
10 20 30 40 50 60
Sample-A5
Sample-A3
Sample-A1
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
a
.
u
.
]
2?[degree]
Fig. 1 XRD of glass samples
Fig. 2 FTIR spectra of Al O -Li CO B O
2 3 2 3 2 3
glass with varying concentration of Al O
2 3
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e
[
a
.
u
.
]
Wave Number (cm
-1
)
981
997
997
1024
1024
679
679
679
692
699
1376
1349
1382
1349
1349
A5
A4
A3
A2
A1
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012
7
Structural and Optical Investigation of Aluminium-Lithium-Borate Glasses
4. As the concentration of Al O increases shifting of band
2 3
-1
arises (from 1024 to 981 cm ) which is due to presence
of [AlO ] units of aluminium. This is attributed to
6
combined presence of aluminium [AlO ] group and
6
tetrahedral [BO ] groups of borate [16].
4
-1
5. The band in the region 1200-1500 cm , centered at 1382
-1
cm is due to B-O stretching of [BO ] groups in ortho and
3
meta-borate units [17].
C. Optical Band Gap
D
out
out
out
in
in
in
j
j
E e m e m W
T
T
Q
j
Q
.
D
E
e
))] ( ) (( [
0 0 0
s s T h h m e
i i
i
i
=
(1)
Where
max
V and
min
V
are respectively the maxim
um (at the inner radius) and t
he minimum (at the
outer radius) SiCp content in the cylinder.
The average SiCp content in the cylinder can be
expressed as,
(2)
Where l is the length of cylinder.
Substituting V(r) from Eq. (1) into Eq. (2) and integrating,
we get,
( )( ) ( )
3
3 2
max
2
min
3 2
2 3 1 1 1 3
+
+
V V
V
avg
(3)
Where ) ( b a is the ratio of inner to outer radius of the
cylinder.
III. creep Law and parameters
The creep behavior of the FGM cylinder is described by
Nortons power law.
n
e e
B
(4)
Where
e
avg o
V r V B r B ) ( ) (
(5)
and
[ ]
avg o
V r V n r n ) ( ) (
(6)
Where B
o
and no are respectively the values of creep
parameters B and n respectively and is the grading index.
The values of B
o
, n and are the taken from the study of
Chen et al. [3].
Table I Values of Creep parameTers [3] and dImensIon
of The model
Iv. mathematIcaL FormuLatIon
Let us consider a thick-walled hollow cylinder made
of functionally graded Al-SiC
p
composite having inner and
outer radii as a and b respectively. The cylinder is subjected
to internal and external pressures denoted respectively by p
and q.
For the purpose of analysis the following assumptions
are made:
(i)The material of the cylinder is orthotropic and
incompressible i.e. 0 + +
z r
where r, and z are taken respectively along the radial,
tangential and axial directions of the cylinder.
(ii) The cylinder is subjected to internal pressure that
is applied gradually and held constant during the loading
history.
(iii) Elastic deformations in the cylinder are neglected as
compared to creep deformations.
The cylinder is suffciently long and hence is assumed
under plain strain condition (i.e. axial strain rate,
0
z
)
The radial (
r
) and tangential (
(8)
Where is the radial displacement rate and
u
is the radial displacement.
Eqs (7) and (8) may be solved to get the following
compatibility equation,
(9)
The cylinder is subjeconditions,
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012 56
Ashish Singla, Manish Garg, Dharmpal Deepak and V. K. Gupta
p
r
at
a r
(10)
q
r
at
b r
(11)
Where the negative sign of
r
implies the compressive
nature of radial stress.
By considering the equilibrium of forces acting on an
element of the cylinder in the radial direction, we get,
(12)
Since the material of the cylinder is incompressible,
therefore,
0 + +
z r
(13)
The constitutive equations under multi axial creep in an
orthotropic cylinder, when the principal axes are the axes of
reference, Bhatnagar and Gupta [1] are given by,
( )
( ) ( ) [ ]
+
+
r z r
e
e
r
H G
H G
(14)
( )
( ) ( ) [ ]
r z
e
e
H F
H G
+
+
(15)
( )
( ) ( ) [ ]
r z z
e
e
z
G F
H G
+
+
(16)
Where F, G and H are the anisotropic constants,
e
and
e
are respectively the effective strain rate and effective
stress in the FGM cylinder.
The Hills yield criterion, when the Principal axes of
anisotropy are the axes of reference, Dieter [11], is given by,
( )
2 1
2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) (
1
]
]
]
,
,
+ +
+
r r z z e
H G F
H G
(17)
Under plain strain condition ( 0
z
), one may get from
Eqs. (7), (8) and (13),
r
C
u
r
(18)
Where C is a constant of integration. Using Eq. (18) in
Eqs. (7) and (8), we get,
2
r
C
r
(19) and
2
r
C
(20)
Under plane strain condition, Eq. (16) becomes,
) (
) (
G F
F G
r
z
+
+
(21)
Substituting
z
from Eq. (21) in to Eq. (17), we get,
(22)
Substituting
r
and
z
respectively from Eqs. (19)
and (21) into Eq. (14), we obtain,
(23)
Using Eqs. (4) and (22) in Eq. (23) and simplifying, one
gets,
n
r
r
I
/ 2
1
(24)
Where, (25)
Substituting Eq. (24) into Eq. (12) and integrating, we
get,
p X
r
1
(26)
Where, (27)
Substituting Eq. (26) into Eq. (24), we obtain,
p
r
I
X
n
+
/ 2
1
1
(28)
To estimate the value of constant C, needed for estimating
, the boundary conditions given in Eqs. (10) and (11) are used
in Eq. (26) with X
1
(Eq. 27) integrated between limits a to b.
to get,
q p dr
r
I
b
a
n
n
+2
1
(29)
Substituting the value of
1
I from Eq. (25) in to Eq. (29)
and simplifying, we obtain,
n
X
q p
C
]
]
]
,
2
(30)
Where, and (31)
Using Eqs. (21) and (22) into Eqs. (14) and (15), one
obtains,
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012 57
Creep Modeling in An Orthotropic FGM Cylinder
(32)
The analysis presented above yields the results for
isotropic FGM cylinder. When the anisotropic constants are
set equal i.e. F=G=H.
v. estImatIon oF anIsotropIc constants
The Hills yield criterion for orthotropic material, as
given by Eq. (17), involves constants F, G and H, the values
of which are required for estimating involve creep response
of the FGM cylinder. If X, Y and Z are the tensile stresses in
the principal directions of anisotropy, then according to Hill,
Dieter[11].
]
]
]
,
,
+ + + G F
Z
F H
Y
H G
X
2 2 2
1
;
1
;
1
(33)
The above set of equations may be solved to estimate the
values of anisotropic constants as given below,
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
,
,
,
,
,
,
(
(
,
\
,
,
(
j
+
(
(
,
\
,
,
(
j
+
(
(
,
\
,
,
(
j
+
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
2
;
1 1 1
2 ;
1 1 1
2
Z Y X
H
Y X Z
G
X Z Y
F
(34)
For isotropic material the ratio of anisotropic constants
is unity i.e. F/G = G/H = H/F = 1.
If the material of cylinder is subjected to uniaxial loading
in r and directions, the corresponding stress invariant may
be expressed in terms of observed tensile strength and Hills
anisotropic constants as given below,
y
r e
H G
2
+
(35) and
y
H F
e
2
+
(36)
where
Y Y
r
, are respectively the yield strength of
composite in r and directions and e is the isotropic yield
stress. If the material of cylinder is tested under uniaxial
loading in z direction, the stress invariant may similarly be
written as,
y
z e
G F
2
+
(37)
where
y
z
is the yield strength of composite in z
direction.
It is assumed that during processing of FGM cylinder the
whiskers get aligned in the tangential () direction, leading
to anisotropic behavior. Therefore, in FGM cylinder the
direction becomes longitudinal direction and the remaining
directions (i.e. r and z) may be taken as transverse directions.
For axisymmetric problems like cylinder, the directions r,
and z may be taken as the principal directions. Thus, the
anisotropic constants given by Eqn. (34), may be expressed
as,
2
2 2 2
1 1 1
e
r z
y y y
F
(
(
(
,
\
,
,
,
(
j
+
(38)
2
2 2 2
1 1 1
e
r z
y y y
G
(
(
(
,
\
,
,
,
(
j
+
(39)
2
2 2 2
1 1 1
e
z r
y y y
H
(
(
(
,
\
,
,
,
(
j
+
(40)
When assume the
y y
r
and
y y
z
,
The
value of G/F > 1 and H/F < 1 implies that the yield strength
of FGM cylinder in the tangential direction is the highest and
lowest in the axial direction. On the contrary, G/F < 1 and
H/F > 1 imply that the yield strength of the cylinder is the
highest in tangential direction but lowest in the tangential
direction.
To study the effect of anisotropy on the stress and strain
rates, following numerical values of anisotropic constants
taken from Kulkarni et al. [10] has been used.
Table II Values of anIsoTropIC ConsTanTs Taken from [10]
vI. numerIcaL scheme oF computatIon
To begin the computation process, the vlaue of X
2
is estimated from Eq.(31) after substituting the value of
anisotropic constants F,G and H and the values of creep
parameters B and n, as estimated from Eqs. (5) and (6)
respectively.Thereafter,the value of constant C is estimated
from Eq. (30) and using this in Eq.(25) the value of I1 is
obtained. The value of I
1
, thus estimate is used in eq. (27) to
get X
1
.Knowing X
1
, the stresses
r
and
are obtained
respectively from Eqs. (26) and (28).The values of and are
substituted in Eq. (21) to estimate the distribution of axial
stress (
z
) in the cylinder. Knowing
r
,
and
z
,
the values of and are obtained respectively from Eqs. (4)
and (22). Finally, the strain rates
r
and
are estimated
respectively from Eqs. (14) and (15).
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012 58
Ashish Singla, Manish Garg, Dharmpal Deepak and V. K. Gupta
vII. resuLts and dIscussIon
A. Validation
Before discussing the results obtained in this study, it
is considered necessary to validate the analytical procedure
used in this study. The values of B and n are assumed to be
constant for the cylinder as 2.7710-
16
MPa-
n
/h and 3.75,
similar to the work of Chen et al.[3].The distribution of
tangential stress estimated in the cylinder is compared with
those reported by Chen et al.[3], in Fig. 1. An excellent
agreement is observed between these results, validating the
present study.
Fig. 1 Validation of Chen et al. [3] vs. Analytical
B. Variation of Creep Parameters
Figure 2 shows the variation of creep parameters B
and n with radial distance in FGM cylinders. The value of
parameter B and n in the FGM cylinder is supposed to decrease
and increase respectively with increase in radial distance, as
is evident from the Eqs. (5) and (6). The variations observed
in parameters B and n are attributed to decreasing SiC
p
content, V(r), in the FGM cylinders with increasing radius
(r), as evident from Eq. (1). Owing to similar distribution of
reinforcement (SiC
p
) in the different FGM cylinders C1-C3,
they have similar variations of parameters B and n.
Fig. 2: Variation of creep parameters B and n in cylinder
C. Effect of Anisotropy on Stresses and Strain Rates
Figure 3 shows the effect of anisotropy on radial stress
in the FGM cylinders. The radial stress remains compressive
over the entire cylinder with a maximum (compressive) and
zero values reported at the inner and outer radii respectively,
under the imposed boundary conditions given in Eqs. (10)
and (11). the results obtained through analytical technique
are not affected by varying degree of anisotropy in the FGM
cylinders. This is attributed to the fact that the term X1 used
in Eq. (26) for calculating radial stress is not affected by
varying the extent of anisotropy in the FGM cylinders.
Fig.3 Effect of anisotropy on radial Stress
Figure 4 shows the effect of anisotropy on tangential
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012 59
Creep Modeling in An Orthotropic FGM Cylinder
stress in the FGM cylinder. The tangential stress remains
tensile throughout the FGM cylinders and is observed to
decrease with the increase in radius. The results obtained
by analytical procedure reveals that the tangential stress
in the FGM cylinder is not affected by varying the extent
of anisotropy in the FGM cylinders. This is attributed to
the fact that the terms X
1
and I
1
/r2/
n
, used in Eq. (28) for
calculating tangential stress, are not dependent on the extent
of anisotropy.
Fig. 4 Effect of anisotropy on Tangential Stress
Figure 5 shows the effect of anisotropy on effective stress
in the FGM cylinder. The effective stress decreases with
increasing radial distance. The results of analytical procedure
reveal that the effective stress is observed to be minimum for
FGM cylinder C1 and maximum for FGM cylinder C3 when
compared with the isotropic FGM cylinder C2.
Fig. 5 Effect of anisotropy on Effective Stress
Figure 6 shows the effect of anisotropy on radial
and tangential strain rates in FGM cylinders. The radial
and tangential strain rates in the cylinder are equal in
magnitude but opposite in nature under the assumptions of
incompressibility (Eq. 13) and plain strain condition ( 0
z
).
The effect of anisotropy on radial and tangential strain rates
in the FGM cylinder decreases with increasing radius. The
radial strain rate is the lowest in FGM cylinder C1 and the
highest in FGM cylinder C3 when compared to isotropic
FGM cylinder C2. The effect of anisotropy on effective strain
rate (Fig.7) is observed to be similar as for tangential strain
rate in Fig.6.
Fig. 6 Effect of anisotropy on radial and tangential strain rate
The effect of anisotropy on effective strain rate in
the cylinder similar those described for radial and tangential
strain rates (refer Fig. 6).
Fig. 7 Effect of anisotropy on effective strain rate
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012 60
Ashish Singla, Manish Garg, Dharmpal Deepak and V. K. Gupta
vIII. concLusIons
The present study has led to the following conclusions:
1. The effect of anisotropy on radial and tangential stresses
increases near the inner radius but exhibit are decrease
towards the outer radius.
2. The effective stresses in the FGM cylinder with
y y y
z r
> >
is lower everywhere as compared to any
other FGM cylinder. The effect of anisotropy on the
effective stress decreases with increasing radius.
3. The strain rates (radial, tangential and effective) in the
FGM cylinder is the lowest for the FGM cylinder with
y y y
z r
> >
and the highest for the FGM cylinder with
y y y
r z
> >
.
4. The effect of anisotropy on strain rates decreases with
increasing radius.
reFerences
[1] Bhatnagar, N.S. and Gupta, S.K., (1969), Analysis of thick-walled
orthotropic cylinder in the theory of creep, Journal of the Physical
Society of Japan, Vol. 27, No. 6, pp. 1655- 1662.
[2] Bhatnagar, N.S., Kulkarni, P.S. and Arya, V.K. (1986), Creep
analysis of orthotropic rotating cylinder considering fnite strains,
International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp.
6171.
[3] Chen, J.J., Tu, S.T., Xuan, F.Z. and Wang, Z.D. (2007), Creep
analysis for a functionally graded cylinder subjected to internal and
external pressure, Journal of Strain Analysis of Engineering Design,
Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 69-77.
[4] Gupta, S.K., Sharma, S. and Pathak, S. (2000), Creep transition in
non-homogeneous thick walled rotating cylinders, Indian Journal of
Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol. 31, No. 12, pp. 15791594.
[5] Noda, N., Nakai, S., Tsuji, T. (1998), Thermal stresses in
functionally graded materials of particle-reinforced composite.
JSME International Journal Series, Vol. 41, No.2, pp. 178-184.
[6] Reddy, J.N. (2000), Analysis of functionally graded plates,
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol.
47, No.1-3, pp. 663684.
[7] Sadeghi, H., Baghanib,M. and R. Naghdabadi (2012), Strain
gradient elasticity solution for functionally graded micro-cylinders,
International Journal of Engineering Science, Vol. 50, No.1, pp. 22
30.
[8] Singh, S.B. and Ray, S. (2001), Steady state creep behavior in
an isotropic functionally graded material rotating disc of Al-SiC
composite, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions, Vol. 32A, No.
7, pp.16791685.
[9] Singh, T. and Gupta, V.K. (2011), Effect of anisotropy on steady
state creep in functionally graded cylinder, Composite Structures,
Vol. 93, No. 2, pp. 747-758.
[10] Kulkarni, P. S., Bhatnagar, N. S. and Arya, V. K.(1985), Creep
analysis of thin-walled anisotropic cylinders subjected to internal
pressure, bending and twisting, Proceedings of the workshop on
solid mechanics, pp. 13-16.
[11] Dieter, G.E. (1988), Mechanical Metallurgy, 3rd ed. London,
McGraw-Hill Publications.
[12] Shen Y.L. (2010), Constrain deformation of materials: devices,
heterogeneous structures and Thermo-mechanical modeling, Springer
Publication, Ist edition, p.no.179.
[13] Suresh, S., Mortensen, A. (1998), Fundamentals of functionally
graded materials: processing and thermomechanical behavior of
graded metals and metal-ceramic composites, IOM Communications
Limited, London.
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012 61
Creep Modeling in An Orthotropic FGM Cylinder