Computer Networks Guidebook

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M.. Students,
Comutev SIene und nuIneevInu euvtment,
J.J. CoIIeue oI nuIneevInu & TeLnoIouy,
AmmuettuI, PooIunuuIutLuuttI (Post),
TIvuLIvuuIII - 620 009,
TumII Nudu,
IndIu.
6<//$%86

UNIT I NTWORK ARCHITCTUR
!nvorIng nnd IrofocoIs OSI ArchIfocfuro Infornof ArchIfocfuro !Ink nnd
ModIum Accoss IrofocoIs IrnmIng Irror ofocfIon !oIInbIo TrnnsmIssIon IIII
802 Sfnndnrds Ifhornof Tokon !Ings WIroIoss ofwork Adnpfors.

UNIT II NTWORK IAYR
CIrcuIf SwIfchIng Inckof SwIfchIng SwIfchIng nnd IorwnrdIng IrIdgos nnd
!A SwIfchos CoII SwIfchIng Infor nofworkIng !oufIng CIobnI Infornof
MuIfIcnsf.

UNIT III TRANSPORT IAYR
!I TCI !omofo Irocoduro CnII Iorformnnco CongosfIon ConfroI nnd !osourco
AIIocnfIon TCI CongosfIon ConfroI CongosfIon AvoIdnnco MochnnIsms QunIIfv of
SorvIco InndwIdfh oInv JIffor.

UNIT IV NTWORK SCURITY AN APPIICATION
CrvpfogrnphIc AIgorIfhms IS !SA M5 SocurIfv MochnnIsms IIro
WnIIs nmo SorvIco TrndIfIonnI AppIIcnfIons SMTI HTTI MuIfImodIn
AppIIcnfIon !TI !TCI SCTI .

UNIT V NTWORK MANAGMNT
InfroducfIon ofwork MonIforIng ofwork ConfroI SMIVl ofwork
Mnnngomonf Concopfs InformnfIon Sfnndnrd MIIS.

TABI OI CONTNTS

UnIt 1 Netwovk AvLItetuve

l.l !oquIromonfs--------------------------------------------------------------------------
A ConnocfIvIfv----------------------------------------------------------------------------
I Cosf-IffocfIvo !osourco ShnrIng-------------------------------------------------
C Supporf Ior Common SorvIcos---------------------------------------------------

l.2 !nvorIng And IrofocoIs-------------------------------------------------------------
l.3 OSI ArchIfocfuro---------------------------------------------------------------------
l.4 Infornof ArchIfocfuro---------------------------------------------------------------

l.5 Hnrdwnro IuIIdIng IIocks--------------------------------------------------------
A odos------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I !Inks-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

l.6 IrnmIng---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
l Ivfo-OrIonfod IrofocoIs (IISYC, III, CMI)------------------------
2 IIf-OrIonfod IrofocoIs (H!C)--------------------------------------------------
3 CIock-Insod IrnmIng (SOIT)--------------------------------------------------

l.? Irror ofocfIon-----------------------------------------------------------------------
A Two-ImonsIonnI InrIfv------------------------------------------------------------
I Infornof Chocksum AIgorIfhm----------------------------------------------------
C CvcIIc !odundnncv Chock----------------------------------------------------------

l.l
l.l
l.4
l.?

l.8
l.l2
l.l4

l.l6
l.l6
l.l?

l.2l
l.22
l.24
l.25

l.28
l.29
l.30
l.3l

l.8 !oIInbIo TrnnsmIssIon--------------------------------------------------------------
A Sfop nnd WnIf-------------------------------------------------------------------------
I SIIdIng WIndow-----------------------------------------------------------------------
C Concurronf !ogIcnI ChnnnoIs----------------------------------------------------

l.9 Ifhornof (802.3)----------------------------------------------------------------------
A IhvsIcnI IroporfIos------------------------------------------------------------------
I Accoss IroporfIos--------------------------------------------------------------------

l.l0 Tokon !Ings (802.5, II)--------------------------------------------------------
A IhvsIcnI IroporfIos------------------------------------------------------------------
I Tokon !Ing ModIn Accoss ConfroI----------------------------------------------
C Tokon !Ing MnInfonnnco----------------------------------------------------------
Irnmo Iormnf------------------------------------------------------------------------
I II-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

l.ll WIroIoss (802.ll)--------------------------------------------------------------------
A IhvsIcnI IroporfIos-----------------------------------------------------------------
I CoIIIsIon AvoIdnnco-----------------------------------------------------------------
C IsfrIbufIon Svsfom----------------------------------------------------------------
Irnmo Iormnf-----------------------------------------------------------------------

l.l2 ofwork Adnpfors------------------------------------------------------------------
A Compononfs---------------------------------------------------------------------------
I VIow from fho Hosf------------------------------------------------------------------
C ovIco rIvors------------------------------------------------------------------------
Momorv IoffIonock-----------------------------------------------------------------

l.36
l.36
l.39
l.44

l.44
l.45
l.46

l.46
l.50
l.52
l.54
l.55
l.56

l.60
l.60
l.6l
l.62
l.65

l.66
l.66
l.6?
l.?0
l.?0

UnIt 2 Netwovk Iuyev

2.l CIrcuIf SwIfchIng--------------------------------------------------------------------
2.l.l CIrcuIf IsfnbIIshIng----------------------------------------------------------------
2.l.2 nfn Trnnsfor-------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.l.3 CIrcuIf Isconnocf-------------------------------------------------------------------

2.2 SwIfchIng & IorwnrdIng----------------------------------------------------------
2.2.l nfngrnm/ConnocfIonIoss---------------------------------------------------------
2.2.2 VIrfunI CIrcuIf SwIfchIng---------------------------------------------------------
2.2.3 Sourco !oufIng-----------------------------------------------------------------------

2.3 IrIdgos nnd !A SwIfchos---------------------------------------------------------
2.3.l !onrnIng IrIdgos----------------------------------------------------------------------
2.3.2 SpnnnIng Troo AIgorIfhm----------------------------------------------------------
2.3.3 Irondcnsf nnd MuIfIcnsf------------------------------------------------------------
2.3.4 !ImIfnfIons of IrIdgos---------------------------------------------------------------

2.4 CoII SwIfchIng (ATM)----------------------------------------------------------------
2.4.l CoIIs---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.4.2 SogmonfnfIon nnd !onssombIv---------------------------------------------------
2.4.3 VIrfunI Infhs---------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.4.4 IhvsIcnI !nvors for ATM-----------------------------------------------------------
2.4.5 ATM In fho !A-----------------------------------------------------------------------

2.5 ImpIomonfnfIon nnd Iorformnnco-----------------------------------------------

2.l
2.2
2.2
2.2

2.3
2.5
2.?
2.8

2.l0
2.l0
2.l4
2.l8
2.l9

2.2l
2.22
2.26
2.32
2.32
2.33

2.38

2.6 SImpIo InfornofworkIng-------------------------------------------------------------
2.6.l Whnf Is InfornofworkIng` ---------------------------------------------------------
2.6.2 SorvIco ModoI--------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.6.3 CIobnI Addrossos----------------------------------------------------------------------
2.6.4 nfngrnm IorwnrdIng In II-------------------------------------------------------
2.6.5 Addross TrnnsInfIon------------------------------------------------------------------
2.6.6 Hosf ConfIgurnfIon (HCI)-------------------------------------------------------
2.6.? Irror !oporfIng (ICMI)------------------------------------------------------------
2.6.8 VIrfunI ofworks nnd TunnoIs---------------------------------------------------

2.? !oufIng-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.?.l ofwork ns n Crnph------------------------------------------------------------------
2.?.2 Isfnnco Vocfor (!II)---------------------------------------------------------------
2.?.3 !Ink Sfnfo (OSII)--------------------------------------------------------------------
2.?.4 MofrIcs-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.?.5 !oufIng for MobIIo Hosfs-----------------------------------------------------------

2.8 CIobnI Infornof--------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.8.l SubnoffIng--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.8.2 CInssIoss !oufIng-----------------------------------------------------------------------
2.8.3 InfordomnIn !oufIng (ICI)---------------------------------------------------------
2.8.4 !oufIng Arons----------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.9 MuIfIcnsf----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.9.l !Ink-Sfnfo MuIfIcnsf-------------------------------------------------------------------
2.9.2 Isfnnco Vocfor MuIfIcnsf------------------------------------------------------------

2.39
2.40
2.4l
2.46
2.48
2.5l
2.55
2.59
2.59

2.63
2.64
2.66
2.?l
2.?9
2.8l

2.85
2.86
2.9l
2.94
2.l0l

2.l02
2.l03
2.l04

UnIt 3 Tvunsovt Iuyev

3.l SImpIo omuIfIpIoxor (!I)-------------------------------------------------------

3.2 !oIInbIo Ivfo Sfronm (TCI)--------------------------------------------------------
A.l Ind-fo-Ind Issuo----------------------------------------------------------------------
A.2 Sogmonf Iormnf-----------------------------------------------------------------------
A.3 ConnocfIon IsfnbIIshmonf nnd TormInnfIon---------------------------------
A.4 SIIdIng WIndow !ovIsIfod-----------------------------------------------------------
A.5 TrIggorIng TrnnsmIssIon------------------------------------------------------------
A.6 AdnpfIvo !ofrnnsmIssIon-----------------------------------------------------------
A.? !ocord IoundnrIos--------------------------------------------------------------------
A.8 TCI IxfonsIons------------------------------------------------------------------------
A.9 AIfornnfIvo osIgn ChoIcos---------------------------------------------------------

3.3 !omofo Irocoduro CnII---------------------------------------------------------------
I.l IInsf Trnnsfor (I!AST)--------------------------------------------------------------
I.2 !oquosf/!opIv (CHA)---------------------------------------------------------------
I.3 Ispnfchor (SI!ICT)-----------------------------------------------------------------
I.4 IuffIng If AII Togofhor (S!!IC,CI)----------------------------------------

3.4 Iorformnnco------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.5 CongosfIon ConfroI nnd !osourco AIIocnfIon----------------------------------
C.l Issuos In !osourco AIIocnfIon------------------------------------------------------
C.l.l ofwork ModoI-------------------------------------------------------------------------
C.l.2 Tnxonomv--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C.l.3 IvnIunfIon CrIforIn-------------------------------------------------------------------

3.l

3.4
3.5
3.9
3.l2
3.l?
3.25
3.29
3.34
3.36
3.38

3.4l
3.44
3.50
3.62
3.64

3.?4

3.??
3.??
3.88
3.83
3.84

C.2 QuouIng IscIpIInos-------------------------------------------------------------------
C.2.l IIIO----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C.2.2 InIr QuouIng-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.6 TCI CongosfIon ConfroI-------------------------------------------------------------
.l AddIfIvo Incronso/MuIfIpIIcnfIvo ocronso-------------------------------------
.2 SIow Sfnrf--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.3 Insf !ofrnnsmIf nnd Insf !ocovorv----------------------------------------------

3.? CongosfIon-AvoIdnnco MochnnIsms----------------------------------------------
I.l ICbIf-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I.2 !nndom InrIv ofocfIon (!I)----------------------------------------------------
I.3 Sourco Insod CongosfIon AvoIdnnco---------------------------------------------

3.8 QunIIfv of SorvIco----------------------------------------------------------------------
I.l AppIIcnfIon !oquIromonfs----------------------------------------------------------
I.2 Infogrnfod SorvIcos (!SVI)---------------------------------------------------------
I.3 IfforonfInfod SorvIcos (II,AI)---------------------------------------------------
I.4 ATM QunIIfv of SorvIco--------------------------------------------------------------
I.5 IqunfIon Insod CongosfIon ConfroI---------------------------------------------

3.9 InndwIdfh-oInv-JIffor--------------------------------------------------------------
C.l InndwIdfh-oInv-----------------------------------------------------------------------
C.2 oInv X InndwIdfh Iroducf--------------------------------------------------------
C.3 HIgh-Spood ofworks-----------------------------------------------------------------
C.4 JIffor---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.8?
3.88
3.90

3.92
3.92
3.9?
3.l03

3.l0?
3.l0?
3.l09
3.ll6

3.l23
3.l23
3.l3l
3.l45
3.l49
3.l54

3.l55
3.l55
3.l59
3.l60
3.l6l

UnIt 4 Netwovk SeuvIty und AIIutIon

4.l CrvpfogrnphIc AIgorIfhms----------------------------------------------------------
A !oquIromonfs--------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.2 SocurIfv Kov IncrvpfIon (IS)---------------------------------------------------
4.3 IubIIc Kov IncrvpfIon (!SA)------------------------------------------------------
4.4 Mossngo Igosf AIgorIfhms (M5)----------------------------------------------
4.5 ImpIomonfnfIon nnd Iorformnnco-----------------------------------------------
4.6 SocurIfv MochnnIsms-----------------------------------------------------------------
I.l AufhonfIcnfIon IrofocoIs-------------------------------------------------------------
I.2 Mossngo InfogrIfv IrofocoIs---------------------------------------------------------
I.3 IubIIc kov IsfrIbufIon (X.509)----------------------------------------------------
4.? IIrownIIs-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C.l IIIfor Insod IIrownIIs----------------------------------------------------------------
C.2 Iroxv Insod IIrownIIs----------------------------------------------------------------
C.3 !ImIfnfIons-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.8 nmo SorvIco (S)-------------------------------------------------------------------
.l omnIn HIornrchv----------------------------------------------------------------------
.2 nmo Sorvors----------------------------------------------------------------------------
.3 nmo !osoIufIon------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.9 TrndIfIonnI AppIIcnfIons---------------------------------------------------------------
I.l IIocfronIc mnII (SMTI,MIMI,IMAI)---------------------------------------------
I.2 WorId WIdo Wob (HTTI)-------------------------------------------------------------
I.3 ofwork Mnnngomonf (SMI)-----------------------------------------------------
4.l0 MuIfImodIn AppIIcnfIons-------------------------------------------------------------
I.l !onI TImo Trnnsporf IrofocoI (!TI)---------------------------------------------
I.2 SossIon ConfroI nnd CnII ConfroI (SI,SII,H.323)--------------------------
9$/*$9$/$08'$1 9$/*$9$/$08'$1 9$/*$9$/$08'$1 9$/*$9$/$08'$1

4.l
4.3
4.5
4.ll
4.l4
4.l?
4.l8
4.l8
4.23
4.26
4.3l
4.3l
4.32
4.34
4.34
4.36
4.3?
4.40
4.42
4.43
4.48
4.52
4.54
4.54
4.60

UNIT 1: NTWORK ARCHITCTUR
TLunuuveI Muvuuun 1. 1
UNIT I
NTWORK ARCHITCTUR
1.1 ROUIRMNTS
Tho fIrsf sfop Is fo IdonfIfv fho sof of consfrnInfs nnd roquIromonfs fhnf InfIuonco
nofwork dosIgn. Ioforo goffIng sfnrfod, howovor, If Is Imporfnnf fo undorsfnnd fhnf fho
oxpocfnfIons vou hnvo of n nofwork dopond on vour porspocfIvo:

An opplicoIion progronner wouId IIsf fho sorvIcos fhnf hIs or hor nppIIcnfIon
noods, for oxnmpIo, n gunrnnfoo fhnf onch mossngo fho nppIIcnfIon sonds wIII bo
doIIvorod wIfhouf orror wIfhIn n corfnIn nmounf of fImo.
A neIuorl Jeeigner wouId IIsf fho proporfIos of n cosf-offocfIvo dosIgn, for
oxnmpIo, fhnf nofwork rosourcos nro offIcIonfIv ufIIIzod nnd fnIrIv nIIocnfod fo
dIfforonf usors.
A neIuorl protiJer wouId IIsf fho chnrncforIsfIcs of n svsfom fhnf Is onsv fo
ndmInIsfor nnd mnnngo, for oxnmpIo, In whIch fnuIfs cnn bo onsIIv IsoInfod nnd
whoro If Is onsv fo nccounf for usngo.

A) CONNCTIVITY
A nofwork musf provIdo connocfIvIfv nmong n sof of compufors. SomofImos If Is
onough fo buIId n IImIfod nofwork fhnf connocfs onIv n fow soIocf mnchInos. In fncf, for
ronsons of prIvncv nnd socurIfv, mnnv prIvnfo (corpornfo) nofworks hnvo fho oxpIIcIf
gonI of IImIfIng fho sof of mnchInos fhnf nro connocfod. A svsfom fhnf Is dosIgnod fo
supporf growfh fo nn nrbIfrnrIIv Inrgo sIzo Is snId fo ecole.

IInks, Nodes, und CIouds
ofwork connocfIvIfv occurs nf mnnv dIfforonf IovoIs. Af fho Iowosf IovoI, n
nofwork cnn consIsf of fwo or moro compufors dIrocfIv connocfod bv somo phvsIcnI
modIum, such ns n conxInI cnbIo or nn opfIcnI fIbor. Wo cnII such n phvsIcnI modIum n
linl, nnd wo offon rofor fo fho compufors If connocfs ns noJee.
IhvsIcnI IInks nro somofImos IImIfod fo n pnIr of nodos (such n IInk Is snId fo bo
poinI-Io-poinI), whIIo In ofhor cnsos, moro fhnn fwo nodos mnv shnro n sIngIo phvsIcnI
IInk (such n IInk Is snId fo bo nulIiple occeee). Whofhor n gIvon IInk supporfs poInf-fo-
poInf or muIfIpIo nccoss connocfIvIfv doponds on how fho nodo Is nffnchod fo fho IInk.

Direct linko: (u) point-to-point, (b) multiple-ucceoo

ConnocfIvIfv bofwoon fwo nodos doos nof nocossnrIIv ImpIv n dIrocf phvsIcnI
connocfIon bofwoon fhomIndIrocf connocfIvIfv mnv bo nchIovod nmong n sof of
coopornfIng nodos.
A sof of nodos, onch of whIch Is nffnchod fo ono or moro poInf fo- poInf IInks.
Thoso nodos fhnf nro nffnchod fo nf Ionsf fwo IInks run soffwnro fhnf forwnrds dnfn
rocoIvod on ono IInk ouf on nnofhor. If orgnnIzod In n svsfomnfIc wnv, fhoso forwnrdIng
nodos form n euiIcIeJ neIuorl. Thoro nro numorous fvpos of swIfchod nofworks, of
whIch fho fwo mosf common nro circuiI euiIcIeJ nnd pocleI euiIcIeJ.
Tho Imporfnnf fonfuro of pnckof-swIfchod nofworks Is fhnf fho nodos In such n
nofwork sond dIscrofo bIocks of dnfn fo onch ofhor. ThInk of fhoso bIocks of dnfn ns
corrospondIng fo somo pIoco of nppIIcnfIon dnfn such ns n fIIo, n pIoco of omnII, or nn
Imngo. Wo cnII onch bIock of dnfn oIfhor n pocleI or n neeeoge.
Inckof-swIfchod nofworks fvpIcnIIv uso n sfrnfogv cnIIod eIore-onJ-foruorJ.
Inch nodo In n sforo-nnd-forwnrd nofwork fIrsf rocoIvos n compIofo pnckof ovor somo
IInk, sforos fho pnckof In Ifs InfornnI momorv, nnd fhon forwnrds fho compIofo pnckof fo
fho noxf nodo.
In confrnsf, n cIrcuIf-swIfchod nofwork fIrsf osfnbIIshos n dodIcnfod cIrcuIf ncross

n soquonco of IInks nnd fhon nIIows fho sourco nodo fo sond n sfronm of bIfs ncross fhIs
cIrcuIf fo n dosfInnfIon nodo. Tho mnjor ronson for usIng pnckof swIfchIng rnfhor fhnn
cIrcuIf swIfchIng In n compufor nofwork Is offIcIoncv.
Tho cIoud dIsfInguIshos bofwoon fho nodos on fho InsIdo fhnf inplenenI fho
nofwork (fhov nro commonIv cnIIod euiIcIee, nnd fhoIr soIo funcfIon Is fo sforo nnd
forwnrd pnckofs) nnd fho nodos on fho oufsIdo of fho cIoud fhnf uee fho nofwork (fhov
nro commonIv cnIIod IoeIe, nnd fhov supporf usors nnd run nppIIcnfIon progrnms).

SuitcheJ netuork

In gonornI, wo uso n cIoud fo donofo nnv fvpo of nofwork, whofhor If Is n sIngIo
poInf-fo-poInf IInk, n muIfIpIo-nccoss IInk, or n swIfchod nofwork. A socond wnv In
whIch n sof of compufors cnn bo IndIrocfIv connocfod. A sof of Indopondonf nofworks
(cIouds) nro Inforconnocfod fo form nn inIerneIuorl, or Infornof for shorf.
A nodo fhnf Is connocfod fo fwo or moro nofworks Is commonIv cnIIod n router
ov uteuux, nnd If pInvs much fho snmo roIo ns n swIfchIf forwnrds mossngos from
ono nofwork fo nnofhor.
Tho fInnI roquIromonf Is fhnf onch nodo musf bo nbIo fo snv whIch of fho ofhor
nodos on fho nofwork If wnnfs fo communIcnfo wIfh. ThIs Is dono bv nssIgnIng nn
uJJreoo fo onch nodo.
An nddross Is n bvfo sfrIng fhnf IdonfIfIos n nodo; fhnf Is, fho nofwork cnn uso n
nodo`s nddross fo dIsfInguIsh If from fho ofhor nodos connocfod fo fho nofwork.
Whon n sourco nodo wnnfs fho nofwork fo doIIvor n mossngo fo n corfnIn
dosfInnfIon nodo, If spocIfIos fho nddross of fho dosfInnfIon nodo. If fho sondIng nnd
rocoIvIng nodos nro nof dIrocfIv connocfod, fhon fho swIfchos nnd roufors of fho nofwork
uso fhIs nddross fo docIdo how fo forwnrd fho mossngo fownrd fho dosfInnfIon.
Tho procoss of doformInIng svsfomnfIcnIIv how fo forwnrd mossngos fownrd fho
dosfInnfIon nodo bnsod on Ifs nddross Is cnIIod routin.

1nterconnection o] netuorko

Tho sourco nodo wnnfs fo sond n mossngo fo n sIngIo dosfInnfIon nodo (unicoeI).
WhIIo fhIs Is fho mosf common sconnrIo, If Is nIso possIbIo fhnf fho sourco nodo mIghf
wnnf fo IrooJcoeI n mossngo fo nII fho nodos on fho nofwork. Or n sourco nodo mIghf
wnnf fo sond n mossngo fo somo subsof of fho ofhor nodos, buf nof nII of fhom, n
sIfunfIon cnIIod nulIicoeI.

B) COST-IICTIV RSOURC SHARING
CIvon n coIIocfIon of nodos IndIrocfIv connocfod bv n nosfIng of nofworks, If Is
possIbIo for nnv pnIr of hosfs fo sond mossngos fo onch ofhor ncross n soquonco of IInks
nnd nodos.
To undorsfnnd how hosfs shnro n nofwork, wo nood fo Infroduco n fundnmonfnI
concopf, nulIiplexing, whIch monns fhnf n svsfom rosourco Is shnrod nmong muIfIpIo
usors.

Multiplerin multiple loicul ]louo oter u oinle phxoicul link

Tho fhroo hosfs on fho Ioff sIdo of fho nofwork (!l!3) nro sondIng dnfn fo fho
fhroo hosfs on fho rIghf (!l!3) bv shnrIng n swIfchod nofwork fhnf confnIns onIv ono
phvsIcnI IInk. In fhIs sIfunfIon, fhroo fIows of dnfncorrospondIng fo fho fhroo pnIrs of
hosfsnro muIfIpIoxod onfo n sIngIo phvsIcnI IInk bv swIfch l nnd fhon JenulIiplexeJ
bnck Info sopnrnfo fIows bv swIfch 2.
Thoro nro sovornI dIfforonf mofhods for muIfIpIoxIng muIfIpIo fIows onfo ono
phvsIcnI IInk. Ono common mofhod Is exncIronoue Iine-Jitieion nulIiplexing (STM).
Tho Idon of STM Is fo dIvIdo fImo Info oqunI-sIzod qunnfn nnd, In n round-robIn
fnshIon, gIvo onch fIow n chnnco fo sond Ifs dnfn ovor fho phvsIcnI IInk.
Anofhor mofhod Is freouencx-Jitieion nulIiplexing (IM). Tho Idon of IM Is fo
frnnsmIf onch fIow ovor fho phvsIcnI IInk nf n dIfforonf froquoncv, much fho snmo wnv
fhnf fho sIgnnIs for dIfforonf TV sfnfIons nro frnnsmIffod nf n dIfforonf froquoncv on n
phvsIcnI cnbIo TV IInk.

STDM unJ FDM ure limiteJ in tuo uuxo
IIrsf, If ono of fho fIows (hosf pnIrs) doos nof hnvo nnv dnfn fo sond, Ifs shnro of
fho phvsIcnI IInkfhnf Is, Ifs fImo qunnfum or Ifs froquoncvromnIns IdIo, ovon If ono
of fho ofhor fIows hns dnfn fo frnnsmIf.
Socond, bofh STM nnd IM nro IImIfod fo sIfunfIons In whIch fho mnxImum
numbor of fIows Is fIxod nnd known nhond of fImo. If Is nof prncfIcnI fo rosIzo fho
qunnfum or fo ndd nddIfIonnI qunnfn In fho cnso of STM or fo ndd now froquoncIos In
fho cnso of IM.
Tho form of muIfIpIoxIng Is cnIIod eIoIieIicol nulIiplexing. IIrsf, If Is IIko STM

In fhnf fho phvsIcnI IInk Is shnrod ovor fImofIrsf dnfn from ono fIow Is frnnsmIffod
ovor fho phvsIcnI IInk, fhon dnfn from nnofhor fIow Is frnnsmIffod, nnd so on.
!nIIko STM, howovor, dnfn Is frnnsmIffod from onch fIow on domnnd rnfhor
fhnn durIng n prodoformInod fImo sIof. Thus, If onIv ono fIow hns dnfn fo sond, If gofs fo
frnnsmIf fhnf dnfn wIfhouf wnIfIng for Ifs qunnfum.
SfnfIsfIcnI muIfIpIoxIng hns no mochnnIsm fo onsuro fhnf nII fho fIows
ovonfunIIv gof fhoIr furn fo frnnsmIf ovor fho phvsIcnI IInk. Thnf Is, onco n fIow bogIns
sondIng dnfn, wo nood somo wnv fo IImIf fho frnnsmIssIon, so fhnf fho ofhor fIows cnn
hnvo n furn.
To nccounf for fhIs nood, sfnfIsfIcnI muIfIpIoxIng dofInos nn uppor bound on fho
sIzo of fho bIock of dnfn fhnf onch fIow Is pormIffod fo frnnsmIf nf n gIvon fImo. ThIs
IImIfod-sIzo bIock of dnfn Is fvpIcnIIv roforrod fo ns n pocleI, fo dIsfInguIsh If from fho
nrbIfrnrIIv Inrgo neeeoge fhnf nn nppIIcnfIon progrnm mIghf wnnf fo frnnsmIf.
Iocnuso n pnckof-swIfchod nofwork IImIfs fho mnxImum sIzo of pnckofs, n hosf
mnv nof bo nbIo fo sond n compIofo mossngo In ono pnckof. Tho sourco mnv nood fo
frngmonf fho mossngo Info sovornI pnckofs, wIfh fho rocoIvor ronssombIIng fho pnckofs
bnck Info fho orIgInnI mossngo. Tho docIsIon ns fo whIch pnckof fo sond noxf on n
shnrod IInk cnn bo mndo In n numbor of dIfforonf wnvs.

A ouitch multiplerin pucketo ]rom multiple oourceo
onto one ohureJ link
TLunuuveI Muvuuun 1. ?
A nofwork fhnf nIIows fIows fo roquosf such fronfmonf Is snId fo supporf ouoliIx
of eertice (QoS). SInco fho swIfch hns fo muIfIpIox fhroo IncomIng pnckof sfronms onfo
ono oufgoIng IInk, If Is possIbIo fhnf fho swIfch wIII rocoIvo pnckofs fnsfor fhnn fho
shnrod IInk cnn nccommodnfo.
In fhIs cnso, fho swIfch Is forcod fo buffor fhoso pnckofs In Ifs momorv. ShouId n
swIfch rocoIvo pnckofs fnsfor fhnn If cnn sond fhom for nn oxfondod porIod of fImo, fhon
fho swIfch wIII ovonfunIIv run ouf of buffor spnco, nnd somo pnckofs wIII hnvo fo bo
droppod. Whon n swIfch Is opornfIng In fhIs sfnfo, If Is snId fo bo congeeIeJ.

C) SUPPORT IOR COMMON SRVICS
If Is ovorIv sImpIIsfIc fo vIow n compufor nofwork ns sImpIv doIIvorIng pnckofs
nmong n coIIocfIon of compufors. If Is moro nccurnfo fo fhInk of n nofwork ns provIdIng
fho monns for n sof of nppIIcnfIon procossos fhnf nro dIsfrIbufod ovor fhoso compufors fo
communIcnfo.
Whon fwo nppIIcnfIon progrnms nood fo communIcnfo wIfh onch ofhor, fhoro nro
n Iof of compIIcnfod fhIngs fhnf nood fo hnppon bovond sImpIv sondIng n mossngo from
ono hosf fo nnofhor.
Tho chnIIongo for n nofwork dosIgnor Is fo IdonfIfv fho rIghf sof of common
sorvIcos. Tho gonI Is fo hIdo fho compIoxIfv of fho nofwork from fho nppIIcnfIon wIfhouf
ovorIv consfrnInIng fho nppIIcnfIon dosIgnor.
Tho nofwork ns provIdIng IogIcnI cIonnele ovor whIch nppIIcnfIon-IovoI procossos
cnn communIcnfo wIfh onch ofhor; onch chnnnoI provIdos fho sof of sorvIcos roquIrod bv
fhnf nppIIcnfIon.

Proceooeo communicutin oter un ubotruct chunnel
TLunuuveI Muvuuun 1. B
ETWORK ARCH1TECTURE
A proffv subsfnnfInI sof of roquIromonfs for nofwork dosIgnn compufor
nofwork musf provIdo gonornI, cosf offocfIvo, fnIr, nnd robusf connocfIvIfv nmong n
Inrgo numbor of compufors.
To hoIp donI wIfh fho compIoxIfv, nofwork dosIgnors hnvo dovoIopod gonornI
bIuoprInfsusunIIv cnIIod nofwork orcIiIecIurefhnf guIdo fho dosIgn nnd
ImpIomonfnfIon of nofworks.

1.2 IAYRING AN PROTOCOIS
Whon fho svsfom gofs compIox, fho svsfom dosIgnor Infroducos nnofhor IovoI of
nbsfrncfIon. Tho Idon of nn nbsfrncfIon Is fo dofIno n unIfvIng modoI fhnf cnn cnpfuro
somo Imporfnnf nspocf of fho svsfom. AbsfrncfIons nnfurnIIv Iond fo InvorIng, ospocInIIv
In nofwork svsfoms.
Tho gonornI Idon Is fhnf vou sfnrf wIfh fho sorvIcos offorod bv fho undorIvIng
hnrdwnro, nnd fhon ndd n soquonco of Invors, onch provIdIng n hIghor IovoI of sorvIco.
Tho sorvIcos provIdod nf fho hIgh Invors nro ImpIomonfod In forms of fho sorvIcos
provIdod bv fho Iow Invors.

Tho Invor ImmodInfoIv nbovo fho hnrdwnro Is provIdo hosf-fo-hosf connocfIvIfv,
nbsfrncfIng nwnv fho fncf fhnf fhoro mnv bo nn nrbIfrnrIIv compIox nofwork fopoIogv
bofwoon nnv fwo hosfs.
Tho noxf Invor up buIIds on fho nvnIInbIo hosf-fo-hosf communIcnfIon sorvIco nnd
provIdos supporf for procoss-fo-procoss chnnnoIs, nbsfrncfIng nwnv fho fncf fhnf fho
nofwork occnsIonnIIv Iosos mossngos.

!nvorIng provIdos fwo nIco fonfuros:

l) ocomposo Is fho probIom of buIIdIng n nofwork Info moro
mnnngonbIo compononfs.
2) If provIdos n moro moduInr dosIgn.

Tho fwo fvpos of chnnnoIs,
IrovIdos n roquosf/ropIv sorvIco
Supporfs n mossngo sfronm sorvIco.

A profocoI provIdos n communIcnfIon sorvIco fhnf hIghor-IovoI objocfs (such ns
nppIIcnfIon procossos, or porhnps hIghor-IovoI profocoIs) uso fo oxchnngo mossngos.Inch
profocoI dofInos fwo dIfforonf Inforfncos.
Sertice inIerfoce fo fho ofhor objocfs on fho snmo compufor fhnf
wnnf fo uso Ifs communIcnfIon sorvIcos. ThIs sorvIco Inforfnco
dofInos fho opornfIons fhnf IocnI objocfs cnn porform on fho
profocoI.
Peer inIerfoce fo Ifs counforpnrf (poor) on nnofhor mnchIno. If
dofInos fho form nnd monnIng of mossngos oxchnngod bofwoon
profocoI poors fo ImpIomonf fho communIcnfIon sorvIco.

Sertice unJ peer inter]uceo
Ixcopf nf fho hnrdwnro IovoI whoro poors dIrocfIv communIcnfo wIfh onch ofhor
ovor n IInk, poor-fo-poor communIcnfIon Is IndIrocf-onch profocoI communIcnfos wIfh Ifs
poor bv pnssIng mossngos fo somo Iowor-IovoI profocoI.
Thoro nro pofonfInIIv muIfIpIo profocoIs nf nnv gIvon IovoI, onch provIdIng n
dIfforonf communIcnfIon sorvIco. Wo fhoroforo roprosonf fho suIfo of profocoIs fhnf
mnko up n nofwork svsfom wIfh n proIocol gropI. Tho nodos of fho grnph corrospond fo
profocoIs, nnd fho odgos roprosonf n JepenJe-on roInfIon.
IrofocoIs !!I (!oquosf/!opIv IrofocoI) nnd MSI (Mossngo Sfronm IrofocoI)
ImpIomonf fwo dIfforonf fvpos of procoss-fo-procoss chnnnoIs, nnd bofh dopond on HHI
(Hosf-fo-Hosf IrofocoI), whIch provIdos n hosf-fo-hosf connocfIvIfv sorvIco.
In fhIs oxnmpIo, supposo fhnf fho fIIo nccoss progrnm on hosf l wnnfs fo sond n
mossngo fo Ifs poor on hosf 2 usIng fho communIcnfIon sorvIco offorod bv profocoI !!I.
In fhIs cnso, fho fIIo nppIIcnfIon nsks !!I fo sond fho mossngo on Ifs bohnIf.
To communIcnfo wIfh Ifs poor, !!I fhon Invokos fho sorvIcos of HHI, whIch In
furn frnnsmIfs fho mossngo fo Ifs poor on fho ofhor mnchIno. Onco fho mossngo hns
nrrIvod nf profocoI HHI on hosf 2, HHI pnssos fho mossngo up fo !!I, whIch In furn
doIIvors fho mossngo fo fho fIIo nppIIcnfIon. In fhIs pnrfIcuInr cnso, fho nppIIcnfIon Is
snId fo ompIov fho sorvIcos of fho proIocol eIocl !!I/HHI.

Erumple o] u protocol ruph
Wo cnn ImngIno mnnv dIfforonf profocoIs nnd profocoI grnphs fhnf snfIsfv fho
communIcnfIon roquIromonfs of n coIIocfIon of nppIIcnfIons. IorfunnfoIv, fhoro oxIsf
sfnndnrdIznfIon bodIos, such ns fho InfornnfIonnI Sfnndnrds OrgnnIznfIon (ISO) nnd
fho Infornof IngInoorIng Tnsk Iorco (IITI), fhnf osfnbIIsh poIIcIos for n pnrfIcuInr
profocoI grnph.

nusuIutIon
Whon ono of fho nppIIcnfIon progrnms sonds n mossngo fo Ifs poor bv pnssIng fho
mossngo fo profocoI !!I. ThIs procoss of oncnpsuInfIon Is fhon roponfod nf onch IovoI of
fho profocoI grnph.
Tho procoss of oncnpsuInfIon Is fhon roponfod nf onch IovoI of fho profocoI grnph.
Tho mossngo pnssod up from !!I fo fho nppIIcnfIon on hosf 2 Is oxncfIv fho snmo
mossngo ns fho nppIIcnfIon pnssod down fo !!I on hosf l. Tho nppIIcnfIon doos nof soo
nnv of fho hondors fhnf hnvo boon nffnchod fo If fo ImpIomonf fho Iowor-IovoI
communIcnfIon sorvIcos.

Hih-letel meooueo ure encupouluteJ inoiJe o] lou-letel meooueo

!!I Is nof unIquo In Ifs supporf for muIfIpIoxIng; nonrIv ovorv profocoI
ImpIomonfs fhIs mochnnIsm. Tho profocoI Is frnnsformIng fho onfIro bodv of fho
mossngo, IncIudIng bofh fho orIgInnI nppIIcnfIon`s dnfn nnd nII fho hondors nffnchod fo
fhnf dnfn bv hIghor-IovoI profocoIs.
MuItIIeInu und emuItIIeInu

HHI hns Ifs own domux kov fo doformIno whIch mossngos fo pnss up fo !!I nnd
whIch fo pnss up fo MSI. Tho snmo domux kov Is usod on bofh sIdos of fho
communIcnfIon, whIIo In fho Inffor cnso; onch sIdo usos n dIfforonf kov fo IdonfIfv fho
hIgh-IovoI profocoI (or nppIIcnfIon progrnm) fo whIch fho mossngo Is fo bo doIIvorod.

1.3 OSI ARCHITCTUR
Tho ISO wns ono of fho fIrsf orgnnIznfIons fo formnIIv dofIno n common wnv fo
connocf compufors. ThoIr nrchIfocfuro, cnIIod fho Open SxeIene 1nIerconnecIion (OSI)
nrchIfocfuro.

OS1 netuork urchitecture

OSI dofInos n pnrfIfIonIng of nofwork funcfIonnIIfv Info sovon Invors, whoro ono
or moro profocoIs ImpIomonf fho funcfIonnIIfv nssIgnod fo n gIvon Invor. Tho ISO,
usunIIv In conjuncfIon wIfh n socond sfnndnrds orgnnIznfIon known ns fho
InfornnfIonnI ToIocommunIcnfIons !nIon (IT!), pubIIshos n sorIos of profocoI
spocIfIcnfIons bnsod on fho OSI nrchIfocfuro.

9 SfnrfIng nf fho boffom nnd workIng up, fho pIxeicol Invor hnndIos fho
frnnsmIssIon of rnw bIfs ovor n communIcnfIons IInk.
9 Tho JoIo linl Invor fhon coIIocfs n sfronm of bIfs Info n Inrgor nggrognfo
cnIIod n frone. ofwork ndnpfors, nIong wIfh dovIco drIvors runnIng In
fho nodo`s OS, fvpIcnIIv ImpIomonf fho dnfn IInk IovoI. ThIs monns fhnf
frnmos, nof rnw bIfs, nro ncfunIIv doIIvorod fo hosfs.
9 Tho neIuorl Invor hnndIos roufIng nmong nodos wIfhIn n pnckof-swIfchod
nofwork. Af fhIs Invor, fho unIf of dnfn oxchnngod nmong nodos Is
fvpIcnIIv cnIIod n pocleI rnfhor fhnn n frnmo, nIfhough fhov nro
fundnmonfnIIv fho snmo fhIng. Tho Iowor fhroo Invors nro ImpIomonfod
on nII nofwork nodos, IncIudIng swIfchos wIfhIn fho nofwork nnd hosfs
connocfod nIong fho oxforIor of fho nofwork.
9 Tho IroneporI Invor fhon ImpIomonfs whnf wo hnvo up fo fhIs poInf boon
cnIIIng n procoss-fo-procoss chnnnoI. Horo, fho unIf of dnfn oxchnngod Is
commonIv cnIIod n neeeoge rnfhor fhnn n pnckof or n frnmo. Tho frnnsporf
Invor nnd hIghor Invors fvpIcnIIv run onIv on fho ond hosfs nnd nof on fho
InformodInfo swIfchos or roufors.
9 Tho eeeeion Invor provIdos n nnmo spnco fhnf Is usod fo fIo fogofhor fho
pofonfInIIv dIfforonf frnnsporf sfronms fhnf nro pnrf of n sIngIo
nppIIcnfIon.
9 Tho preeenIoIion Invor Is concornod wIfh fho formnf of dnfn oxchnngod
bofwoon poors, for oxnmpIo, whofhor nn Infogor Is l6, 32, or 64 bIfs Iong
nnd whofhor fho mosf sIgnIfIcnnf bIf Is frnnsmIffod fIrsf or Insf, or how n
vIdoo sfronm Is formnffod.
9 Tho opplicoIion Invor. AppIIcnfIon Invor profocoIs IncIudo fhIngs IIko fho
IIIo Trnnsfor IrofocoI (ITI), whIch dofInos n profocoI bv whIch fIIo
frnnsfor nppIIcnfIons cnn Inforopornfo.

1.4 INTRNT ARCHITCTUR

Tho Infornof nrchIfocfuro, whIch Is nIso somofImos cnIIod fho TCI/II
nrchIfocfuro nffor Ifs fwo mnIn profocoIs.

An nIfornnfIvo roprosonfnfIon Is gIvon In IIguro

Tho Infornof nrchIfocfuro ovoIvod ouf of oxporIoncos wIfh nn onrIIor pnckof-
swIfchod nofwork cnIIod fho A!IAIT.
Iofh fho Infornof nnd fho A!IAIT woro fundod bv fho Advnncod !osonrch
Irojocfs Agoncv (A!IA), ono of fho !& fundIng ngoncIos of fho !.S. opnrfmonf of
ofonso.
Tho Infornof nnd A!IAIT woro nround boforo fho OSI nrchIfocfuro, nnd fho
oxporIonco gnInod from buIIdIng fhom wns n mnjor InfIuonco on fho OSI roforonco
modoI.

Tho Infornof nrchIfocfuro hns onIv four Invor modoI nrchIfocfuro.

9 Af fho Iowosf IovoI nro n wIdo vnrIofv of nofwork profocoIs, donofod ITl,
IT2, nnd so on. In prncfIco, fhoso profocoIs nro ImpIomonfod bv n
combInnfIon of hnrdwnro (o.g., n nofwork ndnpfor) nnd soffwnro (o.g., n
nofwork dovIco drIvor). Ior oxnmpIo, vou mIghf fInd Ifhornof or IIbor
IsfrIbufod nfn Inforfnco (II) profocoIs nf fhIs Invor.
9 Tho socond Invor consIsfs of n sIngIo profocoIfho 1nIerneI ProIocol (II).
ThIs Is fho profocoI fhnf supporfs fho InforconnocfIon of muIfIpIo
nofworkIng fochnoIogIos Info n sIngIo, IogIcnI Infornofwork.
9 Tho fhIrd Invor confnIns fwo mnIn profocoIsfho Tronenieeion ConIrol
ProIocol (TCI) nnd fho Ueer DoIogron ProIocol (!I). TCI provIdos n
roIInbIo bvfo-sfronm chnnnoI, nnd !I provIdos nn unroIInbIo dnfngrnm
doIIvorv chnnnoI
9 !unnIng nbovo fho frnnsporf Invor nro n rnngo of nppIIcnfIon profocoIs,
such ns ITI, TITI (TrIvInI IIIo Trnnsporf IrofocoI), ToInof (romofo
IogIn), nnd SMTI (SImpIo MnII Trnnsfor IrofocoI, or oIocfronIc mnII), fhnf
onnbIo fho InforopornfIon of popuInr nppIIcnfIons.

Tho Infornof nrchIfocfuro hns fhroo fonfuros:
l) If doos nof ImpIv sfrIcf InvorIng & froo fo bvpnss fhnf dofIno frnnsporf
Invor & II cnn bo dIrocfIv uso.
2) II sorvo ns fho focnI poInf of nrchIfocfuro. If dofInos fho common
mofhod for oxchnngIng pnckofs nmong n wIdo coIIocfIon of nofworks. A
dIfforonf profocoI nbovo II offors n dIfforonf chnnnoI of nbsfrncfIon,
boIow II mnnv nofwork fochnoIogIos nIIowod.
3) Ior IncIudIng n now profocoI offIcInIIv In nrchIfocfuro wo nood fo
profocoI spocIfIcnfIon & nf Ionsf ono roprosonfnfIvo ImpIomonfnfIon of
spocIfIcnfIon.

1.5 HARWAR BUIIING BIOCKS

ofworks nro consfrucfod from fwo cInssos of hnrdwnro buIIdIng bIocks: noJee
nnd linle. ThIs sfnfomonf Is jusf ns fruo for fho sImpIosf possIbIo nofworkono In
whIch n sIngIo poInf-fo-poInf IInk connocfs n pnIr of nodosns If Is for n worIdwIdo
Infornof.

A) NOS
odos nro offon gonornI-purposo compufors, IIko n doskfop worksfnfIon, n
muIfIprocossor, or n IC. Ior our purposos, Iof`s nssumo If`s n worksfnfIon-cInss
mnchIno. ThIs worksfnfIon cnn sorvo ns n hosf fhnf usors run nppIIcnfIon progrnms on,
If mIghf bo usod InsIdo fho nofwork ns n swIfch fhnf forwnrds mossngos from ono IInk fo
nnofhor, or If mIghf bo confIgurod ns n roufor fhnf forwnrds Infornof pnckofs from ono
nofwork fo nnofhor.
A nofwork nodomosf commonIv n swIfch or roufor InsIdo fho nofwork, rnfhor
fhnn n hosfIs ImpIomonfod bv spocInI-purposo hnrdwnro. ThIs Is usunIIv dono for
ronsons of porformnnco nnd cosf: If Is gonornIIv possIbIo fo buIId cusfom hnrdwnro fhnf
porforms n pnrfIcuInr funcfIon fnsfor nnd chonpor fhnn n gonornI purposo procossor cnn
porform If.

Thoro nro fhroo kov fonfuros of fhIs fIguro.

Erumple uorkotution urchitecture

TLunuuveI Muvuuun 1. 1?

IIrsf, fho momorv on nnv gIvon mnchIno Is fInIfo. Socond, onch nodo connocfs fo
fho nofwork vIn n neIuorl oJopIor. ThIs ndnpfor gonornIIv sIfs on fho svsfom`s I/O bus
nnd doIIvors dnfn bofwoon fho worksfnfIon`s momorv nnd fho nofwork IInk.
A soffwnro moduIo runnIng on fho worksfnfIonfho Jetice Jritermnnngos fhIs
ndnpfor. If Issuos commnnds fo fho ndnpfor, foIIIng If, for oxnmpIo, from whnf momorv
IocnfIon oufgoIng dnfn shouId bo frnnsmIffod nnd Info whnf momorv IocnfIon IncomIng
dnfn shouId bo sforod.
IInnIIv, whIIo CI!s nro bocomIng fnsfor nf nn unboIIovnbIo pnco, fho snmo Is nof
fruo of momorv. Tho roIovnnco of fhIs dIfforonco Is fhnf ns n nofwork nodo, n
worksfnfIon runs nf momorv spoods, nof procossor spoods, fo n fIrsf npproxImnfIon.
ThIs monns fhnf fho nofwork soffwnro noods fo bo cnrofuI nbouf how If usos momorv
nnd, In pnrfIcuInr, nbouf how mnnv fImos If nccossos momorv ns If procossos onch
mossngo.

B) IINKS
ofwork IInks nro ImpIomonfod on n vnrIofv of dIfforonf phvsIcnI modIn,
IncIudIng fwIsfod pnIr (fho wIro fhnf vour phono connocfs fo), conxInI cnbIo (fho wIro
fhnf vour TV connocfs fo), opfIcnI fIbor (fho modIum mosf commonIv usod for hIgh-
bnndwIdfh, Iong-dIsfnnco IInks), nnd spnco (fho sfuff fhnf rndIo wnvos, mIcrownvos, nnd
Infrnrod bonms propngnfo fhrough).

Whnfovor fho phvsIcnI modIum, If Is usod fo propngnfo eignole. Thoso sIgnnIs nro
ncfunIIv oIocfromngnofIc wnvos frnvoIIng nf fho spood of IIghf.

Ono Imporfnnf proporfv of nn oIocfromngnofIc wnvo Is fho freouencx, monsurod
In horfz, wIfh whIch fho wnvo oscIIInfos. Tho dIsfnnco bofwoon n pnIr of ndjnconf
mnxImn or mInImn of n wnvo, fvpIcnIIv monsurod In mofors, Is cnIIod fho wnvo`s
uotelengII. SInco nII oIocfromngnofIc wnvos frnvoI nf fho spood of IIghf, fhnf spood
dIvIdod bv fho wnvo`s froquoncv Is oqunI fo Ifs wnvoIongfh.

TLunuuveI Muvuuun 1. 1B
Erumple
A voIco-grndo foIophono IIno, whIch cnrrIos confInuous oIocfromngnofIc sIgnnIs
rnngIng bofwoon 300 Hz nnd 3300 Hz; n 300-Hz wnvo frnvoIIng fhrough coppor wouId
hnvo n wnvoIongfh of

ConornIIv, oIocfromngnofIc wnvos spnn n much wIdor rnngo of froquoncIos,
rnngIng from rndIo wnvos, fo Infrnrod IIghf, fo vIsIbIo IIghf, fo X rnvs nnd gnmmn rnvs.

Electromunetic opectrum

!Inks provIdo fho foundnfIon for frnnsmIffIng nII sorfs of InformnfIon, IncIudIng
fho kInd of dnfn wo nro Inforosfod In frnnsmIffIngbInnrv dnfn (ls nnd 0s). Tho
probIom of oncodIng bInnrv dnfn onfo oIocfromngnofIc sIgnnIs Is n compIox fopIc.
To hoIp mnko fho fopIc moro mnnngonbIo, wo cnn fhInk of If ns boIng dIvIdod Info
fwo Invors. Tho Iowor Invor Is concornod wIfh noJuloIionvnrvIng fho froquoncv,
nmpIIfudo, or phnso of fho sIgnnI fo offocf fho frnnsmIssIon of InformnfIon.
Ior poInf-fo-poInf IInks, howovor, If Is offon fho cnso fhnf fwo bIf sfronms cnn bo
sImuIfnnoousIv frnnsmIffod ovor fho IInk nf fho snmo fImo, ono goIng In onch dIrocfIon.
Such n IInk Is snId fo bo full-Juplex. A poInf-fo-poInf IInk fhnf supporfs dnfn fIowIng In
onIv ono dIrocfIon nf n fImosuch n IInk Is cnIIod Iolf-JuplexroquIros fhnf fho fwo
nodos connocfod fo fho IInk nIfornnfo usIng If.
CubIes
If fho nodos vou wnnf fo connocf nro In fho snmo room, In fho snmo buIIdIng, or
ovon on fho snmo sIfo (o.g., n cnmpus), fhon vou cnn buv n pIoco of cnbIo nnd phvsIcnIIv
sfrIng If bofwoon fho nodos. IxncfIv whnf fvpo of cnbIo vou chooso fo InsfnII doponds on
fho fochnoIogv vou pInn fo uso fo frnnsmIf dnfn ovor fho IInk.

Ieused IInes
If fho fwo nodos vou wnnf fo connocf nro on opposIfo sIdos of fho counfrv, or ovon
ncross fown. Your onIv opfIon Is fo Ionso n dodIcnfod IInk from fho foIophono compnnv.

Common txpeo o] cubleo unJ ]ibero utuiluble ]or locul linko

Common bunJuiJtho utuiluble ]rom the curriero
Sl nnd S3 (fhov nro nIso somofImos cnIIod Tl nnd T3, rospocfIvoIv) nro
roInfIvoIv oId fochnoIogIos fhnf woro orIgInnIIv dofInod for coppor bnsod frnnsmIssIon
modIn.
Sl Is oqunI fo fho nggrognfIon of 24 dIgIfnI voIco cIrcuIfs of 64 Kbps onch, nnd

S3 Is oqunI fo 28 Sl IInks. AII fho STS-A IInks nro for opfIcnI fIbor (STS sfnnds for
Svnchronous Trnnsporf SIgnnI).
STS-l Is fho bnso IInk spood, nnd onch STS-A hns A fImos fho bnndwIdfh of STS-
l. An STS-A IInk Is nIso somofImos cnIIod nn OC-A IInk (OC sfnnds for opfIcnI cnrrIor).
Tho dIfforonco bofwoon STS nnd OC Is subfIo: Tho formor rofors fo fho elecIricol
frnnsmIssIon on fho dovIcos connocfod fo fho IInk, nnd fho Inffor rofors fo fho ncfunI
opIicol sIgnnI fhnf Is propngnfod ovor fho fIbor.

Common oerticeo utuiluble to connect xour home

Iust-MIIe IInks
A dodIcnfod Ionsod IInofhov rnngo In prIco moro. Thoro nro Ioss oxponsIvo
opfIons nvnIInbIo. Wo cnII fhoso Insf-mIIo IInks bocnuso fhov offon spnn fho Insf mIIo
from fho homo fo n nofwork sorvIco provIdor.
Tho fIrsf opfIon Is n convonfIonnI modom ovor IOTS (pInIn oId foIophono
sorvIco). A modom fhnf frnnsmIfs dnfn nf 56 Kbps ovor n sfnndnrd voIco-grndo IIno. Tho
socond opfIon: IS (Infogrnfod SorvIcos IgIfnI ofwork).
An IS connocfIon IncIudos fwo 64-Kbps chnnnoIs, ono fhnf cnn bo usod fo
frnnsmIf dnfn nnd nnofhor fhnf cnn bo usod for dIgIfIzod voIco. (A dovIco fhnf oncodos
nnnIog voIco Info n dIgIfnI IS IInk Is cnIIod n COIC, for coJer/JecoJer.)
Two nowor fochnoIogIos: xS! (dIgIfnI subscrIbor IIno) nnd cnbIo modoms. Tho
ono In mosf wIdosprond uso fodnv Is AS! (nsvmmofrIc dIgIfnI subscrIbor IIno). As Ifs
nnmo ImpIIos, AS! provIdos n dIfforonf bnndwIdfh from fho subscrIbor fo fho
foIophono compnnv`s confrnI offIco (upsfronm) fhnn If doos from fho confrnI offIco fo fho
subscrIbor (downsfronm).
Tho oxncf bnndwIdfh doponds on fho Iongfh of fho IIno runnIng from fho
subscrIbor fo fho confrnI offIco. ThIs IIno Is cnIIod fho locol loop.

ADSL connecto the oubocriber to the centrul o]]ice tiu the locul loop

WIveIess IInks
Tho fIoId of wIroIoss communIcnfIon Is oxpIodIng, bofh oconomIcnIIv nnd
fochnoIogIcnIIv. Tho Advnncod MobIIo Ihono Svsfom (AMIS) hns boon fho sfnndnrd for
coIIuInr phonos In fho !nIfod Sfnfos for sovornI vonrs.
AMIS, whIch Is bnsod on nnnIog fochnoIogv, Is rnpIdIv gIvIng wnv fo dIgIfnI
coIIuInrICS (IorsonnI CommunIcnfIon SorvIcos) In fho !nIfod Sfnfos nnd Cnnndn, nnd
CSM (CIobnI Svsfom for MobIIo CommunIcnfIon) In fho rosf of fho worId.
AII fhroo svsfoms curronfIv uso n svsfom of fowors fo frnnsmIf sIgnnIs, nIfhough
somo sIgnIfIcnnf offorfs hnvo boon mndo fo suppIomonf fhIs Infrnsfrucfuro bv rIngIng
fho gIobo wIfh n grId of modIum- nnd Iow-orbIf snfoIIIfos.

1.6 IRAMING
Wo hnvo soon how fo frnnsmIf n soquonco of bIfs ovor n poInf-fo-poInf IInk from
ndnpfor fo ndnpforIof`s consIdor fho sconnrIo IIIusfrnfod In IIguro, wo nro focusIng on
pnckof-swIfchod nofworks, whIch monns fhnf bIocks of dnfn, nof bIf sfronms, nro
oxchnngod bofwoon nodos. If Is fho nofwork ndnpfor fhnf onnbIos fho nodos fo oxchnngo
frnmos.
Whon nodo A wIshos fo frnnsmIf n frnmo fo nodo I, If foIIs Ifs ndnpfor fo
frnnsmIf n frnmo from fho nodo`s momorv. ThIs rosuIfs In n soquonco of bIfs boIng sonf
ovor fho IInk. Tho ndnpfor on nodo I fhon coIIocfs fogofhor fho soquonco of bIfs nrrIvIng
on fho IInk nnd doposIfs fho corrospondIng frnmo In I`s momorv.

Bito ]lou betueen uJuptoro, ]rumeo betueen hooto

Thoro nro sovornI wnvs fo nddross fho frnmIng probIom.
l) Ivfo-OrIonfod IrofocoIs (IISYC, III, CMI)
SonfInoI Appronch
Ivfo-CounfIng Appronch
2) IIf-OrIonfod IrofocoIs (H!C)
3) CIock-Insod IrnmIng (SOIT)

1) BYT-ORINT PROTOCOIS (BISYNC, PPP, CMP)

Ono of fho oIdosf nppronchos fo frnmIngIf hns Ifs roofs In connocfIng formInnIs
fo mnInfrnmosIs fo vIow onch frnmo ns n coIIocfIon of bvfos rnfhor fhnn n coIIocfIon of
bIfs.
Such n IxIe-orienIeJ nppronch Is oxompIIfIod bv fho IISYC (IInnrv
Svnchronous CommunIcnfIon) profocoI nnd fho CMI (IgIfnI nfn CommunIcnfIon
Mossngo IrofocoI) usod In IgIfnI IquIpmonf CorpornfIon`s ICIT.

AIfhough sImIInr In mnnv rospocfs, fhoso fwo profocoIs nro oxnmpIos of fwo
dIfforonf frnmIng fochnIquos, fho sonfInoI nppronch nnd fho bvfo-counfIng nppronch.

SentIneI AvouL
Tho IISYC profocoI IIIusfrnfos fho sonfInoI nppronch fo frnmIng; Ifs frnmo
formnf Is dopIcfod In IIguro.

B1SYC ]rume ]ormut

Wo show n pnckof ns n soquonco of InboIod fIoIds. Abovo onch fIoId Is n numbor
IndIcnfIng fho Iongfh of fhnf fIoId In bIfs. ofo fhnf fho pnckofs nro frnnsmIffod
bogInnIng wIfh fho Ioffmosf fIoId. Tho bogInnIng of n frnmo Is donofod bv sondIng n
spocInI SY (svnchronIznfIon) chnrncfor.
Tho dnfn porfIon of fho frnmo Is fhon confnInod bofwoon spocInI oentinel
chuructero: STX (stuvt oI tet) und TX (end oI tet). Tho SOH (sfnrf of hondor)
fIoId sorvos much fho snmo purposo ns fho STX fIoId. Tho probIom wIfh fho sonfInoI
nppronch, of courso, Is fhnf fho ITX chnrncfor mIghf npponr In fho dnfn porfIon of fho
frnmo.
IISYC ovorcomos fhIs probIom bv oscnpIng fho ITX chnrncfor bv procodIng If
wIfh n !I (dnfn-IInk-oscnpo) chnrncfor whonovor If npponrs In fho bodv of n frnmo;
fho !I chnrncfor Is nIso oscnpod (bv procodIng If wIfh nn oxfrn !I) In fho frnmo
bodv. ThIs nppronch Is offon cnIIod churucter otu]]in, bocnuso oxfrn chnrncfors nro
Insorfod In fho dnfn porfIon of fho frnmo.
Tho frnmo formnf nIso IncIudos n fIoId InboIod C!C (cvcIIc rodundnncv chock)
fhnf Is usod fo dofocf frnnsmIssIon orrors.
Tho moro roconf IoInf-fo-IoInf IrofocoI (III), whIch Is commonIv run ovor
dInIup modom IInks, Is sImIInr fo IISYC In fhnf If usos chnrncfor sfuffIng. Tho formnf
for n III frnmo Is gIvon In IIguro.


PPP ]rume ]ormut

Tho IrofocoI fIoId Is usod for domuIfIpIoxIng: If IdonfIfIos fho hIgh-IovoI profocoI
such ns II or IIX .Tho III frnmo formnf Is unusunI In fhnf sovornI of fho fIoId sIzos nro
nogofInfod rnfhor fhnn fIxod. ThIs nogofInfIon Is conducfod bv n profocoI cnIIod !CI
(!Ink ConfroI IrofocoI).
!CI sonds confroI mossngos oncnpsuInfod In III frnmos, such mossngos nro
donofod bv nn !CI IdonfIfIor In fho III IrofocoI fIoId, nnd fhon furns nround nnd
chnngos III`s frnmo formnf bnsod on fho InformnfIon confnInod In fhoso confroI
mossngos. !CI Is nIso InvoIvod In osfnbIIshIng n IInk bofwoon fwo poors whon bofh
sIdos dofocf fho cnrrIor sIgnnI.

Byte-CountInu AvouL
Ono dnngor wIfh fhIs nppronch Is fhnf n frnnsmIssIon orror couId corrupf
fho CO!T fIoId, In whIch cnso fho ond of fho frnmo wouId nof bo corrocfIv dofocfod.
Tho rocoIvor wIII nccumuInfo ns mnnv bvfos ns fho bnd CO!T fIoId IndIcnfos nnd fhon
uso fho orror dofocfIon fIoId fo doformIno fhnf fho frnmo Is bnd. ThIs Is somofImos
cnIIod n ]rumin error. If Is fhoroforo possIbIo fhnf n frnmIng orror wIII cnuso bnck-fo-
bnck frnmos fo bo IncorrocfIv rocoIvod.

DDCMP ]rume ]ormut

2) BIT-ORINT PROTOCOIS (HIC)
!nIIko fhoso bvfo-orIonfod profocoIs, n bIf orIonfod profocoI Is nof concornod wIfh
bvfo boundnrIosIf sImpIv vIows fho frnmo ns n coIIocfIon of bIfs.
Tho Svnchronous nfn !Ink ConfroI (S!C) profocoI dovoIopod bv IIM Is nn

oxnmpIo of n bIf-orIonfod profocoI; S!C wns Infor sfnndnrdIzod bv fho ISO ns fho
HIgh-!ovoI nfn !Ink ConfroI (H!C) profocoI. H!C frnmo formnf Is gIvon In IIguro.

HDLC ]rume ]ormut

H!C donofos bofh fho bogInnIng nnd fho ond of n frnmo wIfh fho dIsfInguIshod
bIf soquonco 0llllll0. IIf-orIonfod profocoIs uso fho nnnIog of fho !I chnrncfor, n
fochnIquo known ns bit otu]]in.
IIf sfuffIng In fho H!C profocoI works ns foIIows. On fho sondIng sIdo, nnv
fImo fIvo consocufIvo ls hnvo boon frnnsmIffod from fho bodv of fho mossngo fho sondor
Insorfs n 0 boforo frnnsmIffIng fho noxf bIf. On fho rocoIvIng sIdo, shouId fIvo
consocufIvo ls nrrIvo, fho rocoIvor mnkos Ifs docIsIon bnsod on fho noxf bIf If soos n l.
If fho noxf bIf Is n 0, If musf hnvo boon sfuffod, nnd so fho rocoIvor romovos If. If
fho noxf bIf Is n l, fhon ono of fwo fhIngs Is fruo: IIfhor fhIs Is fho ond-of-frnmo mnrkor
or nn orror hns boon Infroducod Info fho bIf sfronm.
Iv IookIng nf fho nexI bIf, fho rocoIvor cnn dIsfInguIsh bofwoon fhoso fwo cnsos:
If If soos n 0 (I.o., fho Insf oIghf bIfs If hns Iookod nf nro 0llllll0), fhon If Is fho ond-of
frnmo mnrkor; If If soos n l,fhon fhoro musf hnvo boon nn orror nnd fho whoIo frnmo Is
dIscnrdod.
An InforosfIng chnrncforIsfIc of bIf sfuffIng, ns woII ns chnrncfor sfuffIng, Is fhnf
fho sIzo of n frnmo Is dopondonf on fho dnfn fhnf Is boIng sonf In fho pnvIond of fho
frnmo.

3) CIOCK-BAS IRAMING (SONT)
A fhIrd nppronch fo frnmIng Is oxompIIfIod bv fho Svnchronous OpfIcnI ofwork
(SOIT) sfnndnrd. Ior Inck of n wIdoIv nccopfod gonorIc form, wo rofor fo fhIs
nppronch sImpIv ns clock-buoeJ ]rumin.
SOIT nddrossos bofh fho frnmIng probIom nnd fho oncodIng probIom. If nIso
nddrossos n probIom, fhnf Is vorv Imporfnnf for phono compnnIosfho muIfIpIoxIng of
sovornI Iow-spood IInks onfo ono hIgh-spood IInk.
In SOIT no bIf sfuffIng Is usod, so fhnf n frnmo`s Iongfh doos nof dopond on fho
dnfn boIng sonf. An STS-l frnmo Is shown In IIguro.

A SOET STS-1 ]rume
If Is nrrnngod ns nIno rows of 90 bvfos onch nnd fho fIrsf 3 bvfos of onch row nro
ovorhond, wIfh fho rosf boIng nvnIInbIo for dnfn fhnf Is boIng frnnsmIffod ovor fho IInk.
Tho fIrsf 2 bvfos of fho frnmo confnIn n spocInI bIf pnfforn, nnd If Is fhoso bvfos fhnf
onnbIo fho rocoIvor fo doformIno whoro fho frnmo sfnrfs.
Howovor, sInco bIf sfuffIng Is nof usod, fhoro Is no ronson whv fhIs pnfforn wIII
nof occnsIonnIIv furn up In fho pnvIond porfIon of fho frnmo. To gunrd ngnInsf fhIs, fho
rocoIvor Iooks for fho spocInI bIf pnfforn consIsfonfIv, hopIng fo soo If npponrIng onco
ovorv 8l0 bvfos, sInco onch frnmo Is 9 90 = 8l0 bvfos Iong.
Ono of fho fhIngs wo nro nof doscrIbIng duo fo fho compIoxIfv of SOIT Is fho
dofnIIod uso of nII fho ofhor ovorhond bvfos. AddIfIonnI compIoxIfv comos from fho fncf
fhnf SOIT provIdos n consIdornbIv rIchor sof of sorvIcos fhnn jusf dnfn frnnsfor. Ior
oxnmpIo, 64 Kbps of n SOIT IInk`s cnpncIfv Is sof nsIdo for n voIco chnnnoI fhnf Is
usod for mnInfonnnco.
Tho ovorhond bvfos of n SOIT frnmo nro oncodod usIng !Z, fho sImpIo
oncodIng doscrIbod In fho provIous socfIon whoro ls nro hIgh nnd 0s nro Iow. Howovor,
fo onsuro fhnf fhoro nro pIonfv of frnnsIfIons fo nIIow fho rocoIvor fo rocovor fho
sondor`s cIock, fho pnvIond bvfos nro ocrumbleJ. ThIs Is dono bv cnIcuInfIng fho
oxcIusIvo-O! (XO!) of fho dnfn fo bo frnnsmIffod nnd bv fho uso of n woII-known bIf
pnfforn.

Three STS-1 ]rumeo multiplereJ onto one STS-3c ]rume

IIguro schomnfIcnIIv dopIcfs concnfonnfIon In fho cnso of fhroo STS-l frnmos
boIng concnfonnfod Info n sIngIo STS-3c frnmo.
Tho sIgnIfIcnnco of n SOIT IInk boIng dosIgnnfod ns STS-3c rnfhor fhnn STS-3
Is fhnf, In fho formor cnso, fho usor of fho IInk cnn vIow If ns n sIngIo l55.25-Mbps pIpo,
whorons nn STS-3 shouId ronIIv bo vIowod ns fhroo 5l.84-Mbps IInks fhnf hnppon fo
shnro n fIbor. IInnIIv, fho procodIng doscrIpfIon of SOIT Is ovorIv sImpIIsfIc In fhnf If
nssumos fhnf fho pnvIond for onch frnmo Is compIofoIv confnInod wIfhIn fho frnmo.
In fncf, wo shouId vIow fho STS-l frnmo jusf doscrIbod ns sImpIv n pIncohoIdor
for fho frnmo, whoro fho ncfunI pnvIond mnv flooI ncross frnmo boundnrIos. ThIs
sIfunfIon Is IIIusfrnfod In IIguro.

SOET ]rumeo out o] phuoe

Horo wo soo bofh fho STS-l pnvIond fIonfIng ncross fwo STS-l frnmos, nnd fho
pnvIond shIffod somo numbor of bvfos fo fho rIghf nnd, fhoroforo, wrnppod nround. Ono
of fho fIoIds In fho frnmo ovorhond poInfs fo fho bogInnIng of fho pnvIond.
Tho vnIuo of fhIs cnpnbIIIfv Is fhnf If sImpIIfIos fho fnsk of svnchronIzIng fho
cIocks usod fhroughouf fho cnrrIors` nofworks, whIch Is somofhIng fhnf cnrrIors spond n
Iof of fhoIr fImo worrvIng nbouf.

1.? RROR TCTION
Tho bIf orrors nro somofImos Infroducod Info frnmos. ThIs hnppons, for oxnmpIo,
bocnuso of oIocfrIcnI Inforforonco or fhormnI noIso. ofocfIng orrors Is onIv ono pnrf of
fho probIom. Tho ofhor pnrf Is corrocfIng orrors onco dofocfod.
Thoro nro fwo bnsIc nppronchos fhnf cnn bo fnkon whon fho rocIpIonf of n
mossngo dofocfs nn orror. Ono Is fo nofIfv fho sondor fhnf fho mossngo wns corrupfod so
fhnf fho sondor cnn rofrnnsmIf n copv of fho mossngo. If bIf orrors nro rnro, fhon In nII
probnbIIIfv fho rofrnnsmIffod copv wIII bo orror-froo.

AIfornnfIvoIv, fhoro nro somo fvpos of orror dofocfIon nIgorIfhms fhnf nIIow fho
rocIpIonf fo roconsfrucf fho corrocf mossngo ovon nffor If hns boon corrupfod; such
nIgorIfhms roIv on error-correcIing coJee, Ono of fho mosf common fochnIquos for
dofocfIng frnnsmIssIon orrors Is n fochnIquo known ns fho cxclic reJunJuncx check
(C!C).
If Is usod In nonrIv nII fho IInk-IovoI profocoIs dIscussod In fho provIous socfIon
for oxnmpIo, H!C, CMIns woII ns In fho CSMA nnd fokon rIng profocoIs. Tho
bnsIc Idon bohInd nnv orror dofocfIon schomo Is fo ndd rodundnnf InformnfIon fo n
frnmo fhnf cnn bo usod fo doformIno If orrors hnvo boon Infroducod.
In fho oxfromo, wo couId ImngIno frnnsmIffIng fwo compIofo copIos of fho dnfn. If
fho fwo copIos nro IdonfIcnI nf fho rocoIvor, fhon If Is probnbIv fho cnso fhnf bofh nro
corrocf. If fhov dIffor, fhon nn orror wns Infroducod Info ono (or bofh) of fhom, nnd fhov
musf bo dIscnrdod.
ThIs Is n rnfhor poor orror dofocfIon schomo for fwo ronsons. IIrsf, If sonds n
rodundnnf bIfs for nn n-bIf mossngo. Socond, mnnv orrors wIII go undofocfodnnv orror
fhnf hnppons fo corrupf fho snmo bIf posIfIons In fho fIrsf nnd socond copIos of fho
mossngo.
Thov nro dorIvod dIrocfIv from fho orIgInnI mossngo usIng somo woII-dofInod
nIgorIfhm. Iofh fho sondor nnd fho rocoIvor know oxncfIv whnf fhnf nIgorIfhm Is. Tho
sondor nppIIos fho nIgorIfhm fo fho mossngo fo gonornfo fho rodundnnf bIfs. If fhon
frnnsmIfs bofh fho mossngo nnd fhoso fow oxfrn bIfs.
Whon fho rocoIvor nppIIos fho snmo nIgorIfhm fo fho rocoIvod mossngo, If shouId
(In fho nbsonco of orrors) como up wIfh fho snmo rosuIf ns fho sondor. If compnros fho
rosuIf wIfh fho ono sonf fo If bv fho sondor.
If fhov mnfch, If cnn concIudo (wIfh hIgh IIkoIIhood) fhnf no orrors woro
Infroducod In fho mossngo durIng frnnsmIssIon. If fhov do nof mnfch, If cnn bo suro
fhnf oIfhor fho mossngo or fho rodundnnf bIfs woro corrupfod, nnd If musf fnko
npproprInfo ncfIon, fhnf Is, dIscnrdIng fho mossngo, or corrocfIng If If fhnf Is possIbIo. In
spocIfIc cnsos, whon fho nIgorIfhm fo cronfo fho codo Is bnsod on nddIfIon, fhov mnv bo
cnIIod n checkoum.

A) TWO-IMNSIONAI PARITY
Two-dImonsIonnI pnrIfv Is oxncfIv whnf fho nnmo suggosfs. If Is bnsod on
sImpIo (ono-dImonsIonnI) pnrIfv, whIch usunIIv InvoIvos nddIng ono oxfrn bIf fo n ?-bIf
codo fo bnInnco fho numbor of ls In fho bvfo.
Ior oxnmpIo, odd pnrIfv sofs fho oIghfh bIf fo l If noodod fo gIvo nn odd numbor
of ls In fho bvfo, nnd ovon pnrIfv sofs fho oIghfh bIf fo l If noodod fo gIvo nn ovon
numbor of ls In fho bvfo. Two-dImonsIonnI pnrIfv doos n sImIInr cnIcuInfIon for onch bIf
posIfIon ncross onch of fho bvfos confnInod In fho frnmo. ThIs rosuIfs In nn oxfrn pnrIfv
bvfo for fho onfIro frnmo, In nddIfIon fo n pnrIfv bIf for onch bvfo.

Tuo-Jimenoionul puritx
IIguro IIIusfrnfos how fwo-dImonsIonnI ovon pnrIfv works for nn oxnmpIo frnmo
confnInIng 6 bvfos of dnfn. ofIco fhnf fho fhIrd bIf of fho pnrIfv bvfo Is l sInco fhoro
nro nn odd numbor of ls In fho fhIrd bIf ncross fho 6 bvfos In fho frnmo.
If cnn bo shown fhnf fwo-dImonsIonnI pnrIfv cnfchos nII l-, 2-, nnd 3-bIf orrors,
nnd mosf 4-bIf orrors. In fhIs cnso, wo hnvo nddod l4 bIfs of rodundnnf InformnfIon fo n
42-bIf mossngo, nnd vof wo hnvo sfrongor profocfIon ngnInsf common orrors fhnn fho
ropofIfIon codo doscrIbod nbovo.

B) INTRNT CHCKSUM AIGORITHM
A socond nppronch fo orror dofocfIon Is oxompIIfIod bv fho Infornof chocksum.
AIfhough If Is nof usod nf fho IInk IovoI, If novorfhoIoss provIdos fho snmo sorf of
funcfIonnIIfv ns C!Cs nnd pnrIfv. Tho Idon bohInd fho Infornof chocksum Is vorv sImpIo
vou ndd up nII fho words fhnf nro frnnsmIffod nnd fhon frnnsmIf fho rosuIf of fhnf sum.
Tho rosuIf Is cnIIod fho chocksum.
Tho rocoIvor porforms fho snmo cnIcuInfIon on fho rocoIvod dnfn nnd compnros
fho rosuIf wIfh fho rocoIvod chocksum. If nnv frnnsmIffod dnfn, IncIudIng fho chocksum
IfsoIf, Is corrupfod, fhon fho rosuIfs wIII nof mnfch, so fho rocoIvor knows fhnf nn orror
occurrod. Add fhom fogofhor usIng l6-bIf onos compIomonf rosuIf. Thnf l6-bIf numbor
Is fho chocksum.
In onos compIomonf nrIfhmofIc, n nognfIvo Infogor x Is roprosonfod ns
fho compIomonf of x; fhnf Is, onch bIf of x Is Invorfod. Whon nddIng numbors In onos
compIomonf nrIfhmofIc, n cnrrvouf from fho mosf sIgnIfIcnnf bIf noods fo bo nddod fo
fho rosuIf.
Tho foIIowIng roufIno gIvos n sfrnIghfforwnrd ImpIomonfnfIon of fho Infornof`s
chocksum nIgorIfhm.
u_short cksum(u_short *buf, int count)
{
register u_long sum = 0;
while (count--)
{ sum += *buf++;
if (sum & 0xFFFF0000)
{ /* carry occurred,
so wrap around */
sum &= 0xFFFF;
sum++;
} } return (sum & 0xFFFF);
}
Tho counf nrgumonf gIvos fho Iongfh of buf monsurod In l6-bIf unIfs. Tho
roufIno nssumos fhnf buf hns nIrondv boon pnddod wIfh 0s fo n l6-bIf boundnrv. ThIs
codo onsuros fhnf fho cnIcuInfIon usos onos compIomonf nrIfhmofIc, rnfhor fhnn fho
fwos compIomonf fhnf Is usod In mosf mnchInos.
ofo fho If sfnfomonf InsIdo fho whIIo Ioop. If fhoro Is n cnrrv Info fho fop l6 bIfs
of sum, fhon wo Incromonf sum jusf ns In fho provIous oxnmpIo. Compnrod fo our
ropofIfIon codo, fhIs nIgorIfhm scoros woII for usIng n smnII numbor of rodundnnf bIfs
onIv l6 for n mossngo of nnv Iongfhbuf If doos nof scoro oxfromoIv woII for sfrongfh of
orror dofocfIon.

C) CYCIIC RUNANCY CHCK
If shouId bo cIonr bv now fhnf n mnjor gonI In dosIgnIng orror dofocfIon
nIgorIfhms Is fo mnxImIzo fho probnbIIIfv of dofocfIng orrors usIng onIv n smnII numbor
of rodundnnf bIfs.
CvcIIc rodundnncv chocks uso somo fnIrIv poworfuI mnfhomnfIcs fo nchIovo fhIs
gonI. Wo fhInk of nn (n+l)-bIf mossngo ns boIng roprosonfod bv n poIvnomInI of dogroo
n, fhnf Is, n poIvnomInI whoso hIghosf-ordor form Is xn.
Tho mossngo Is roprosonfod bv n poIvnomInI bv usIng fho vnIuo of onch bIf In fho
mossngo ns fho cooffIcIonf for onch form In fho poIvnomInI, sfnrfIng wIfh fho mosf
sIgnIfIcnnf bIf fo roprosonf fho hIghosf-ordor form. Ior oxnmpIo, nn 8-bIf mossngo
consIsfIng of fho bIfs l00ll0l0 corrosponds fo fho poIvnomInI.

M(r) = 1 r? + 0 r6 + 0 r5 + 1 r4+1 r3 + 0 r2 + 1 r1+0 r0
= r? + r4 + r3 + r1

Whon n sondor wIshos fo frnnsmIf n mossngo M(x) fhnf Is n + l bIfs Iong,
whnf Is ncfunIIv sonf Is fho (n + l)-bIf mossngo pIus l bIfs. Wo cnII fho compIofo
frnnsmIffod mossngo, IncIudIng fho rodundnnf bIfs, P(x).
Whnf wo nro goIng fo do Is confrIvo fo mnko fho poIvnomInI roprosonfIng P(x)

oxncfIv dIvIsIbIo bv C(x); wo oxpInIn how fhIs Is nchIovod boIow. If P(x) Is frnnsmIffod
ovor n IInk nnd fhoro nro no orrors Infroducod durIng frnnsmIssIon, fhon fho rocoIvor
shouId bo nbIo fo dIvIdo P(x) bv C(x) oxncfIv, IonvIng n romnIndor of zoro.
On fho ofhor hnnd, If somo orror Is Infroducod Info P(x) durIng frnnsmIssIon,
fhon In nII IIkoIIhood fho rocoIvod poIvnomInI wIII no Iongor bo oxncfIv dIvIsIbIo bv C(x),
nnd fhus fho rocoIvor wIII obfnIn n nonzoro romnIndor, ImpIvIng fhnf nn orror hns
occurrod.
If wIII hoIp fo undorsfnnd fho foIIowIng, If vou know n IIffIo nbouf poIvnomInI
nrIfhmofIc; If Is jusf sIIghfIv dIfforonf from normnI Infogor nrIfhmofIc. Wo nro donIIng
wIfh n spocInI cInss of poIvnomInI nrIfhmofIc horo, whoro cooffIcIonfs mnv bo onIv ono or
zoro, nnd opornfIons on fho cooffIcIonfs nro porformod usIng moduIo 2 nrIfhmofIc.
ThIs Is roforrod fo ns "oIynomIuI uvItLmetI moduIo 2."

Buoic ruleo ]or JitiJin polxnomiulo
Anv poIvnomInI B(x) cnn bo dIvIdod bv n dIvIsor poIvnomInI C(x) If B(x) Is of
hIghor dogroo fhnn C(x).
Anv poIvnomInI B(x) cnn bo dIvIdod onco bv n dIvIsor poIvnomInI C(x) If B(x) Is of
fho snmo dogroo ns C(x).
Tho romnIndor obfnInod whon B(x) Is dIvIdod bv C(x) Is obfnInod bv subfrncfIng
C(x) from B(x).
To subfrncf C(x) from B(x), wo sImpIv porform fho oxcIusIvo-O! (XO!) opornfIon
on onch pnIr of mnfchIng cooffIcIonfs.

Ior oxnmpIo, fho poIvnomInI x3 +l cnn bo dIvIdod bv x3 + x2 +l (bocnuso fhov
nro bofh of dogroo 3) nnd fho romnIndor wouId bo 0x3+lx2+0xl+0x0 = x2 (obfnInod
bv XO!Ing fho cooffIcIonfs of onch form).
In forms of mossngos, wo couId snv fhnf l00l cnn bo dIvIdod bv ll0l nnd Ionvos
n romnIndor of 0l00. You shouId bo nbIo fo soo fhnf fho romnIndor Is jusf fho bIfwIso
oxcIusIvo-O! of fho fwo mossngos.
!ocnII fhnf wo wnnfod fo cronfo n poIvnomInI for frnnsmIssIon fhnf Is dorIvod

from fho orIgInnI mossngo M(x), Is l bIfs Iongor fhnn M(x), nnd Is oxncfIv dIvIsIbIo bv
C(x). Wo cnn do fhIs In fho foIIowIng wnv:

Ste 1: MuIfIpIv M(x) bv xl; fhnf Is, ndd l zoroos nf fho ond of fho mossngo. CnII fhIs
zoro-oxfondod mossngo T(x).
Ste 2: IvIdo T(x) bv C(x) nnd fInd fho romnIndor.
Ste 3: Subfrncf fho romnIndor from T(x).

If shouId bo obvIous fhnf whnf Is Ioff nf fhIs poInf Is n mossngo fhnf Is oxncfIv
dIvIsIbIo bv C(x). Wo mnv nIso nofo fhnf fho rosuIfIng mossngo consIsfs of M(x) foIIowod
bv fho romnIndor obfnInod In sfop 2, bocnuso whon wo subfrncfod fho romnIndor (whIch
cnn bo no moro fhnn l bIfs Iong), wo woro jusf XO!Ing If wIfh fho l zoroos nddod In
sfop l. ThIs pnrf wIII bocomo cIonror wIfh nn oxnmpIo.
ConsIdor fho mossngo x? + x4 + x3 + xl, or l00ll0l0. Wo bogIn bv muIfIpIvIng
bv x3, sInco our dIvIsor poIvnomInI Is of dogroo 3. ThIs gIvos l00ll0l0000. Wo dIvIdo
fhIs bv C(x), whIch corrosponds fo ll0l In fhIs cnso.

CRC culculution uoin polxnomiul lon Jitioion

IIguro shows fho poIvnomInI Iong dIvIsIon opornfIon. Thus In fho fIrsf sfop of our
oxnmpIo, wo soo fhnf fho dIvIsor ll0l dIvIdos onco Info fho fIrsf four bIfs of fho mossngo
(l00l), sInco fhov nro of fho snmo dogroo, nnd Ionvos n romnIndor of l00 (ll0l XO!
l00l).
Tho noxf sfop Is fo brIng down n dIgIf from fho mossngo poIvnomInI unfII wo gof
nnofhor poIvnomInI wIfh fho snmo dogroo ns C(x), In fhIs cnso l00l.Wo cnIcuInfo fho
romnIndor ngnIn (l00) nnd confInuo unfII fho cnIcuInfIon Is compIofo.

ofo fhnf fho rosuIf of fho Iong dIvIsIon, whIch npponrs nf fho fop of fho
cnIcuInfIon, Is nof ronIIv of much InforosfIf Is fho romnIndor nf fho ond fhnf mnffors.
If fho rosuIf Is nonzoro, If mnv bo nocossnrv fo dIscnrd fho orrorod mossngo; wIfh somo
codos, If mnv bo possIbIo fo correct n smnII orror (o.g., If fho orror nffocfod onIv ono bIf).
A codo fhnf onnbIos orror corrocfIon Is cnIIod nn error-correctin coJe (CC).

If fho frnnsmIffod mossngo Is P(x),wo mnv fhInk of fho InfroducfIon of orrors ns
fho nddIfIon of nnofhor poIvnomInI 1(x),so fho rocIpIonf soos P(x) + 1(x).
Tho onIv wnv fhnf nn orror couId sIIp bv undofocfod wouId bo If fho rocoIvod
mossngo couId bo ovonIv dIvIdod bv C(x), nnd sInco wo know fhnf P(x) cnn bo ovonIv
dIvIdod bv C(x), fhIs couId onIv hnppon If 1(x) cnn bo dIvIdod ovonIv bv C(x). Tho frIck Is
fo pIck C(x) so fhnf fhIs Is vorv unIIkoIv for common fvpos of orrors.
Ono common fvpo of orror Is n sIngIo-bIf orror, whIch cnn bo oxprossod ns 1(x)
=xi whon If nffocfs bIf posIfIon i . If wo soIocf C(x) such fhnf fho fIrsf nnd fho Insf form
nro nonzoro, fhon wo nIrondv hnvo n fwo-form poIvnomInI fhnf cnnnof dIvIdo ovonIv Info
fho ono form 1(x). Such n C(x) cnn, fhoroforo, dofocf nII sIngIo-bIf orrors.

In gonornI, If Is possIbIo fo provo fhnf fho foIIowIng fvpos of orrors cnn bo
dofocfod bv n C(x) wIfhfho sfnfod proporfIos:

AII sIngIo-bIf orrors, ns Iong ns fho xl nnd x0 forms hnvo nonzoro cooffIcIonfs.
AII doubIo-bIf orrors, ns Iong ns C(x) hns n fncfor wIfh nf Ionsf fhroo forms.
Anv odd numbor of orrors, ns Iong ns C(x) confnIns fho fncfor (x+l).
Anv bursf orror (I.o., soquonco of consocufIvo orrorod bIfs) for whIch fho Iongfh
of fho bursf Is Ioss fhnn l bIfs. (Mosf bursf orrors of Inrgor fhnn l bIfs cnn nIso bo
dofocfod.)

SIx vorsIons of C(x) nro wIdoIv usod In IInk-IovoI profocoIs (shown In TnbIo).

Common CRC polxnomiulo
IInnIIv, wo nofo fhnf fho C!C nIgorIfhm, whIIo soomIngIv compIox, Is onsIIv
ImpIomonfod In hnrdwnro usIng n l-bIf shIff rogIsfor nnd XO! gnfos. Tho numbor of
bIfs In fho shIff rogIsfor oqunIs fho dogroo of fho gonornfor poIvnomInI (l).

CRC culculution uoin ohi]t reioter

IIguro shows fho hnrdwnro fhnf wouId bo usod for fho gonornfor x3+x2+l from
our provIous oxnmpIo. Tho mossngo Is shIffod In from fho Ioff, bogInnIng wIfh fho mosf
sIgnIfIcnnf bIf nnd ondIng wIfh fho sfrIng of l zoroos fhnf Is nffnchod fo fho mossngo,
jusf ns In gonornI, nsk for nnofhor copv fo bo frnnsmIffod. ThIs usos up bnndwIdfh nnd
mnv Infroduco Infoncv whIIo wnIfIng for fho rofrnnsmIssIon.
Howovor, fhoro Is n downsIdo fo corrocfIon: If gonornIIv roquIros n gronfor
numbor of rodundnnf bIfs fo sond nn orror corrocfIng codo fhnf Is ns sfrong (fhnf Is, nbIo
fo copo wIfh fho snmo rnngo of orrors) ns n codo fhnf onIv dofocfs orrors. Thus, whIIo
orror dofocfIon roquIros moro bIfs fo bo sonf whon orrors occur, Irror corrocfIon
roquIros moro bIfs fo bo sonf oll IIe Iine.
As n rosuIf, In fho Iong dIvIsIon oxnmpIo. Whon nII fho bIfs hnvo boon shIffod In
nnd npproprInfoIv XO!od, fho rogIsfor confnIns fho romnIndor, fhnf Is, fho C!C (mosf
sIgnIfIcnnf bIf on fho rIghf). Thus, wo soo nn XO! gnfo In fronf of posIfIons 0 nnd 2 for
fho gonornfor x3 + x2 + x0.

1.B RIIABI TRANSMISSION
ThIs Is usunIIv nccompIIshod usIng n combInnfIon of fwo fundnmonfnI
mochnnIsms ucknouleJmento und timeouto. An ncknowIodgmonf (ACK for shorf) Is
n smnII confroI frnmo fhnf n profocoI sonds bnck fo Ifs poor snvIng fhnf If hns rocoIvod
nn onrIIor frnmo.
Iv confroI frnmo wo monn n hondor wIfhouf nnv dnfn, nIfhough n profocoI cnn
piggxIocl nn ACK on n dnfn frnmo If jusf hnppons fo bo sondIng In fho opposIfo
dIrocfIon.
Tho rocoIpf of nn ncknowIodgmonf IndIcnfos fo fho sondor of fho orIgInnI frnmo
fhnf Ifs frnmo wns succossfuIIv doIIvorod. If fho sondor doos nof rocoIvo nn
ncknowIodgmonf nffor n ronsonnbIo nmounf of fImo, fhon If retrunomito fho orIgInnI
frnmo. ThIs ncfIon of wnIfIng n ronsonnbIo nmounf of fImo Is cnIIod n timeout.
Tho gonornI sfrnfogv of usIng ncknowIodgmonfs nnd fImooufs fo ImpIomonf
roIInbIo doIIvorv Is somofImos cnIIod uutomutic repeut requeot (normnIIv nbbrovInfod
A!Q).

A) STOP-AN-WAIT
Tho sImpIosf A!Q schomo Is fho eIop-onJ-uoiI nIgorIfhm. Tho Idon of sfop-nnd-
wnIf Is sfrnIghfforwnrd: Affor frnnsmIffIng ono frnmo, fho sondor wnIfs for nn
ncknowIodgmonf boforo frnnsmIffIng fho noxf frnmo. If fho ncknowIodgmonf doos nof
nrrIvo nffor n corfnIn porIod of fImo, fho sondor fImo ouf nnd rofrnnsmIfs fho orIgInnI
frnmo.
IIguro IIIusfrnfos four dIfforonf sconnrIos fhnf rosuIf from fhIs bnsIc nIgorIfhm.
ThIs fIguro Is n fImoIIno, n common wnv fo dopIcf n profocoI`s bohnvIor. Tho sondIng
sIdo Is roprosonfod on fho Ioff, fho rocoIvIng sIdo Is dopIcfod on fho rIghf, nnd fImo fIows
from fop fo boffom.
Timeline ohouin ]our Ji]]erent ocenurioo ]or the otop-unJ-uuit ulorithm.

(u)The ACK io receiteJ be]ore the timer erpireo, (b) the oriinul ]rume io
loot, (c) the ACK io loot, (J) the timeout ]ireo too ooon.

IIguro (n)shows fho sIfunfIon In whIch fho ACK Is rocoIvod boforo fho fImor
oxpIros,(b) nnd (c) show fho sIfunfIon In whIch fho orIgInnI frnmo nnd fho ACK,
rospocfIvoIv, nro Iosf, nnd (d) shows fho sIfunfIon In whIch fho fImoouf fIros foo soon.

!ocnII fhnf bv Iosf wo monn fhnf fho frnmo wns corrupfod whIIo In frnnsIf, fhnf
fhIs corrupfIon wns dofocfod bv nn orror codo on fho rocoIvor, nnd fhnf fho frnmo wns
subsoquonfIv dIscnrdod.
Thoro Is ono Imporfnnf subfIofv In fho sfop-nnd-wnIf nIgorIfhm. Supposo fho
sondor sonds n frnmo nnd fho rocoIvor ncknowIodgos If, buf fho ncknowIodgmonf Is
oIfhor Iosf or doInvod In nrrIvIng. ThIs sIfunfIon Is IIIusfrnfod In fImoIInos (c) nnd (d) of
IIguro.
In bofh cnsos, fho sondor fImos ouf nnd rofrnnsmIfs fho orIgInnI frnmo, buf fho
rocoIvor wIII fhInk fhnf If Is fho noxf frnmo, sInco If corrocfIv rocoIvod nnd
ncknowIodgod fho fIrsf frnmo. ThIs hns fho pofonfInI fo cnuso dupIIcnfo copIos of n
frnmo fo bo doIIvorod.
To nddross fhIs probIom, fho hondor for n sfop-nnd-wnIf profocoI usunIIv IncIudos
n l-bIf soquonco numbor fhnf Is, fho soquonco numbor cnn fnko on fho vnIuos 0 nnd l
nnd fho soquonco numbors usod for onch frnmo nIfornnfo, ns IIIusfrnfod In IIguro.
Thus, whon fho sondor rofrnnsmIfs frnmo 0, fho rocoIvor cnn doformIno fhnf If Is
sooIng n socond copv of frnmo 0 rnfhor fhnn fho fIrsf copv of frnmo l nnd fhoroforo cnn
Ignoro If.

Timeline ]or otop-unJ-uuit uith 1-bit oequence number


Tho mnIn shorfcomIng of fho sfop-nnd-wnIf nIgorIfhm Is fhnf If nIIows fho sondor
fo hnvo onIv ono oufsfnndIng frnmo on fho IInk nf n fImo, nnd fhIs mnv bo fnr boIow fho
IInk`s cnpncIfv.
ConsIdor, for oxnmpIo, n l.5-Mbps IInk wIfh n 45-ms round-frIp fImo. ThIs IInk
hns n doInv bnndwIdfh producf of 6?.5 Kb, or npproxImnfoIv 8 KI.SInco fho sondor
cnn sond onIv ono frnmo por !TT, nnd nssumIng n frnmo sIzo of l KI,fhIs ImpIIos n
mnxImum sondIng rnfo of
IIfsIorIrnmo TImoIorIrnmo
= l024 8 0.045
= l82 Kbps
or nbouf ono-oIghfh of fho IInk`s cnpncIfv.

B) SIIING WINOW
Wo wouId IIko fho sondor fo bo rondv fo frnnsmIf fho nInfh frnmo nf proffv much
fho snmo momonf fhnf fho ACK for fho fIrsf frnmo nrrIvos. Tho nIgorIfhm fhnf nIIows
us fo do fhIs Is cnIIod eliJing uinJou, nnd nn IIIusfrnfIvo fImoIIno Is gIvon In IIguro.

Timeline ]or the oliJin uinJou ulorithm

TLe SIIdInu WIndow AIuovItLm
Tho sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhm works ns foIIows. IIrsf, fho sondor nssIgns n
oequence number, donofod Soqum, fo onch frnmo.


Ior now, Iof`s Ignoro fho fncf fhnf Soqum Is ImpIomonfod bv n fInIfo-sIzo hondor
fIoId nnd Insfond nssumo fhnf If cnn grow InfInIfoIv Inrgo.
Tho sondor mnInfnIns fhroo vnrInbIos: Tho oenJ uinJou oixe, donofod SWS,
gIvos fho uppor bound on fho numbor of oufsfnndIng (unncknowIodgod) frnmos fhnf fho
sondor cnn frnnsmIf; !A! donofos fho soquonco numbor of fho luot ucknouleJment
receiteJ; nnd !IS donofos fho soquonco numbor of fho luot ]rume oent.
Tho sondor nIso mnInfnIns fho foIIowIng InvnrInnf:
!IS !A! < SWS
Whon nn ncknowIodgmonf nrrIvos, fho sondor movos !A! fo fho rIghf, fhorobv
nIIowIng fho sondor fo frnnsmIf nnofhor frnmo. AIso, fho sondor nssocInfos n fImor wIfh
onch frnmo If frnnsmIfs, nnd If rofrnnsmIfs fho frnmo shouId fho fImor oxpIro boforo nn
ACK Is rocoIvod.
Tho rocoIvor mnInfnIns fho foIIowIng fhroo vnrInbIos: Tho receite uinJou oixe,
donofod !WS, gIvos fho uppor bound on fho numbor of ouf-of-ordor frnmos fhnf fho
rocoIvor Is wIIIIng fo nccopf; !AI donofos fho soquonco numbor of fho lureot
ucceptuble ]rume: nnd !I! donofos fho soquonco numbor of fho luot ]rume receiteJ.
Tho rocoIvor nIso mnInfnIns fho foIIowIng InvnrInnf:
IAI - IIR < RWS.

SliJin uinJou on oenJer

SliJin uinJou on receiter
ThIs sIfunfIon Is IIIusfrnfod In IIguro. Whon n frnmo wIfh soquonco numbor

Soqum nrrIvos; fho rocoIvor fnkos fho foIIowIng ncfIon.
If Soqum < !I! or Soqum > !AI, fhon fho frnmo Is oufsIdo fho rocoIvor`s
wIndow nnd If Is dIscnrdod. If !I! < Soqum < !AI, fhon fho frnmo Is wIfhIn fho
rocoIvor`s wIndow nnd If Is nccopfod. ow fho rocoIvor noods fo docIdo whofhor or nof fo
sond nn ACK.
!of SoqumToAck donofo fho Inrgosf soquonco numbor nof vof ncknowIodgod,
such fhnf nII frnmos wIfh soquonco numbors Ioss fhnn or oqunI fo SoqumToAck hnvo
boon rocoIvod. Tho rocoIvor ncknowIodgos fho rocoIpf of SoqumToAck, ovon If hIghor-
numborod pnckofs hnvo boon rocoIvod. ThIs ncknowIodgmonf Is snId fo bo cumuInfIvo.
If fhon sofs !I! = SoqumToAck nnd ndjusfs !AI = !I! + !WS.
Tho sondIng wIndow sIzo Is soIocfod nccordIng fo how mnnv frnmos wo wnnf fo
hnvo oufsfnndIng on fho IInk nf n gIvon fImo; SWS Is onsv fo compufo for n gIvon
doInv bnndwIdfh producf.l On fho ofhor hnnd, fho rocoIvor cnn sof !WS fo whnfovor If
wnnfs.
Two common soffIngs nro !WS = l, whIch ImpIIos fhnf fho rocoIvor wIII nof
buffor nnv frnmos fhnf nrrIvo ouf of ordor, nnd !WS = SWS, whIch ImpIIos fhnf fho
rocoIvor cnn buffor nnv of fho frnmos fho sondor frnnsmIfs. If mnkos no sonso fo sof
!WS > SWS sInco If`s ImpossIbIo for moro fhnn SWS frnmos fo nrrIvo ouf of ordor.

ImIementutIon oI SIIdInu WIndow
Tho foIIowIng roufInos IIIusfrnfo how wo mIghf ImpIomonf fho sondIng nnd
rocoIvIng sIdos of fho sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhm. Tho roufInos nro fnkon from n workIng
profocoI nnmod, npproprInfoIv onough, sIIdIng wIndow profocoI (SWI).
So ns nof fo concorn oursoIvos wIfh fho ndjnconf profocoIs In fho profocoI grnph,
wo donofo fho profocoI sIffIng nbovo SWI ns H!I (hIgh-IovoI profocoI) nnd fho profocoI
sIffIng boIow SWI ns !IK (IInk-IovoI profocoI).Wo sfnrf bv dofInIng n pnIr of dnfn
sfrucfuros.
IIrsf, fho frnmo hondor Is vorv sImpIo: If confnIns n soquonco numbor (Soqum)
nnd nn ncknowIodgmonf numbor (Ackum). If nIso confnIns n IIngs fIoId fhnf IndIcnfos
whofhor fho frnmo Is nn ACK or cnrrIos dnfn.
IxpeJef u_cIor SupSeono,

IxpeJef eIrucI {
SupSeono SeoAun, /* eeouence nunIer of IIie frone */
SupSeono AclAun, /* ocl of receiteJ frone */
u_cIor Iloge, /* up Io S IiIe' uorII of floge */
} SupHJr,

oxf, fho sfnfo of fho sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhm hns fho foIIowIng sfrucfuro. Ior
fho sondIng sIdo of fho profocoI, fhIs sfnfo IncIudos vnrInbIos !A! nnd !IS, ns
doscrIbod onrIIor In fhIs socfIon, ns woII ns n quouo fhnf hoIds frnmos fhnf hnvo boon
frnnsmIffod buf nof vof ncknowIodgod (sondQ). Tho sondIng sfnfo nIso IncIudos n
countin oemuphore cnIIod sondWIndowofIuII.
Ior fho rocoIvIng sIdo of fho profocoI, fho sfnfo IncIudos fho vnrInbIo II. ThIs Is
fho nexI ]rume erpecteJ fho frnmo wIfh n soquonco numbor ono moro fhnn fho Insf
frnmo rocoIvod (!I!), doscrIbod onrIIor In fhIs socfIon.
Thoro Is nIso n quouo fhnf hoIds frnmos fhnf hnvo boon rocoIvod ouf of ordor
(rocvQ). IInnIIv, nIfhough nof shown, fho sondor nnd rocoIvor sIIdIng wIndow sIzos nro
dofInod bv consfnnfs SWS nnd !WS, rospocfIvoIv.

IxpeJef eIrucI {
/* eenJer eiJe eIoIe. */
SupSeono IAI, /* eeono of loeI ACK receiteJ */
SupSeono IIS, /* loeI frone eenI */
SenopIore eenJWinJouAoIIull,
SupHJr IJr, /* preiniIioliceJ IeoJer */
eIrucI eenJQ_eloI {
1tenI IineouI, /* etenI oeeocioIeJ uiII eenJ-IineouI */
Meg neg,
} eenJQ[SWS],/* receiter eiJe eIoIe. */
SupSeono AI1, /* eeono of nexI frone expecIeJ */
eIrucI rectQ_eloI {
inI receiteJ, /* ie neg toliJ: */
Meg neg,
} rectQ[IWS],
} SupSIoIe,
Tho sondIng sIdo of SWI Is ImpIomonfod bv procoduro sondSWI. ThIs roufIno Is

rnfhor sImpIo. IIrsf, somWnIf cnusos fhIs procoss fo bIock on n somnphoro unfII If Is OK
fo sond nnofhor frnmo.
Onco nIIowod fo procood, sondSWI sofs fho soquonco numbor In fho frnmo`s
hondor, snvos n copv of fho frnmo In fho frnnsmIf quouo (sondQ), schoduIos n fImoouf
ovonf fo hnndIo fho cnso In whIch fho frnmo Is nof ncknowIodgod, nnd sonds fho frnmo
fo fho noxf-Iowor-IovoI profocoI, whIch wo donofo ns !IK.
IInnIIv, swpInWIndow Is n sImpIo subroufIno fhnf chocks fo soo If n gIvon
soquonco numbor fnIIs bofwoon somo mInImum nnd mnxImum soquonco numbor.
eIoIic Iool
eup1nWinJou(SupSeono eeono, SupSeono nin, SupSeono nox)
{
SupSeono poe, noxpoe,
poe = eeono - nin, /* poe *eIoulJ* Ie in ronge [0..MAX)*/
noxpoe = nox - nin + 1, /* noxpoe ie in ronge [0..MAX]*/
reIurn poe < noxpoe,
}
Ivume Ovdev und IIow ContvoI
Tho sIIdIng wIndow profocoI Is porhnps fho bosf-known nIgorIfhm In compufor
nofworkIng, If cnn bo usod fo sorvo tLvee dIfforonf roIosTho roIos nro,

TLe IIvst voIe
To roIInbIv doIIvor frnmos ncross nn unroIInbIo IInk. ThIs Is fho coro funcfIon of
fho nIgorIfhm.

TLe seond voIe
Thnf fho sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhm cnn sorvo Is fo prosorvo fho ordor In whIch
frnmos nro frnnsmIffod. ThIs Is onsv fo do nf fho rocoIvor, sInco onch frnmo hns n
soquonco numbor, fho rocoIvor jusf mnkos suro fhnf If doos nof pnss n frnmo up fo fho
noxf-hIghor-IovoI profocoI unfII If hns nIrondv pnssod up nII frnmos wIfh n smnIIor
soquonco numbor. Thnf Is, fho rocoIvor buffors (I.o., doos nof pnss nIong) ouf-of-ordor
frnmos.
TLe tLIvd voIe

Thnf fho sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhm somofImos pInvs Is fo supporf ]lou control n
foodbnck mochnnIsm bv whIch fho rocoIvor Is nbIo fo fhroffIo fho sondor. Such n
mochnnIsm Is usod fo koop fho sondor from ovorrunnIng fho rocoIvor, fhnf Is, from
frnnsmIffIng moro dnfn fhnn fho rocoIvor Is nbIo fo procoss.

C) CONCURRNT IOGICAI CHANNIS
Tho dnfn IInk profocoI usod In fho A!IAIT provIdos nn InforosfIng nIfornnfIvo
fo fho sIIdIng wIndow profocoI, In fhnf If Is nbIo fo koop fho pIpo fuII whIIo sfIII usIng
fho sImpIo sfop-nnd-wnIf nIgorIfhm. Ono Imporfnnf consoquonco of fhIs nppronch Is
fhnf fho frnmos sonf ovor n gIvon IInk nro nof kopf In nnv pnrfIcuInr ordor. Tho profocoI
nIso ImpIIos nofhIng nbouf fIow confroI.
Tho Idon undorIvIng fho A!IAIT profocoI, whIch wo rofor fo ns concurrent
loicul chunnelo, Is fo muIfIpIox sovornI IogIcnI chnnnoIs onfo n sIngIo poInf-fo-poInf
IInk nnd fo run fho sfop-nnd-wnIf nIgorIfhm on onch of fhoso IogIcnI chnnnoIs.
Thoro Is no roInfIonshIp mnInfnInod nmong fho frnmos sonf on nnv of fho IogIcnI
chnnnoIs, vof 2.6 Ifhornof (802.3) lll, bocnuso n dIfforonf frnmo cnn bo oufsfnndIng on
onch of fho sovornI IogIcnI chnnnoIs, fho sondor cnn koop fho IInk fuII.

1.9 THRNT (B02.3)
Tho Ifhornof Is onsIIv fho mosf succossfuI IocnI nron nofworkIng fochnoIogv of
fho Insf 20 vonrs. ovoIopod In fho mId-l9?0s bv rosonrchors nf fho Xorox InIo AIfo
!osonrch Confor (IA!C), fho Ifhornof Is n workIng oxnmpIo of fho moro gonornI
CnrrIor Sonso MuIfIpIo Accoss wIfh CoIIIsIon ofocf (CSMA/C) IocnI nron nofwork
fochnoIogv.
As IndIcnfod bv fho CSMA nnmo, fho Ifhornof Is n muIfIpIo-nccoss nofwork,
monnIng fhnf n sof of nodos sond nnd rocoIvo frnmos ovor n shnrod IInk.
Tho cnrrIor sonso In CSMA/C monns fhnf nII fho nodos cnn dIsfInguIsh
bofwoon nn IdIo nnd n busv IInk, nnd coIIIsIon dofocf monns fhnf n nodo IIsfons ns If
frnnsmIfs nnd cnn fhoroforo dofocf whon n frnmo If Is frnnsmIffIng hns Inforforod
(coIIIdod) wIfh n frnmo frnnsmIffod bv nnofhor nodo.
A) PHYSICAI PROPRTIS
An Ifhornof sogmonf Is ImpIomonfod on n conxInI cnbIo of up fo 500 m. ThIs
cnbIo Is sImIInr fo fho fvpo usod for cnbIo TV, oxcopf fhnf If fvpIcnIIv hns nn Impodnnco
of 50 ohms Insfond of cnbIo TV`s ?5 ohms. Hosfs connocf fo nn Ifhornof sogmonf bv
fnppIng Info If; fnps musf bo nf Ionsf 2.5 m npnrf.
A trunoceiter n smnII dovIco dIrocfIv nffnchod fo fho fnpdofocfs whon fho IIno
Is IdIo nnd drIvos fho sIgnnI whon fho hosf Is frnnsmIffIng. If nIso rocoIvos IncomIng
sIgnnIs.
Tho frnnscoIvor Is, In furn, connocfod fo nn Ifhornof ndnpfor, whIch Is pIuggod
Info fho hosf. AII fho IogIc fhnf mnkos up fho Ifhornof profocoI, ns doscrIbod In fhIs
socfIon, Is ImpIomonfod In fho ndnpfor (nof fho frnnscoIvor). ThIs confIgurnfIon Is
shown In IIguro.

Ethernet trunoceiter unJ uJuptor
MuIfIpIo Ifhornof sogmonfs cnn bo joInod fogofhor bv repeoIere. A roponfor Is n
dovIco fhnf forwnrds dIgIfnI sIgnnIs, much IIko nn nmpIIfIor forwnrds nnnIog sIgnnIs.
Ior oxnmpIo, usIng jusf fwo roponfors bofwoon nnv pnIr of hosfs supporfs n
confIgurnfIon sImIInr fo fho ono IIIusfrnfod In IIguro, fhnf Is, n sogmonf runnIng down
fho spIno of n buIIdIng wIfh n sogmonf on onch fIoor. AII foId, nn Ifhornof Is IImIfod fo
supporfIng n mnxImum of l024 hosfs.


Ethernet repeuter
Iocnuso fho cnbIo Is so fhIn, vou do nof fnp Info n l0Inso2 or l0InsoT cnbIo In
fho snmo wnv ns vou wouId wIfh l0Inso5 cnbIo. WIfh l0Inso2, n T-joInf Is spIIcod Info
fho cnbIo. In offocf, l0Inso2 Is usod fo dnIsv-chnIn n sof of hosfs fogofhor.
WIfh l0InsoT, fho common confIgurnfIon Is fo hnvo sovornI poInf-fo-poInf
sogmonfs comIng ouf of n muIfIwnv roponfor, somofImos cnIIod n IuI, ns IIIusfrnfod In
IIguro. MuIfIpIo l00-Mbps Ifhornof sogmonfs cnn nIso bo connocfod bv n hub, buf fho
snmo Is nof fruo of l000-Mbps sogmonfs.

Ethernet hub

B) ACCSS PROTOCOI
Wo now furn our nffonfIon fo fho nIgorIfhm fhnf confroIs nccoss fo fho shnrod
Ifhornof IInk. ThIs nIgorIfhm Is commonIv cnIIod fho Ifhornof`s meJiu ucceoo control
(MAC). If Is fvpIcnIIv ImpIomonfod In hnrdwnro on fho nofwork ndnpfor.
Ivume Iovmut
Inch Ifhornof frnmo Is dofInod bv fho formnf gIvon In IIguro. Tho 64-bIf
pronmbIo nIIows fho rocoIvor fo svnchronIzo wIfh fho sIgnnI; If Is n soquonco of
nIfornnfIng 0s nnd ls. Iofh fho sourco nnd dosfInnfIon hosfs nro IdonfIfIod wIfh n 48-bIf
nddross.
Tho pnckof fvpo fIoId sorvos ns fho domuIfIpIoxIng kov; fhnf Is, If IdonfIfIos fo
whIch of possIbIv mnnv hIghor-IovoI profocoIs fhIs frnmo shouId bo doIIvorod. Inch
frnmo confnIns up fo l500 bvfos of dnfn. MInImnIIv, n frnmo musf confnIn nf Ionsf 46
bvfos of dnfn, ovon If fhIs monns fho hosf hns fo pnd fho frnmo boforo frnnsmIffIng If.
Tho ronson for fhIs mInImum frnmo sIzo Is fhnf fho frnmo musf bo Iong onough
fo dofocf n coIIIsIon. IInnIIv, onch frnmo IncIudos n 32-bIf C!C. Ifhornof Is n bIf-
orIonfod frnmIng profocoI.
ofo fhnf from fho hosf`s porspocfIvo, nn Ifhornof frnmo hns n l4-bvfo hondor:
fwo 6-bvfo nddrossos nnd n 2-bvfo fvpo fIoId. Tho sondIng ndnpfor nffnchos fho
pronmbIo, C!C, nnd posfnmbIo boforo frnnsmIffIng, nnd fho rocoIvIng ndnpfor romovos
fhom.

Ethernet ]rume ]ormut

Addvesses
Inch hosf on nn Ifhornof In fncf, ovorv Ifhornof hosf In fho worId hns n unIquo
Ifhornof nddross. TochnIcnIIv, fho nddross boIongs fo fho ndnpfor, nof fho hosf; If Is
usunIIv burnod Info !OM. Ifhornof nddrossos nro fvpIcnIIv prInfod In n form humnns
cnn rond ns n soquonco of sIx numbors sopnrnfod bv coIons.

Iov eumIe, B:0:2b:e4:b1:2 Is fho humnn-rondnbIo roprosonfnfIon of Ifhornof
nddross 0000l000 00000000 00l0l0ll lll00l00 l0ll000l 000000l0.Inch frnmo
frnnsmIffod on nn Ifhornof Is rocoIvod bv ovorv ndnpfor connocfod fo fhnf Ifhornof.

Inch ndnpfor rocognIzos fhoso frnmos nddrossod fo Ifs nddross nnd pnssos onIv
fhoso frnmos on fo fho hosf. (An ndnpfor cnn nIso bo progrnmmod fo run In proniecuoue
modo, In whIch cnso If doIIvors nII rocoIvod frnmos fo fho hosf, buf fhIs Is nof fho
normnI modo.) In nddIfIon fo fhoso unicoeI nddrossos, nn Ifhornof nddross consIsfIng of
nII ls Is fronfod ns n IrooJcoeI nddross; nII ndnpfors pnss frnmos nddrossod fo fho
brondcnsf nddross up fo fho hosf.
SImIInrIv, nn nddross fhnf hns fho fIrsf bIf sof fo l buf Is nof fho brondcnsf
nddross Is cnIIod n multicuot uddvess. A gIvon hosf cnn progrnm Ifs ndnpfor fo nccopf
somo sof of muIfIcnsf nddrossos. MuIfIcnsf nddrossos nro usod fo sond mossngos fo somo
subsof of fho hosfs on nn Ifhornof.

To summnrIzo, nn Ifhornof ndnpfor rocoIvos nII frnmos nnd nccopfs
frnmos nddrossod fo Ifs own nddross
frnmos nddrossod fo fho brondcnsf nddross
frnmos nddrossod fo n muIfIcnsf nddross, If If hns boon Insfrucfod fo IIsfon fo
fhnf nddross
nII frnmos, If If hns boon pIncod In promIscuous modo
If pnssos fo fho hosf onIv fho frnmos fhnf If nccopfs.

TvunsmIttev AIuovItLm
Tho Ifhornof Is snId fo bo n 1-pereieIenI profocoI bocnuso nn ndnpfor wIfh n
frnmo fo sond frnnsmIfs wIfh probnbIIIfv l whonovor n busv IIno goos IdIo. In gonornI, n
p-pereieIenI nIgorIfhm frnnsmIfs wIfh probnbIIIfv 0 < p < l nffor n IIno bocomos IdIo, nnd
dofors wIfh probnbIIIfv o = l p.
Tho ronsonIng bohInd choosIng n p < l Is fhnf fhoro mIghf bo muIfIpIo ndnpfors
wnIfIng for fho busv IIno fo bocomo IdIo, nnd wo don`f wnnf nII of fhom fo bogIn
frnnsmIffIng nf fho snmo fImo.
Worot-cuoe ocenurio:
(n) A sonds n frnmo nf fImo t, (b) A`s frnmo nrrIvos nf I nf fImo t + J, (c) I bogIns
frnnsmIffIng nf fImo t + J nnd coIIIdos wIfh A`s frnmo; (d) I`s runf (32-bIf) frnmo
nrrIvos nf A nf fImo t +2J.

Onco nn ndnpfor hns dofocfod n coIIIsIon nnd sfoppod Ifs frnnsmIssIon, If wnIfs n
corfnIn nmounf of fImo nnd frIos ngnIn. Inch fImo If frIos fo frnnsmIf buf fnIIs, fho
ndnpfor doubIos fho nmounf of fImo If wnIfs boforo frvIng ngnIn. ThIs sfrnfogv of
doubIIng fho doInv InforvnI bofwoon onch rofrnnsmIssIon nffompf Is n gonornI fochnIquo
known ns exponenIiol Iocloff.

1.10 TOKN RINGS (B02.5, II)
AIongsIdo fho Ifhornof, fokon rIngs nro fho ofhor sIgnIfIcnnf cInss of shnrod-
modIn nofwork. Thoro nro moro dIfforonf fvpos of fokon rIngs fhnn fhoro nro fvpos of
Ifhornofs; ns fho nnmo suggosfs, n fokon rIng nofwork consIsfs of n sof of nodos
connocfod In n rIng (soo IIguro).

Token rin netuork
nfn nIwnvs fIows In n pnrfIcuInr dIrocfIon nround fho rIng, wIfh onch nodo
rocoIvIng frnmos from Ifs upsfronm noIghbor nnd fhon forwnrdIng fhom fo Ifs
downsfronm noIghbor. ThIs rIng-bnsod fopoIogv Is In confrnsf fo fho Ifhornof`s bus
fopoIogv.
!Iko fho Ifhornof, howovor, fho rIng Is vIowod ns n sIngIo shnrod modIum; If
doos nof bohnvo ns n coIIocfIon of Indopondonf poInf-fo-poInf IInks fhnf jusf hnppon fo
bo confIgurod In n Ioop. Thus, n fokon rIng shnros fwo kov fonfuros wIfh nn Ifhornof:

IIvst, If InvoIvos n dIsfrIbufod nIgorIfhm fhnf confroIs whon onch nodo Is
nIIowod fo frnnsmIf, nnd socond, nII nodos soo nII frnmos, wIfh fho nodo IdonfIfIod In fho
frnmo hondor ns fho dosfInnfIon snvIng n copv of fho frnmo ns If fIows pnsf. Hondor ns
fho dosfInnfIon snvIng n copv of fho frnmo ns If fIows pnsf.
Tho word "token" In fokon rIng comos from fho wnv nccoss fo fho shnrod rIng Is
mnnngod. Tho Idon Is fhnf n fokon, whIch Is ronIIv jusf n spocInI soquonco of bIfs,
cIrcuInfos nround fho rIng; onch nodo rocoIvos nnd fhon forwnrds fho fokon.
Whon n nodo fhnf hns n frnmo fo frnnsmIf soos fho fokon, If fnkos fho fokon off
fho rIng (I.o., If doos nof forwnrd fho spocInI bIf pnfforn) nnd Insfond Insorfs Ifs frnmo
Info fho rIng. Inch nodo nIong fho wnv sImpIv forwnrds fho frnmo, wIfh fho dosfInnfIon
nodo snvIng n copv nnd forwnrdIng fho mossngo onfo fho noxf nodo on fho rIng.
Whon fho frnmo mnkos Ifs wnv bnck nround fo fho sondor, fhIs nodo sfrIps Ifs
frnmo off fho rIng (rnfhor fhnn confInuIng fo forwnrd If) nnd roInsorfs fho fokon.In fhIs
wnv, somo nodo downsfronm wIII hnvo fho opporfunIfv fo frnnsmIf n frnmo.
Tho modIn nccoss nIgorIfhm Is fnIr In fho sonso fhnf ns fho fokon cIrcuInfos
nround fho rIng, onch nodo gofs n chnnco fo frnnsmIf. odos nro sorvIcod In n round-
robIn fnshIon.

Ono of fho fIrsf fhIngs vou mIghf worrv nbouf wIfh n rIng fopoIogv Is fhnf nnv
IInk or nodo fnIIuro wouId rondor fho whoIo nofwork usoIoss. ThIs probIom Is nddrossod
bv connocfIng onch sfnfIon Info fho rIng usIng nn oIocfromochnnIcnI roInv.
As Iong ns fho sfnfIon Is honIfhv, fho roInv Is opon nnd fho sfnfIon Is IncIudod In
fho rIng. If fho sfnfIon sfops provIdIng powor, fho roInv cIosos nnd fho rIng
nufomnfIcnIIv bvpnssos fho sfnfIon. ThIs Is IIIusfrnfod In IIguro.

Relux uoeJ on u token rin: (u) relux openhoot uctite, (b) relux clooeJhoot
bxpuooeJ.

SovornI of fhoso roInvs nro usunIIv pnckod Info n sIngIo box, known ns n muIfI-
sfnfIon nccoss unIf (MSA!). ThIs hns fho InforosfIng offocf of mnkIng n fokon rIng
ncfunIIv Iook moro IIko n sfnr fopoIogv, ns shown In IIguro.
If nIso mnkos If vorv onsv fo ndd sfnfIons fo nnd romovo sfnfIons from fho
nofwork, sInco fhov cnn jusf bo pIuggod Info or unpIuggod from fho nonrosf MSA!,
whIIo fho ovornII wIrIng of fho nofwork cnn bo Ioff unchnngod.

Multiotution ucceoo unit

B) TOKN RING MIA ACCSS CONTROI

If Is now fImo fo Iook n IIffIo moro cIosoIv nf how fho MAC profocoI opornfos on n
fokon rIng. Tho nofwork ndnpfor for n fokon rIng confnIns n rocoIvor, n frnnsmIffor, nnd
ono or moro bIfs of dnfn sforngo bofwoon fhom.
As fho fokon cIrcuInfos nround fho rIng, nnv sfnfIon fhnf hns dnfn fo sond mnv
soIzo fho fokon, fhnf Is, drnIn If off fho rIng nnd bogIn sondIng dnfn. In 802.5
nofworks, fho soIzIng procoss InvoIvos sImpIv modIfvIng l bIf In fho socond bvfo fokon;
fho fIrsf 2 bvfos of fho modIfIod fokon now bocomo fho pronmbIo for fho subsoquonf
dnfn pnckof.

Onco n sfnfIon hns fho fokon, If Is nIIowod fo sond ono or moro pnckofs oxncfIv
how mnnv moro doponds on somo fncfors doscrIbod boIow. Inch frnnsmIffod pnckof
confnIns fho dosfInnfIon nddross of fho Infondod rocoIvor; If mnv nIso confnIn n
muIfIcnsf (or brondcnsf) nddross If If Is Infondod fo ronch moro fhnn ono (or nII)
rocoIvors.
As fho pnckof fIows pnsf onch nodo on fho rIng, onch nodo Iooks InsIdo fho pnckof
fo soo If If Is fho Infondod rocIpIonf. If so, If copIos fho pnckof Info n buffor ns If fIows
fhrough fho nofwork ndnpfor, buf If doos nof romovo fho pnckof from fho rIng. Tho
sondIng sfnfIon hns fho rosponsIbIIIfv of romovIng fho pnckof from fho rIng.

Ono Issuo wo musf nddross Is how much dnfn n gIvon nodo Is nIIowod fo frnnsmIf
onch fImo If possossos fho fokon, or snId nnofhor wnv, how Iong n gIvon nodo Is nIIowod
fo hoId fho fokon. Wo cnII fhIs fho Iolen IolJing Iine (THT).
Irom fho fokon hoIdIng fImo wo cnn dorIvo nnofhor usofuI qunnfIfv, fho Iolen
roIoIion Iine (T!T), whIch Is fho nmounf of fImo If fnkos n fokon fo frnvorso fho rIng ns
vIowod bv n gIvon nodo. If Is onsv fo soo fhnf
T!T < AcfIvoodos THT + !Ing!nfoncv
whoro !Ing!nfoncv donofos how Iong If fnkos fho fokon fo cIrcuInfo nround fho rIng
whon no ono hns dnfn fo sond, nnd AcfIvoodos donofos fho numbor of nodos fhnf hnvo
dnfn fo frnnsmIf.


Tho 802.5 profocoI provIdos n form of roIInbIo doIIvorv usIng 2 bIfs In fho pnckof
frnIIor, fho A nnd C bIfs. Thoso nro bofh 0 InIfInIIv. Whon n sfnfIon soos n frnmo for
whIch If Is fho Infondod rocIpIonf, If sofs fho A bIf In fho frnmo. Whon If copIos fho
frnmo Info Ifs ndnpfor, If sofs fho C bIf.
If fho sondIng sfnfIon soos fho frnmo como bnck ovor fho rIng wIfh fho A bIf sfIII
0, If knows fhnf fho Infondod rocIpIonf Is nof funcfIonIng or nbsonf. If fho A bIf Is sof
buf nof fho C bIf, fhIs ImpIIos fhnf for somo ronson (o.g., Inck of buffor spnco) fho
dosfInnfIon couId nof nccopf fho frnmo. Thus, fho frnmo mIghf ronsonnbIv bo
rofrnnsmIffod Infor In fho hopo fhnf buffor spnco hnd bocomo nvnIInbIo.
Anofhor dofnII of fho 802.5 profocoI concorns fho supporf of dIfforonf IovoIs of
prIorIfv. Tho fokon confnIns n 3-bIf prIorIfv fIoId, so wo cnn fhInk of fho fokon hnvIng n
corfnIn prIorIfv n nf nnv fImo. Inch dovIco fhnf wnnfs fo sond n pnckof nssIgns n
prIorIfv fo fhnf pnckof, nnd fho dovIco cnn onIv soIzo fho fokon fo frnnsmIf n pnckof If
fho pnckof`s prIorIfv Is nf Ionsf ns gronf ns fho fokon`s. Tho prIorIfv of fho fokon chnngos
ovor fImo duo fo fho uso of fhroo reeertoIion bIfs In fho frnmo hondor.

Ior oxnmpIo, n sfnfIon X wnIfIng fo sond n prIorIfv n pnckof mnv sof fhoso bIfs fo
n If If soos n dnfn frnmo goIng pnsf nnd fho bIfs hnvo nof nIrondv boon sof fo n hIghor
vnIuo. ThIs cnusos fho sfnfIon fhnf curronfIv hoIds fho fokon fo oIovnfo Ifs prIorIfv fo n
whon If roIonsos If. SfnfIon X Is rosponsIbIo for IoworIng fho fokon prIorIfv fo Ifs oId
vnIuo whon If Is dono.
Ono fInnI Issuo wIII compIofo our dIscussIon of fho MAC profocoI, whIch Is fho
mnffor of oxncfIv whon fho sondIng nodo roIonsos fho fokon. As IIIusfrnfod In IIguro,
fho sondor cnn Insorf fho fokon bnck onfo fho rIng ImmodInfoIv foIIowIng Ifs frnmo (fhIs
Is cnIIod eorlx releoee) or nffor fho frnmo If frnnsmIfs hns gono nII fho wnv nround fho
rIng nnd boon romovod (fhIs Is cnIIod JeloxeJ releoee).
CIonrIv, onrIv roIonso nIIows boffor bnndwIdfh ufIIIznfIon, ospocInIIv on Inrgo
rIngs. 802.5 orIgInnIIv usod doInvod fokon roIonso, buf supporf for onrIv roIonso wns
subsoquonfIv nddod.


Token releuoe: (u) eurlx terouo (b) JeluxeJ.
C) TOKN RING MAINTNANC
Tokon rIngs hnvo n dosIgnnfod monIfor sfnfIon. Tho monIfor`s job Is fo onsuro fho
honIfh of fho rIng. Anv sfnfIon on fho rIng cnn bocomo fho monIfor, nnd fhoro nro
dofInod procoduros bv whIch fho monIfor Is oIocfod whon fho rIng Is fIrsf connocfod or
on fho fnIIuro of fho curronf monIfor.

A honIfhv monIfor porIodIcnIIv nnnouncos Ifs prosonco wIfh n spocInI confroI
mossngo; If n sfnfIon fnIIs fo soo such n mossngo for somo porIod of fImo, If wIII nssumo
fhnf fho monIfor hns fnIIod nnd wIII frv fo bocomo fho monIfor. Tho procoduros for
oIocfIng n monIfor nro fho snmo whofhor fho rIng hns jusf como up or fho ncfIvo monIfor
hns jusf fnIIod.

Whon n sfnfIon docIdos fhnf n now monIfor Is noodod, If frnnsmIfs n cInIm
fokon frnmo, nnnouncIng Ifs Infonf fo bocomo fho now monIfor. If fhnf fokon cIrcuInfos
bnck fo fho sondor, If cnn nssumo fhnf If Is OK for If fo bocomo fho monIfor. If somo
ofhor sfnfIon Is nIso frvIng fo bocomo fho monIfor nf fho snmo Insfnnf, fho sondor mIghf
soo n cInIm fokon mossngo from fhnf ofhor sfnfIon fIrsf.

In fhIs cnso, If wIII bo nocossnrv fo bronk fho fIo usIng somo woII-dofInod ruIo
IIko hIghosf nddross wIns. Onco fho monIfor Is ngrood upon, If pInvs n numbor of
roIos. Wo hnvo nIrondv soon fhnf If mnv nood fo Insorf nddIfIonnI doInv Info fho rIng. If
Is nIso rosponsIbIo for mnkIng suro fhnf fhoro Is nIwnvs n fokon somowhoro In fho rIng,
oIfhor cIrcuInfIng or curronfIv hoId bv n sfnfIon.
If shouId bo cIonr fhnf n fokon mnv vnnIsh for sovornI ronsons, such ns n bIf
orror, or n crnsh on fho pnrf of n sfnfIon fhnf wns hoIdIng If. To dofocf n mIssIng fokon,
fho monIfor wnfchos for n pnssIng fokon nnd mnInfnIns n fImor oqunI fo fho mnxImum
possIbIo fokon rofnfIon fImo. ThIs InforvnI oqunIs
umSfnfIons THT + !Ing!nfoncv
whoro umSfnfIons Is fho numbor of sfnfIons on fho rIng, nnd !Ing!nfoncv Is fho fofnI
propngnfIon doInv of fho rIng. If fho fImor oxpIros wIfhouf fho monIfor sooIng n fokon, If
cronfos n now ono.

Tho monIfor nIso chocks for corrupfod or orphnnod frnmos. Tho formor hnvo
chocksum orrors or InvnIId formnfs, nnd wIfhouf monIfor InforvonfIon, fhov couId
cIrcuInfo forovor on fho rIng. Ono nddIfIonnI rIng mnInfonnnco funcfIon Is fho dofocfIon
of dond sfnfIons.
Tho roInvs In fho MSA! cnn nufomnfIcnIIv bvpnss n sfnfIon fhnf hns boon
dIsconnocfod or poworod down, buf mnv nof dofocf moro subfIo fnIIuros. If nnv sfnfIon
suspocfs n fnIIuro on fho rIng, If cnn sond n Ieocon frnmo fo fho suspocf dosfInnfIon.
Insod on how fnr fhIs frnmo gofs, fho sfnfus of fho rIng cnn bo osfnbIIshod, nnd
mnIfuncfIonIng sfnfIons cnn bo bvpnssod bv fho roInvs In fho MSA!.

) IRAM IORMAT
Wo nro now rondv fo dofIno fho 802.5 frnmo formnf, whIch Is dopIcfod In IIguro.
As nofod nbovo, 802.5 usos dIfforonfInI Mnnchosfor oncodIng. ThIs fncf Is usod bv fho
frnmo formnf, whIch usos IIIognI Mnnchosfor codos In fho sfnrf nnd ond doIImIfors.

S02.5/token rin ]rume ]ormut

Affor fho sfnrf doIImIfor comos fho nccoss confroI bvfo, whIch IncIudos fho frnmo
prIorIfv nnd fho rosorvnfIon prIorIfv monfIonod nbovo. Tho frnmo confroI bvfo Is n
domux kov fhnf IdonfIfIos fho hIghor-Invor profocoI.
) II
In mnnv rospocfs, II Is sImIInr fo 802.5 nnd IIM Tokon !Ings. Howovor, fhoro
nro sIgnIfIcnnf dIfforoncossomo nrIsIng bocnuso If runs on fIbor, nof coppor, nnd
somonrIsIng from InnovnfIons fhnf woro mndo subsoquonf fo fho InvonfIon of fho IIM
Tokon !Ing.

PLysIuI PvoevtIes
!nIIko 802.5 nofworks, nn II nofwork consIsfs of n dunI rIngfwo
Indopondonf rIngs fhnf frnnsmIf dnfn In opposIfo dIrocfIons, ns IIIusfrnfod In IIguro (n).
Tho socond rIng Is nof usod durIng normnI opornfIon buf Insfond comos Info pInv
onIv If fho prImnrv rIng fnIIs, ns dopIcfod In IIguro (b). Thnf Is, fho rIng Ioops bnck on
fho socondnrv fIbor fo form n compIofo rIng, nnd ns n consoquonco, nn II nofwork Is
nbIo fo foIornfo n sIngIo bronk In fho cnbIo or fho fnIIuro of ono sfnfIon.

Duul-]iber rin: (u) normul operution, (b) ]uilure o] the primurx rin

Iocnuso of fho oxponso of fho dunI-rIng confIgurnfIon, II nIIows nodos fo
nffnch fo fho nofwork bv monns of n sIngIo cnbIo. Such nodos nro cnIIod oinle
uttuchment otutiono (SAS); fhoIr dunI-connocfod counforpnrfs nro cnIIod, nof
surprIsIngIv, Juul uttuchment otutiono (AS).
A conconfrnfor Is usod fo nffnch sovornI SASs fo fho dunI rIng, ns IIIusfrnfod In
IIguro. ofIco how fho sIngIo-cnbIo (fwo-fIbor) connocfIon Info nn SAS forms n
connocfod pIoco of fho rIng.
ShouId fhIs SAS fnII, fho conconfrnfor dofocfs fhIs sIfunfIon nnd usos nn opticul
bxpuoo fo IsoInfo fho fnIIod SAS, fhorobv koopIng fho rIng connocfod.

SASo connecteJ to u concentrutor

II usos 4I/5I oncodIng. SInco II wns fho fIrsf popuInr nofworkIng
fochnoIogv fo uso fIbor, nnd 4I/5I chIp sofs opornfIng nf II rnfos bocnmo wIdoIv
nvnIInbIo, 4I/5I hns onjovod consIdornbIo popuInrIfv ns nn oncodIng schomo for fIbor.

TImed Token AIuovItLm
Tho ruIos govornIng fokon hoIdIng fImos nro n IIffIo moro compIox In II fhnn
In 802.5. Tho THT for onch nodo Is dofInod ns boforo nnd Is confIgurod fo somo suIfnbIo
vnIuo.
In nddIfIon, fo onsuro fhnf n gIvon nodo hns fho opporfunIfv fo frnnsmIf wIfhIn n
corfnIn nmounf of fImofhnf Is, fo puf nn uppor bound on fho T!T obsorvod bv nnv
nodowo dofIno n turet token rotution time (TTRT), nnd nII nodos ngroo fo IIvo
wIfhIn fho IImIfs of fho TT!T. (How fho nodos ngroo fo n pnrfIcuInr TT!T Is doscrIbod
In fho noxf subsocfIon.)
SpocIfIcnIIv, onch nodo monsuros fho fImo bofwoon succossIvo nrrIvnIs of fho
fokon. Wo cnII fhIs fho nodo`s meuoureJ TRT. If fhIs monsurod T!T Is gronfor fhnn
fho ngrood-upon TT!T, fhon fho fokon Is Info, nnd fho nodo doos nof frnnsmIf nnv dnfn.
If fhIs monsurod T!T Is Ioss fhnn fho TT!T, fhon fho fokon Is onrIv, nnd fho
nodo Is nIIowod fo hoId fho fokon for fho dIfforonco bofwoon TT!T nnd fho monsurod
T!T.
Tho probIom Is fhnf n nodo wIfh Iofs of dnfn fo sond hns fho opporfunIfv, upon
sooIng nn onrIv fokon, fo hoId fho fokon for so Iong fhnf bv fho fImo n downsfronm nodo
gofs fho fokon, Ifs monsurod T!T Is oqunI fo or oxcoods fho TT!T, monnIng fhnf If sfIII
cnnnof frnnsmIf Ifs frnmo.
To nccounf for fhIs possIbIIIfv, II dofInos fwo cInssos of frnffIc: exncIronoue
nnd oexncIronoue. Whon n nodo rocoIvos n fokon, If Is nIwnvs nIIowod fo sond
svnchronous dnfn, wIfhouf rognrd for whofhor fho fokon Is onrIv or Info. In confrnsf, n
nodo cnn sond nsvnchronous frnffIc onIv whon fho fokon Is onrIv.
ofo fhnf fho forms exncIronoue nnd oexncIronoue nro somowhnf mIsIondIng.
Iv svnchronous, II monns fhnf fho frnffIc Is doInv sonsIfIvo. Ior oxnmpIo, vou wouId
sond voIco or vIdoo ns svnchronous frnffIc on nn II nofwork. In confrnsf,
nsvnchronous monns fhnf fho nppIIcnfIon Is moro Inforosfod In fhroughpuf fhnn doInv.
A fIIo frnnsfor nppIIcnfIon wouId bo nsvnchronous II frnffIc.
Iocnuso svnchronous frnffIc cnn frnnsmIf wIfhouf rognrd fo whofhor fho fokon Is
onrIv or Info, If wouId soom fhnf If onch nodo hnd n sIznbIo nmounf of svnchronous dnfn
fo sond, fhon fho fnrgof rofnfIon fImo wouId ngnIn bo monnIngIoss.
To nccounf for fhIs, fho fofnI nmounf of svnchronous dnfn fhnf cnn bo sonf durIng
ono fokon rofnfIon Is nIso boundod bv TT!T. ThIs monns fhnf In fho worsf cnso, fho
nodos wIfh nsvnchronous frnffIc fIrsf uso up ono TT!T`s worfh of fImo, nnd fhon fho
nodos wIfh svnchronous dnfn consumo nnofhor TT!T`s worfh of fImo, monnIng fhnf If Is
possIbIo for fho monsurod T!T nf nnv gIvon nodo fo bo ns much ns 2 TT!T.

Token MuIntenune
Tho II mochnnIsms for onsurIng fhnf n vnIId fokon Is nIwnvs In cIrcuInfIon
nro nIso dIfforonf from fhoso In 802.5, ns fhov nro InforfwInod wIfh fho procoss of
soffIng fho TT!T.
IIrsf, nII nodos on nn II rIng monIfor fho rIng fo bo suro fhnf fho fokon hns
nof boon Iosf. Obsorvo fhnf In n corrocfIv funcfIonIng rIng, onch nodo shouId soo n vnIId
frnnsmIssIonoIfhor n dnfn frnmo or fho fokonovorv so offon.
Tho gronfosf IdIo fImo bofwoon vnIId frnnsmIssIons fhnf n gIvon nodo shouId
oxporIonco Is oqunI fo fho rIng Infoncv pIus fho fImo If fnkos fo frnnsmIf n fuII frnmo,
whIch on n mnxImnIIv sIzod rIng Is n IIffIo Ioss fhnn 2.5 ms.
Thoroforo, onch nodo sofs n fImor ovonf fhnf fIros nffor 2.5 ms. If fhIs fImor
oxpIros, fho nodo suspocfs fhnf somofhIng hns gono wrong nnd frnnsmIfs n cInIm
frnmo. Ivorv fImo n vnIId frnnsmIssIon Is rocoIvod, howovor, fho nodo rosofs fho fImor
bnck fo 2.5 ms.
Tho cInIm frnmos In II dIffor from fhoso In 802.5 bocnuso fhov confnIn fho
nodo`s IiJ for fho TT!T, fhnf Is, fho fokon rofnfIon fImo fhnf fho nodo noods so fhnf fho
nppIIcnfIons runnIng on fho nodo cnn moof fhoIr fImIng consfrnInfs.
A nodo cnn sond n cInIm frnmo wIfhouf hoIdIng fho fokon nnd fvpIcnIIv doos so
whonovor If suspocfs n fnIIuro or whon If fIrsf joIns fho nofwork. If fhIs cInIm frnmo
mnkos If nII fho wnv nround fho rIng, fhon fho sondor romovos If, knowIng fhnf Ifs
TT!T bId wns fho Iowosf. Thnf nodo now hoIds fho fokonfhnf Is, If Is rosponsIbIo for
InsorfIng n vnIId fokon on fho rIngnnd mnv procood wIfh fho normnI fokon nIgorIfhm.

Ivume Iovmut
Tho II frnmo formnf, dopIcfod In IIguro, dIffors In vorv fow wnvs from fhnf
for 802.5. Iocnuso II usos 4I/5I oncodIng Insfond of Mnnchosfor, If usos 4I/5I
confroI svmboIs rnfhor fhnn IIIognI Mnnchosfor svmboIs In fho sfnrf- nnd ond-of-frnmo
mnrkors.
Tho ofhor sIgnIfIcnnf dIfforoncos nro fho prosonco of n bIf In fho hondor fo
dIsfInguIsh svnchronous from nsvnchronous frnffIc, nnd fho Inck of fho nccoss confroI
bIfs of 802.5.

FDD1 ]rume ]ormut

1.11 WIRISS (B02.11)

WIroIoss nofworkIng Is n rnpIdIv ovoIvIng fochnoIogv for connocfIng
compufors. As wo snw onrIIor In fhIs chnpfor, fho possIbIIIfIos for buIIdIng wIroIoss
nofworks nro nImosf ondIoss, rnngIng from usIng Infrnrod sIgnnIs wIfhIn n sIngIo
buIIdIng fo consfrucfIng n gIobnI nofwork from n grId of Iow-orbIf snfoIIIfos. ThIs socfIon
fnkos n cIosor Iook nf n spocIfIc fochnoIogv conforod on fho omorgIng IIII 802.ll
sfnndnrd.

802.ll wns dosIgnod fo run ovor fhroo dIfforonf phvsIcnI modInfwo bnsod on
sprond spocfrum rndIo nnd ono bnsod on dIffusod Infrnrod. Tho rndIo-bnsod vorsIons
curronfIv run nf ll Mbps, buf mnv soon run nf 54 Mbps. Tho Idon bohInd sprond
spocfrum Is fo sprond fho sIgnnI ovor n wIdor froquoncv bnnd fhnn normnI, so ns fo
mInImIzo fho Impncf of Inforforonco from ofhor dovIcos.

Frequencx hoppin Is n sprond spocfrum fochnIquo fhnf InvoIvos frnnsmIffIng
fho sIgnnI ovor n rnndom soquonco of froquoncIos; fhnf Is, fIrsf frnnsmIffIng nf ono
froquoncv, fhon n socond, fhon n fhIrd, nnd so on.
Tho soquonco of froquoncIos Is nof fruIv rnndom, buf Is Insfond compu fod
nIgorIfhmIcnIIv bv n psoudornndom numbor gonornfor. A socond sprond spocfrum
fochnIquo, cnIIod Jirect oequence, nchIovos fho snmo offocf bv roprosonfIng onch bIf In
fho frnmo bv muIfIpIo bIfs In fho frnnsmIffod sIgnnI.
Ior onch bIf fho sondor wnnfs fo frnnsmIf, If ncfunIIv sonds fho oxcIusIvo-O! of
fhnf bIf nnd n rnndom bIfs. As wIfh froquoncv hoppIng, fho soquonco of rnndom bIfs Is
gonornfod bv n psoudornndom numbor gonornfor known fo bofh fho sondor nnd fho
rocoIvor.
Tho frnnsmIffod vnIuos, known ns nn n-bIf chippin coJe, sprond fho sIgnnI
ncross n froquoncv bnnd fhnf Is n fImos wIdor fhnn fho frnmo wouId hnvo ofhorwIso
roquIrod.

IIguro gIvos nn oxnmpIo of n 4-bIf chIppIng soquonco.802.ll dofInos ono phvsIcnI

Invor usIng froquoncv hoppIng (ovor ?9 l-MHz-wIdo froquoncv bnndwIdfhs) nnd n
socond usIng dIrocf soquonco (usIng nn ll-bIf chIppIng soquonco). Iofh sfnndnrds run
In fho 2.4-CHz froquoncv bnnd of fho oIocfromngnofIc spocfrum.

Erumple 4-bit chippin oequence

Tho fhIrd phvsIcnI sfnndnrd for 802.ll Is bnsod on Infrnrod sIgnnIs. Tho
frnnsmIssIon Is dIffusod, monnIng fhnf fho sondor nnd rocoIvor do nof hnvo fo bo nImod
nf onch ofhor nnd do nof nood n cIonr IIno of sIghf.

B) COIIISION AVOIANC
Af fIrsf gInnco, If mIghf soom fhnf n wIroIoss profocoI wouId foIIow oxncfIv fho
snmo nIgorIfhm ns fho IfhornofwnIf unfII fho IInk bocomos IdIo boforo frnnsmIffIng
nnd bnck off shouId n coIIIsIon occurnnd fo n fIrsf npproxImnfIon, fhIs Is oxncfIv whnf
802.ll doos. Tho probIom Is moro compIIcnfod In n wIroIoss nofwork, howovor, bocnuso
nof nII nodos nro nIwnvs wIfhIn ronch of onch ofhor.

ConsIdor fho sIfunfIon dopIcfod In IIguro, whoro onch of four nodos Is nbIo fo
sond nnd rocoIvo sIgnnIs fhnf ronch jusf fho nodos fo Ifs ImmodInfo Ioff nnd rIghf. Ior
oxnmpIo, I cnn oxchnngo frnmos wIfh A nnd C buf If cnnnof ronch , whIIo C cnn ronch
I nnd buf nof A. (A nnd `s ronch Is nof shown In fho fIguro.)
Supposo bofh A nnd C wnnf fo communIcnfo wIfh I nnd so fhov onch sond If n
frnmo. A nnd C nro unnwnro of onch ofhor sInco fhoIr sIgnnIs do nof cnrrv fhnf fnr.
Thoso fwo frnmos do nof coIIIdo wIfh onch ofhor nf I, buf unIIko nn Ifhornof, A nor C Is
nwnro of fhIs coIIIsIon. A nnd C nro snId fo bo IiJJen noJee wIfh rospocf fo onch ofhor.

802.ll nddrossos fhoso fwo probIoms wIfh nn nIgorIfhm cnIIod MuIfIpIo Accoss
wIfh CoIIIsIon AvoIdnnco (MACA). Tho Idon Is for fho sondor nnd rocoIvor fo oxchnngo
confroI frnmos wIfh onch ofhor boforo fho sondor ncfunIIv frnnsmIfs nnv dnfn. ThIs
oxchnngo Informs nII nonrbv nodos fhnf n frnnsmIssIon Is nbouf fo bogIn.
SpocIfIcnIIv fho sondor frnnsmIfs n IeoueeI Io SenJ (!TS) frnmo fo fho rocoIvor;
fho !TS frnmo IncIudos n fIoId fhnf IndIcnfos how Iong fho sondor wnnfs fo hoId fho
modIum (I.o., If spocIfIos fho Iongfh of fho dnfn frnmo fo bo frnnsmIffod). Tho rocoIvor
fhon ropIIos wIfh n Cleor Io SenJ (CTS) frnmo; fhIs frnmo ochoos fhIs Iongfh fIoId bnck
fo fho sondor.

Anv nodo fhnf soos fho CTS frnmo knows fhnf If Is cIoso fo fho rocoIvor, nnd
fhoroforo cnnnof frnnsmIf for fho porIod of fImo If fnkos fo sond n frnmo of fho spocIfIod
Iongfh. Thoro nro fwo moro dofnIIs fo compIofo fho pIcfuro.
IIrsf, fho rocoIvor sonds nn ACK fo fho sondor nffor succossfuIIv rocoIvIng n
frnmo. AII nodos musf wnIf for fhIs ACK boforo frvIng fo frnnsmIf. Socond, shouId fwo
or moro nodos dofocf nn IdIo IInk nnd frv fo frnnsmIf nn !TS frnmo nf fho snmo fImo,
fhoIr !TS frnmos wIII coIIIdo wIfh onch ofhor.

C) ISTRIBUTION SYSTM
802.ll wouId bo suIfnbIo for nn nd hoc confIgurnfIon of nodos fhnf mnv or mnv
nof bo nbIo fo communIcnfo wIfh nII ofhor nodos, dopondIng on how fnr npnrf fhov nro.
Moroovor, sInco ono of fho ndvnnfngos of n wIroIoss nofwork Is fhnf nodos nro
froo fo movo nroundfhov nro nof fofhorod bv wIrofho sof of dIrocfIv ronchnbIo nodos
mnv chnngo ovor fImo. To hoIp donI wIfh fhIs mobIIIfv nnd pnrfInI connocfIvIfv, 802.ll
dofInos nddIfIonnI sfrucfuro on n sof of nodos.

Acceoo pointo connecteJ to u Jiotribution netuork

IIguro IIIusfrnfos n dIsfrIbufIon svsfom fhnf connocfs fhroo nccoss poInfs, onch of
whIch sorvIcos fho nodos In somo rogIon. Inch of fhoso rogIons Is nnnIogous fo n coII In n
coIIuInr phono svsfom, wIfh fho AIs pInvIng fho snmo roIo ns n bnso sfnfIon.
Tho onIv Imporfnnf poInf Is fhnf fho dIsfrIbufIon nofwork runs nf Invor 2 of fho
ISO nrchIfocfuro; fhnf Is, If doos nof dopond on nnv hIghor-IovoI profocoIs. AIfhough fwo
nodos cnn communIcnfo dIrocfIv wIfh onch ofhor If fhov nro wIfhIn ronch of onch ofhor,
fho Idon bohInd fhIs confIgurnfIon Is fhnf onch nodo nssocInfos IfsoIf wIfh ono nccoss
poInf.
Ior nodo A fo communIcnfo wIfh nodo I, for oxnmpIo, A fIrsf sonds n frnmo fo Ifs
nccoss poInf (AI-l), whIch forwnrds fho frnmo ncross fho dIsfrIbufIon svsfom fo AI-3,
whIch fInnIIv frnnsmIfs fho frnmo fo I.
How AI-l know fo forwnrd fho mossngo fo AI-3 Is bovond fho scopo of 802.ll; If
mnv hnvo usod fho brIdgIng profocoI doscrIbod In fho noxf chnpfor (SocfIon 3.2). Whnf
802.ll doos spocIfv Is how nodos soIocf fhoIr nccoss poInfs nnd, moro InforosfIngIv, how
fhIs nIgorIfhm works In IIghf of nodos movIng from ono coII fo nnofhor.
Tho fochnIquo for soIocfIng nn AI Is cnIIod econning nnd InvoIvos fho foIIowIng four
sfops:
(n) Tho nodo sonds n Irobo frnmo.
(b) AII AIs wIfhIn ronch ropIv wIfh n Irobo !osponso frnmo.
(c) Tho nodo soIocfs ono of fho nccoss poInfs nnd sonds fhnf AI nn AssocInfIon
!oquosf frnmo.
(d) Tho AI ropIIos wIfh nn AssocInfIon !osponso frnmo.

oJe mobilitx.

ConsIdor fho sIfunfIon shown In IIguro, whoro nodo C movos from fho coII
sorvIcod bv AI-l fo fho coII sorvIcod bv AI-2. As If movos, If sonds Irobo frnmos, whIch
ovonfunIIv rosuIf In Irobo !osponso frnmos from AI-2. Af somo poInf, C profors AI-2
ovor AI-l, nnd so If nssocInfos IfsoIf wIfh fhnf nccoss poInf.

Tho mochnnIsm jusf doscrIbod Is cnIIod ocIite econning sInco fho nodo Is ncfIvoIv
sonrchIng for nn nccoss poInf. AIs nIso porIodIcnIIv sond n Ioncon frnmo fhnf ndvorfIsos
fho cnpnbIIIfIos of fho nccoss poInf; fhoso IncIudo fho frnnsmIssIon rnfos supporfod bv
fho AI. ThIs Is cnIIod poeeite econning, nnd n nodo cnn chnngo fo fhIs AI bnsod on fho
Ioncon frnmo sImpIv bv sondIng If nn AssocInfIon !oquosf frnmo bnck fo fho nccoss
poInf.

) IRAM IORMAT
Mosf of fho 802.ll frnmo formnf, whIch Is dopIcfod In IIguro, Is oxncfIv whnf wo
wouId oxpocf. Tho frnmo confnIns fho sourco nnd dosfInnfIon nodo nddrossos, onch of
whIch nro 48 bIfs Iong; up fo 23l2 bvfos of dnfn; nnd n 32-bIf C!C.
Tho ConfroI fIoId confnIns fhroo subfIoIds of Inforosf (nof shown): n 6-bIf Tvpo
fIoId fhnf IndIcnfos whofhor fho frnmo cnrrIos dnfn, Is nn !TS or CTS frnmo, or Is boIng
usod bv fho scnnnIng nIgorIfhm; nnd n pnIr of l-bIf fIoIdscnIIod ToS nnd IromS
fhnf nro doscrIbod boIow.

Tho pocuIInr fhIng nbouf fho 802.ll frnmo formnf Is fhnf If confnIns four, rnfhor
fhnn fwo, nddrossos. How fhoso nddrossos nro Inforprofod doponds on fho soffIngs of
fho ToS nnd IromS bIfs In fho frnmo`s ConfroI fIoId. ThIs Is fo nccounf for fho
possIbIIIfv fhnf fho frnmo hnd fo bo forwnrdod ncross fho dIsfrIbufIon svsfom, whIch
wouId monn fhnf fho orIgInnI sondor Is nof nocossnrIIv fho snmo ns fho mosf roconf
frnnsmIffIng nodo.
SImIInr ronsonIng nppIIos fo fho dosfInnfIon nddross. In fho sImpIosf cnso, whon
ono nodo Is sondIng dIrocfIv fo nnofhor, bofh fho S bIfs nro 0, Addrl IdonfIfIos fho
fnrgof nodo, nnd Addr2 IdonfIfIos fho sourco nodo.
In fho mosf compIox cnso, bofh S bIfs nro sof fo l, IndIcnfIng fhnf fho mossngo
wonf from n wIroIoss nodo onfo fho dIsfrIbufIon svsfom, nnd fhon from fho dIsfrIbufIon
svsfom fo nnofhor wIroIoss nodo.
WIfh bofh bIfs sof, Addrl IdonfIfIos fho uIfImnfo dosfInnfIon, Addr2 IdonfIfIos
fho ImmodInfo sondor (fho ono fhnf forwnrdod fho frnmo from fho dIsfrIbufIon svsfom
fo fho uIfImnfo dosfInnfIon), Addr3 IdonfIfIos fho InformodInfo dosfInnfIon (fho ono fhnf
nccopfod fho frnmo from n wIroIoss nodo nnd forwnrdod If ncross fho dIsfrIbufIon
svsfom), nnd Addr4 IdonfIfIos fho orIgInnI sourco.

1.12 NTWORK AAPTORS

onrIv nII fho nofworkIng funcfIonnIIfv doscrIbod In fhIs chnpfor Is ImpIomonfod
In fho nofwork ndnpfor: frnmIng, orror dofocfIon, nnd fho modIn nccoss profocoI. Tho
onIv oxcopfIons nro fho poInf-fo-poInf nufomnfIc roponf roquosf (A!Q) schomos, whIch
nro fvpIcnIIv ImpIomonfod In fho Iowosf-IovoI profocoI runnIng on fho hosf.

A) COMPONNTS
A nofwork ndnpfor sorvos ns nn Inforfnco bofwoon fho hosf nnd fho nofwork,
nnd ns n rosuIf, If cnn bo fhoughf of ns hnvIng fwo mnIn compononfs: n bus Inforfnco
fhnf undorsfnnds how fo communIcnfo wIfh fho hosf nnd n IInk Inforfnco fhnf sponks
fho corrocf profocoI on fho nofwork. Thoro musf nIso bo n communIcnfIon pnfh bofwoon
fhoso fwo compononfs, ovor whIch IncomIng nnd oufgoIng dnfn Is pnssod.
A sImpIo bIock dIngrnm of n nofwork ndnpfor Is dopIcfod In IIguro. ofwork
ndnpfors nro nIwnvs dosIgnod for n spocIfIc I/O bus, whIch offon procIudos movIng nn
ndnpfor from ono vondor`s mnchIno fo nnofhor.
Inch bus, In offocf, dofInos n profocoI fhnf Is usod bv fho hosf`s CI! fo progrnm
fho ndnpfor, bv fho ndnpfor fo Inforrupf fho hosf`s CI!, nnd bv fho ndnpfor fo rond nnd
wrIfo momorv on fho hosf. Ono of fho mnIn fonfuros of nn I/O bus Is fho dnfn frnnsfor
rnfo fhnf If supporfs.

Block Jiurum o] u txpicul netuork uJuptor
Tho IInk-hnIf of fho ndnpfor ImpIomonfs fho IInk-IovoI profocoI. Ior fnIrIv mnfuro
fochnoIogIos IIko Ifhornof, fho IInk-hnIf of fho ndnpfor Is ImpIomonfod bv n chIp sof
fhnf cnn bo purchnsod on fho commodIfv mnrkof.
Ior nowor IInk fochnoIogIos, howovor, fho IInk-IovoI profocoI mnv bo
ImpIomonfod In soffwnro on n gonornI-purposo mIcroprocossor or porhnps wIfh somo
form of progrnmmnbIo hnrdwnro, such ns n fIoId-progrnmmnbIo gnfo nrrnv (IICA).
Thoso nppronchos gonornIIv ndd fo fho cosf of fho ndnpfor buf mnko If moro
fIoxIbIoIf Is onsIor fo modIfv soffwnro fhnn hnrdwnro nnd onsIor fo roprogrnm IICAs
fhnn fo rodosIgn bonrds.

B) VIW IROM TH HOST
ContvoI Stutus ReuIstev
A nofwork ndnpfor, IIko nnv ofhor dovIco, Is uIfImnfoIv progrnmmod bv soffwnro
runnIng on fho CI!. Irom fho CI!`s porspocfIvo, fho ndnpfor oxporfs n control
otutuo reioter (CS!) fhnf Is rondnbIo nnd wrIfnbIo from fho CI!.
Tho CS! Is fvpIcnIIv Iocnfod nf somo nddross In fho momorv, fhorobv mnkIng If
possIbIo for fho CI! fo rond nnd wrIfo jusf IIko nnv ofhor momorv IocnfIon. Tho CI!
wrIfos fo fho CS! fo Insfrucf If fo frnnsmIf nnd/or rocoIvo n frnmo nnd ronds from fho
CS! fo Ionrn fho curronf sfnfo of fho ndnpfor.

Intevvuts
Tho hosf CI! couId sIf In n fIghf Ioop rondIng fho ndnpfor`s confroI sfnfus
rogIsfor unfII somofhIng InforosfIng hnppons nnd fhon fnko fho npproprInfo ncfIon.
On fho !nnco chIp, for oxnmpIo, If couId confInunIIv wnfch for n l In fho llfh
sIgnIfIcnnf bIf (0x0400), whIch wouId IndIcnfo fhnf n frnmo hns jusf nrrIvod. ThIs Is
cnIIod pollin, nnd nIfhough If Is nof nn unronsonnbIo dosIgn In corfnIn sIfunfIons (o.g.,
n nofwork roufor fhnf hns nofhIng boffor fo do fhnn wnIf for fho noxf frnmo), If Is nof
fvpIcnIIv dono on ond hosfs fhnf couId boffor spond fhoIr fImo runnIng nppIIcnfIon
progrnms.
Insfond of poIIIng, mosf hosfs onIv pnv nffonfIon fo fho nofwork dovIco whon fho
ndnpfor Inforrupfs fho hosf.
Tho dovIco rnIsos nn Inforrupf whon nn ovonf fhnf roquIros hosf InforvonfIon
occursfor oxnmpIo, n frnmo hns boon succossfuIIv frnnsmIffod or rocoIvod, or nn orror
occurrod whon fho dovIco wns nffompfIng fo frnnsmIf or rocoIvo n frnmo.
Tho hosf`s nrchIfocfuro IncIudos n mochnnIsm fhnf cnusos n pnrfIcuInr procoduro
InsIdo fho opornfIng svsfom fo bo Invokod whon such nn Inforrupf occurs. ThIs
procoduro Is known ns nn interrupt hunJler, nnd If Inspocfs fho CS! fo doformIno fho
cnuso of fho Inforrupf nnd fhon fnkos fho npproprInfo ncfIon.

Ivet Memovy Aess vevsus Pvouvummed I/O
Ono of fho mosf Imporfnnf Issuos In nofwork ndnpfor dosIgn Is how fho bvfos of n
frnmo nro frnnsforrod bofwoon fho ndnpfor nnd fho hosf momorv. Thoro nro fwo bnsIc
mochnnIsms: Jirect memorx ucceoo (MA) und prorummeJ 1/O (PIO).
WIfh MA, fho ndnpfor dIrocfIv ronds nnd wrIfos fho hosf`s momorv wIfhouf nnv
CI! InvoIvomonf; fho hosf sImpIv gIvos fho ndnpfor n momorv nddross nnd fho ndnpfor
ronds fo (wrIfos from) If.
WIfh IIO, fho CI! Is dIrocfIv rosponsIbIo for movIng dnfn bofwoon fho ndnpfor
nnd fho hosf momorv: To sond n frnmo, fho CI! sIfs In n fIghf Ioop fhnf fIrsf ronds n
word from hosf momorv nnd fhon wrIfos If fo fho ndnpfor; fo rocoIvo n frnmo, fho CI!
ronds words from fho ndnpfor nnd wrIfos fhom fo momorv.

Whon usIng MA, fhoro Is no nood fo buffor frnmos on fho ndnpfor; fho ndnpfor
ronds nnd wrIfos hosf momorv. Tho CI! Is fhoroforo rosponsIbIo for gIvIng fho ndnpfor
n pnIr of Iuffer JeecripIor lieIe. ono fo frnnsmIf ouf of nnd ono fo rocoIvo Info.
A buffor doscrIpfor IIsf Is nn nrrnv of nddross/Iongfh pnIrs, ns IIIusfrnfod In
IIguro. Whon rocoIvIng frnmos, fho ndnpfor usos ns mnnv buffors ns If noods fo hoId fho
IncomIng frnmo.
Sopnrnfo frnmos nro pIncod In sopnrnfo buffors, nIfhough n sIngIo frnmo mnv bo
scnfforod ncross muIfIpIo buffors. ThIs Inffor fonfuro Is usunIIv cnIIod ecoIIer-reoJ.
Whon fho hosf hns n frnmo fo frnnsmIf, If pufs n poInfor fo fho buffor fhnf
confnIns fho frnmo In fho frnnsmIf doscrIpfor IIsf. ovIcos fhnf supporf goIIer-uriIe
nIIow fho frnmo fo bo frngmonfod ncross muIfIpIo phvsIcnI buffors.
In prncfIco, gnfhor-wrIfo Is moro wIdoIv usod fhnn scnffor-rond bocnuso oufgoIng
frnmos nro offon consfrucfod In n pIocomonI fnshIon, wIfh moro fhnn ono profocoI
confrIbufIng n buffor.

ProrummeJ 1/O

In fho cnso of IIO, fho nofwork ndnpfor musf confnIn somo nmounf of bufforIng
fho CI! copIos frnmos bofwoon hosf momorv nnd fhIs ndnpfor momorv, ns IIIusfrnfod
In IIguro.
Tho bnsIc fncf fhnf nocossIfnfos bufforIng Is fhnf, wIfh mosf opornfIng svsfoms,
vou cnn novor bo suro whon fho CI! wIII gof nround fo doIng somofhIng, so vou nood fo
bo propnrod fo wnIf for If.

TLunuuveI Muvuuun 1. ?0
C) VIC RIVRS
A dovIco drIvor Is n coIIocfIon of opornfIng svsfom roufInos fhnf offocfIvoIv nnchor
fho profocoI sfnck fo fho nofwork hnrdwnro. If fvpIcnIIv IncIudos roufInos fo InIfInIIzo
fho dovIco, frnnsmIf frnmos on fho IInk, nnd fIoId Inforrupfs. Tho codo Is offon dIffIcuIf
fo rond bocnuso If`s fuII of dovIco-spocIfIc dofnIIs, buf fho ovornII IogIc Is ncfunIIv quIfo
sImpIo.
Ior oxnmpIo, n frnnsmIf roufIno fIrsf mnkos suro fhoro Is n froo frnnsmIf buffor
on fho dovIco fo hnndIo fho mossngo. If nof, If hns fo bIock fho procoss unfII ono Is
nvnIInbIo.
Onco fhoro Is nn nvnIInbIo frnnsmIf buffor, fho InvokIng procoss dIsnbIos
Inforrupfs fo profocf IfsoIf from Inforforonco. If fhon frnnsInfos fho mossngo from fho
InfornnI OS formnf fo fhnf oxpocfod bv fho dovIco, sofs fho CS! fo Insfrucf fho dovIco fo
frnnsmIf nnd onnbIos Inforrupfs.
Tho IogIc for fho Inforrupf hnndIor Is oqunIIv sImpIo. If fIrsf dIsnbIos nddIfIonnI
Inforrupfs fhnf mIghf Inforforo wIfh fho procossIng of fhIs Inforrupf. If fhon Inspocfs
fho CS! fo doformIno whnf cnusod fho Inforrupf. Thoro nro fhroo possIbIIIfIos: (l) nn
orror hns occurrod, (2) n frnnsmIf roquosf hns compIofod, or (3) n frnmo hns boon
rocoIvod.
In fho fIrsf cnso, fho hnndIor prInfs n mossngo nnd cIonrs fho orror bIfs. In fho
socond cnso, wo know fhnf n frnnsmIf roquosf fhnf wns quouod onrIIor bv fho frnnsmIf
roufIno hns compIofod, monnIng fhnf fhoro Is now n froo frnnsmIf buffor fhnf cnn bo
rousod.
In fho fhIrd cnso, fho hnndIor cnIIs n rocoIvo roufIno fo oxfrncf fho IncomIng
frnmo from fho rocoIvo buffor IIsf nnd pInco If In fho OS`s InfornnI mossngo dnfn
sfrucfuro, nnd fhon sfnrf n procoss fo shophord fho mossngo up fho profocoI sfnck.
) MMORY BOTTINCK
Hosf momorv porformnnco Is offon fho IImIfIng fncfor In nofwork porformnnco.
owhoro Is fhIs possIbIIIfv moro crIfIcnI fhnn nf fho hosf/ndnpfor Inforfnco. To hoIp
drIvo fhIs poInf homo, consIdor IIguro. ThIs dIngrnm shows fho bnndwIdfh nvnIInbIo
bofwoon vnrIous compononfs of n modorn IC.
WhIIo fho I/O bus Is fnsf onough fo frnnsfor frnmos bofwoon fho nofwork ndnpfor
nnd hosf momorv nf gIgnbIf rnfos, fhoro nro fwo pofonfInI probIoms. Tho fIrsf Is fhnf fho
ndvorfIsod I/O bus spood corrosponds fo Ifs ponk bnndwIdfh; If Is fho producf of fho
bus`s wIdfh nnd cIock spood (o.g., n 32-bIf-wIdo bus runnIng nf 33 MHz hns n ponk
frnnsfor rnfo of l056 Mbps).
Tho ronI IImIfnfIon Is fho sIzo of fho dnfn bIock fhnf Is boIng frnnsforrod ncross
fho I/O bus, sInco fhoro Is n corfnIn nmounf of ovorhond InvoIvod In onch bus frnnsfor.

Memorx bunJuiJth on u moJern PC-cluoo muchine

Tho socond probIom Is fhnf fho momorv/CI! bnndwIdfh, whIch Is 235 MIps
(l880 Mbps), Is fho snmo ordor of mngnIfudo ns fho bnndwIdfh of fho I/O bus.
IorfunnfoIv, fhIs Is n monsurod numbor rnfhor fhnn nn ndvorfIsod ponk rnfo.

Tho rnmIfIcnfIon Is fhnf whIIo If Is possIbIo fo doIIvor frnmos ncross fho I/O bus
nnd Info momorv nnd fhon fo Iond fho dnfn from momorv Info fho CI!`s rogIsfors nf
nofwork bnndwIdfhs, If Is ImprncfIcnI for fho dovIco drIvor, opornfIng svsfom, nnd
nppIIcnfIon fo go fo momorv muIfIpIo fImos for onch word of dnfn In n nofwork pnckof,
possIbIv bocnuso If noods fo copv fho dnfn from ono buffor fo nnofhor.

In pnrfIcuInr, If fho momorv/CI! pnfh Is crossod n fImos, fhon If mIghf bo fho
cnso fhnf fho bnndwIdfh vour nppIIcnfIon soos Is 235 MIps/n.
Tho mnIn poInf of fhIs dIscussIon Is fhnf wo musf bo nwnro of fho IImIfs momorv
bnndwIdfh pIncos on nofwork porformnnco. If cnrofuIIv dosIgnod, fho svsfom cnn work
nround fhoso IImIfs.

IInnIIv, fhoro Is n socond Imporfnnf Iosson IurkIng In fhIs dIscussIon: whon fho
nofwork Isn`f porformIng ns woII ns vou fhInk If shouId, If`s nof nIwnvs fho nofwork`s
fnuIf. In mnnv cnsos, fho ncfunI boffIonock In fho svsfom Is ono of fho mnchInos
connocfod fo fho nofwork.

***N***

UNIT II : NTWORK IAYR
*KuIunu** MuvI MutLu**Kuvuuum**SujutLu**TLunuuveI Muvuuun* 2.1
UNIT II
NTWORK IAYR
2.1 CIRCUIT SWITCHING
CIrcuIf swIfchIng Is n procoss fhnf osfnbIIshos connocfIons on domnnd nnd
pormIfs oxcIusIvo uso of fhoso connocfIons unfII fhov nro roIonsod. If cnn bosf bo
doscrIbod ns n dodIcnfod cIrcuIf sof up for onch communIcnfIon. ThIs connocfIon Is
consIdorod frnnspnronf bocnuso onco osfnbIIshod, dovIcos wouId npponr ns If fhov woro
nffnchod vIn n dIrocf connocfIon.
Onco fho communIcnfIon Is fInIshod, fhIs connocfIon mnv sfIII bo usod for ofhor
usos. A foIophono nofwork Is fho bosf oxnmpIo of n cIrcuIf swIfch nofwork, nnd Is fho
domInnnf fochnoIogv for voIco communIcnfIons, nnd Is sfIII fho cnso In fho prosonf dnv.
Tho connocfIon pnfh Is n dIrocf soquonco of IInks bofwoon fho nodos In fho
nofwork. A IogIcnI chnnnoI Is dodIcnfod fo fho connocfIon for ovorv IInk osfnbIIshod.
Thoro nro fhroo phnsos fhnf summnrIzos fho concopf of communIcnfIon vIn n cIrcuIf
swIfch nofwork.
Advuntuues
l. IIxod bnndwIdfh, gunrnnfood cnpncIfv (no congosfIon)
2. !ow vnrInnco ond-fo-ond doInv (doInv Is nImosf consfnnf)
Isudvuntuues
l. ConnocfIon sof-up nnd fonr-down Infroducos oxfrn ovorhond (fhus InIfInI doInv)
2. !sor pnv for cIrcuIf, ovon whon nof sondIng dnfn
3. Ofhor usors cnn'f uso fho cIrcuIf ovon If If Is froo of frnffIc (sfnfIsfIcs show fhnf
durIng n fvpIcnI phono convorsnfIon, 64-?3 of fho fImo ono sponkor fnIkIng,
3-? of fho fImo bofh sponkors fnIkIng, 20-33 of fho fImo bofh sponkors sIIonf).
2.1.1 CIRCUIT STABIISHMNT

In ordor fo frnnsmIf dnfn or sIgnnI from ono poInf fo nnofhor, fhoro hns fo bo nn
osfnbIIshmonf of connocfIon for fhnf fo hnppon. SInco nII fho poInfs In fho nofwork nro
connocfod vIn fho nodos, fho hosf compufor/sfnfIon wIII sond n roquosf fo fho swIfchIng
nodo for If fo mnko n connocfIon fo fho noxf cIososf nodo, nnd so on unfII fho nodo fhnf
Is ncfunIIv connocfod fo fho fnrgof compufor/sfnfIon.
Jusf boforo n compIofo connocfIon cnn bo mndo, fhnf Is, up fo fho roquosf from
fho fInnI nodo fo fho fnrgof compufor/sfnfIon, n fosf wIII bo conducfod fo doformIno If
fho fnrgof compufor/sfnfIon Is busv or rondv fo nccopf fho connocfIon.

2.1.2 ATA TRANSIR
Onco fho connocfIon Is osfnbIIshod, dnfn or InformnfIon (couId bo nnnIog or
dIgIfnI, dopondIng on fho nofwork) mnv now bo sonf from fho hosf/roquosfIng sfnfIon,
fhrough fho nofwork of nodos, fo fho fnrgof sfnfIon.

2.1.3 CIRCUIT ISCONNCT
Whon fho frnnsmIssIon of dnfn hns boon compIofod, fho connocfIon bofwoon fho
fwo sfnfIons wIII conso, fhrough fho ncfIon of ono or fho ofhor sfnfIon. Thoro wIII nIso bo
sIgnnIs sonf fo fho ofhor nodos fhnf woro InvoIvod In osfnbIIshIng fho dodIcnfod
connocfIon bofwoon fho fwo sfnfIons. ThIs Is nocossnrv In ordor fo froo up rosourcos fhnf
woro usod onrIIor for fho dodIcnfod IIno.
Tho fhroo phnsos monfIonod bnsIcnIIv mnkos up whnf wo mnv form connocfIon
orIonfod sorvIco. Thoroforo wo mnv nIso concIudo fhnf cIrcuIf swIfchIng Is n connocfIon-
orIonfod mochnnIsm.
!nIIko connocfIon orIonfod sorvIco, connocfIonIoss nofwork sorvIco doos nof
prodoformIno Ifs pnfh from fho sourco fo fho dosfInnfIon svsfom. Inch bIock or pnckofs
of dnfn (whIch wo wIII dIscuss Infor In fhIs pnpor whon wo Iook Info pnckof swIfchIng
mochnnIsm) nro nddrossod In ndvnnco bocnuso fhoro mnv bo dIfforonf pnfhs In whIch
fho dnfn wIII frnvoI In fho nofwork In ordor fo ronch Ifs dosfInnfIon.
Tho sourco svsfom frnnsmIfs onch pnckof IndopondonfIv nnd Is nIso mnnngod bv
InformodInfo nofwork dovIcos. Through ndvnncod nddrossIng or dvnnmIc pnfh soIocfIon,
fhIs mnv bo nn ndvnnfngo ovor connocfIon-orIonfod sorvIco ns fho frnffIc mnv bo
roroufod nround n nofwork fnIIuro.

Anofhor sIgnIfIcnnf ndvnnfngo fhnf fhIs fochnoIogv possossos Is fho fncf fhnf If Is
onIv nIIocnfod onough bnndwIdfh for Ifs usngo nnd nofhIng In oxcoss. ThIs wnv, nofwork
rosourcos nro woII sponf nnd no nmounf of bnndwIdfh wIII go unusod or ovorusod.

As wns monfIonod onrIIor, cIrcuIf swIfch nofworks nro bosf usod for voIco frnffIc.
!fIIIznfIon In fhIs sonso Is quIfo hIgh nIfhough If sfIII doos nof ronch Ifs mnxImum
pofonfInI. If mnv bo rnfhor InoffIcIonf for dnfn frnffIc bocnuso chnnnoI cnpncIfv Is
dodIcnfod for fho fImo fhnf fho connocfIon Is mndo, ovon Is fhoro Is no frnnsmIssIon of
dnfn fnkIng pInco.

Ono mnjor poInf Is for fho rnfo of connocfIon fo romnIn sfnbIo fo nIIow for humnn
convorsnfIon on fho nofwork. ThIs Is ospocInIIv Imporfnnf bocnuso frnnsmIssIon nnd
rocopfIon occurs nf fho snmo fImo, ns wo fnIk nnd IIsfon ns woII durIng n foIophono
convorsnfIon.
In fodnv`s worId of growIng dIgIfnI fochnoIogv, fhIs nnnIog concopf romnIns woII
nccopfod, ngnIn for Ifs succoss nf voIco sIgnnI frnnsmIssIons nIfhough Ifs wonknossos
nro bocomIng cIonror. Howovor, If romnIns n suIfnbIo choIco for nofworkIng In !A nnd
WA onvIronmonfs.

2.2 SWITCHING & IORWARING
A swIfch Is nIIows fo Inforconnocf IInks fo form n Inrgor nofwork. A swIfch Is n
muIfI-Inpuf, muIfI-oufpuf dovIco, whIch frnnsfors pnckofs from nn Inpuf fo ono or moro
oufpufs. SwIfch ndds fho sfnr fopoIogv fo fho poInf-fo-poInf IInk, bus (Ifhornof), nnd
rIng (802.5 nnd II) fopoIogv.

A sfnr fopoIogv hns sovornI nffrncfIvo proporfIos:

Ivon fhough n swIfch hns n fIxod numbor of Inpufs nnd oufpufs, whIch IImIfs fho
numbor of hosfs fhnf cnn bo connocfod fo n sIngIo swIfch, Inrgo nofworks cnn bo
buIIf bv InforconnocfIng n numbor of swIfchos.
Wo cnn connocf swIfchos fo onch ofhor nnd fo hosfs usIng poInf-fo-poInf IInks,
whIch fvpIcnIIv monns fhnf wo cnn buIId nofworks of Inrgo googrnphIc scopo.
AddIng n now hosf fo fho nofwork bv connocfIng If fo n swIfch doos nof
nocossnrIIv monn fhnf fho hosfs nIrondv connocfod wIII gof worso porformnnco
from fho nofwork.

SwIfchod nofworks nro consIdorod moro ecoloIle (I.o., moro cnpnbIo of growIng fo
Inrgo numbors of nodos) fhnn shnrod-modIn nofworks bocnuso of fhIs nbIIIfv fo supporf
mnnv hosfs nf fuII spood.

A swIfch Is connocfod fo n sof of IInks nnd, for onch of fhoso IInks, runs fho
npproprInfo dnfn IInk profocoI fo communIcnfo wIfh fho nodo nf fho ofhor ond of fho
IInk.

Fi 2.1.: Erumple Protocol Cruph Fi 2.2.: Erumple Suitch With
Runnin on u ouitch three input unJ output porto

IrImnrv job of swIfch Is fo rocoIvo IncomIng pnckofs on ono of Ifs IInks nnd fo
frnnsmIf fhom on somo ofhor IInk. ThIs funcfIon Is roforrod fo ns ouitchin or
]oruurJin.


Tho swIfch docIdos whIch oufpuf porf fo pInco onch pnckof bnsod on 3 opproocIee:
9 nfngrnm / ConnocfIonIoss.
9 VIrfunI cIrcuIf / ConnocfIon-orIonfod.
9 Sourco roufIng.

2.2.1 ATAGRAM / CONNCTIONISS
Ivorv pnckof confnIns fho compIofo dosfInnfIon nddross. To forwnrd n pnckof, n
swIfch consuIfs n ]oruurJin/routin tuble.

Fi 2.3.: Duturum ]oruurJin: un erumple netuork


Tuble 2.1.: ForuurJin Tuble ]or Suitch 2

ConnocfIonIoss / dnfngrnm nofworks hnvo fho foIIowIng chnrncforIsfIcs:
If Is n connocfIonIoss nofwork, so n hosf cnn sond n pnckof nnvwhoro nf nnv fImo,
Iuf In connocfIon-orIonfod nofwork connocfIon shouId bo osfnbIIshod boforo fho
fIrsf dnfn pnckof Is sonf.

Tho connocfIon Is nof osfnbIIshod n hosf doosn`f know whofhor fho nofwork Is
cnpnbIo of sondIng dnfn nf dosfInnfIon hosf Is runnIng or nof.

Tho pnckof sond Is Indopondonf of provIous pnckofs fhnf mIghf hnvo boon sonf fo
fho snmo dosfInnfIon.

A swIfch or IInk fnIIuro dIdn`f cnuso sorIous offocf on communIcnfIon. If Is
possIbIo fo fInd nIfornnfo roufo & updnfo fho forwnrdIng fnbIo.

*KuIunu** MuvI MutLu**Kuvuuum**SujutLu**TLunuuveI Muvuuun* 2.?
2.2.2 VIRTUAI CIRCUIT SWITCHING

If Is n pnckof swIfchIng fochnIquo fhnf Is connocfIon orIonfod modoI. If hns fwo sfngos,
l) ConnocfIon sofup
2) nfn frnnsfor

In connocfIon sofup, fho connocfIon Is osfnbIIshod nnd connocfIon sfnfo for n
sIngIo connocfIon consIsfs of nn onfrv In VC fnbIo. VC fnbIo onfrv confnIns
9 VCI (VIrfunI CIrcuIf IdonfIfIor) !so fo IdonfIfv fho connocfIon, cnrrIod
InsIdo fho hondor of fho pnckofs.
9 IncomIng Inforfnco whIch pnckofs for fhIs VC nrrIvos nf fho swIfch.
9 OufgoIng Inforfnco whIch pnckofs for fhIs VC nrrIvos nf fho swIfch
9 IofonfInIIv dIfforonf VCI usod fo oufgoIng pnckofs.

Fi 2.4.: A pucket io oent into u tirtuul circuit netuork

Tuble 2.2.: Virtuul circuit tuble entrieo ]or ouitch1
*KuIunu** MuvI MutLu**Kuvuuum**SujutLu**TLunuuveI Muvuuun* 2.B
In nfn Trnnsfor, Hosf A fonrs ouf fho connocfIon bv sondIng n fonr down
mossngo fo swIfchl. Tho swIfch romovos fho roIovnnf onfrv from Ifs fnbIo nnd forwnrd
fho mossngo fo noxf swIfchIng pnfh whIch doIofos fho npproprInfo fnbIo onfrv & fho
connocfIon Is droppod.

Tho mosf popuInr oxnmpIos of vIrfunI cIrcuIf fochnoIogIos nro frnmo !oInv nnd
Asvnchronous Trnnsfor Modo (ATM). Ono of fho nppIIcnfIons of Irnmo !oInv Is fho
consfrucfIon of tirtuul pritute netuorko (VPAe).

Irnmo !oInv provIdos somo bnsIc qunIIfv of sorvIco nnd congosfIon nvoIdnnco
fonfuros buf fhoso nro rnfhor IIghfwoIghf compnrod fo X.25 nnd ATM.

Fi 2.5.: Frume Replux Pucket ]ormut

2.2.3 SOURC ROUTING
If usos noIfhor vIrfunI cIrcuIfs nor convonfIonnI dnfn grnm Is known ns sourco
roufIng. Thoro nro vnrIous wnvs fo ImpIomonf sourco roufIng. Ono wouId bo fo nssIgn n
numbor fo onch oufpuf of onch swIfch nnd fo pInco fhnf numbor In fho hondor of fho
pnckof.
Tho swIfchIng funcfIon Is fhon vorv sImpIo: Ior onch pnckof fhnf nrrIvos on nn
Inpuf, fho swIfch wouId rond fho porf numbor In fho hondor nnd frnnsmIf fho pnckof on
fhnf oufpuf.
Thoro Is fhroo wnvs fo hnndIo hondors for sourco roufIng,
9 !ofnfIon
9 SfrIppIng
9 IoInfor


Fi 2.6.: Source routin in u ouitcheJ netuork

Tho pnckof noods fo frnvorso fhroo swIfchos fo gof from hosfA fo hosfI. Tho
orIgInnI pnckof Ionvos hosfA confnIns porfs 3, 0, l. Inch swIfch ronch fho rIghf mosf
oIomonf of fho IIsf, fhon onch swIfch rofnfos fho IIsf nffor If hns ronds Ifs own onfrv
l,3,0 movos fo swIfch2 nnd 0,l,3 goos fo swIfch3.

IIu 2.?.: n) !ofnfIon b) SfrIppIng c) IoInfor


2.3 BRIGS AN IAN SWITCHS
Wo bogIn bv consIdorIng n cInss of swIfchos fhnf Is usod fo forwnrd pnckofs
bofwoon shnrod-modIn !As such ns Ifhornofs. Such swIfchos nro somofImos known
bv fho obvIous nnmo of !A swIfchos; hIsforIcnIIv fhov hnvo nIso boon roforrod fo ns
brIdgos.
Tho nodo wo hnvo jusf doscrIbod Is fvpIcnIIv cnIIod n IriJge, nnd n coIIocfIon of
!As connocfod bv ono or moro brIdgos Is usunIIv snId fo form nn exIenJeJ IAA.
In fhoIr sImpIosf vnrInnfs, brIdgos sImpIv nccopf !A frnmos on fhoIr Inpufs
nnd forwnrd fhom ouf on nII ofhor oufpufs. ThIs sImpIo sfrnfogv wns usod bv onrIv
brIdgos, buf hns sInco boon rofInod fo mnko brIdgos n moro offocfIvo mochnnIsm for
InforconnocfIng n sof of !As.

2.3.1 IARNING BRIGS
Tho fIrsf opfImIznfIon wo cnn mnko fo n brIdgo Is fo obsorvo fhnf If nood nof
forwnrd nII frnmos fhnf If rocoIvos. ConsIdor fho brIdgo In boIow IIguro.

Fi 2.S.: 1lluotrution o] u leurnin briJe

Whonovor n frnmo from hosfA fhnf Is nddrossod fo hosfI nrrIvos on porf l, fhoro
Is no nood for fho brIdgo fo forwnrd fho frnmo ouf ovor porf 2.

TLe questIon, tLen, Is, How does u bvIdue ome to Ieuvn on wLIL ovt tLe
vuvIous Losts vesIde?
Ono opfIon wouId bo fo hnvo n humnn downIond n fnbIo Info fho brIdgo sImIInr
fo fho ono gIvon In boIow TnbIo.

Tuble 2.3.: ForuurJin tuble muintuineJ bx u briJe

Thon, whonovor fho brIdgo rocoIvos n frnmo on porf l fhnf Is nddrossod fo hosf A,
If wouId nof forwnrd fho frnmo ouf on porf 2; fhoro wouId bo no nood bocnuso hosf A
wouId hnvo nIrondv dIrocfIv rocoIvod fho frnmo on fho !A connocfod fo porf l.
AnvfImo n frnmo nddrossod fo hosf A wns rocoIvod on porf 2, fho brIdgo wouId forwnrd
fho frnmo ouf on porf l.

Tho Idon Is for onch brIdgo fo Inspocf fho eource nddross In nII fho frnmos If
rocoIvos. Thus, whon hosf A sonds n frnmo fo n hosf on oIfhor sIdo of fho brIdgo, fho
brIdgo rocoIvos fhIs frnmo nnd rocords fho fncf fhnf n frnmo from hosf A wns jusf
rocoIvod on porf l.
ImIementutIon
Tho codo fhnf ImpIomonfs fho IonrnIng brIdgo nIgorIfhm Is quIfo sImpIo, nnd wo
skofch If horo. Sfrucfuro IrIdgoInfrv dofInos n sIngIo onfrv In fho brIdgo`s forwnrdIng
fnbIo; fhoso nro sforod In n Mnp sfrucfuro (whIch supporfs mnpCronfo, mnpIInd, nnd
Mnp!osoIvo opornfIons) fo onnbIo onfrIos fo bo offIcIonfIv Iocnfod whon pnckofs nrrIvo
from sourcos nIrondv In fho fnbIo. Tho consfnnf MAX TT! spocIfIos how Iong nn onfrv Is
kopf In fho fnbIo boforo If Is dIscnrdod.

=Jefine BI1DG1_TAB_S1Z1 1024 /* nox. eice of IriJging IoIle */
=Jefine MAX_TTI 120 /* Iine (in eeconJe) Iefore on
enIrx ie flueIeJ */
IxpeJef eIrucI
{
MocAJJr JeeIinoIion, /* MAC oJJreee of o noJe */
inI ifnunIer, /* inIerfoce Io reocI iI */
u_eIorI TTI, /* Iine Io lite */
BinJing IinJing, /* IinJing in IIe Mop */
} BriJge1nIrx,
inI nun1nIriee = 0,
Mop IriJgeMop = nopCreoIe(BI1DG1_TAB_S1Z1, eiceof(BriJge1nIrx)),

Tho roufIno fhnf updnfos fho forwnrdIng fnbIo whon n now pnckof nrrIvos Is
gIvon bv updnfoTnbIo. Tho nrgumonfs pnssod nro fho sourco MAC nddross confnInod In
fho pnckof nnd fho Inforfnco numbor on whIch If wns rocoIvod.
Anofhor roufIno, nof shown horo, Is Invokod nf roguInr InforvnIs, scnns fho
onfrIos In fho forwnrdIng fnbIo, nnd docromonfs fho TT! (fImo fo IIvo) fIoId of onch
onfrv, dIscnrdIng nnv onfrIos whoso TT! hns ronchod 0.
ofo fhnf fho TT! Is rosof fo MAX TT! ovorv fImo n pnckof nrrIvos fo rofrosh nn
oxIsfIng fnbIo onfrv, nnd fhnf fho Inforfnco on whIch fho dosfInnfIon cnn bo ronchod Is
updnfod fo rofIocf fho mosf roconfIv rocoIvod pnckof.

toiJ
upJoIeToIle (MocAJJr erc, inI inif)
{
BriJge1nIrx *I,
if (nopIeeolte(IriJgeMop, &erc, (toiJ **)&I) == IAIS1)
{
/* IIie oJJreee ie noI in IIe IoIle, eo Irx Io oJJ iI */
if (nun1nIriee < BI1DG1_TAB_S1Z1)
{
I = A1W(BriJge1nIrx),
I->IinJing = nopBinJ( IriJgeMop, &erc, I),
/* uee eource oJJreee of pocleI oe JeeI. oJJreee in
IoIle */
I->JeeIinoIion = erc,
nun1nIriee++,
}
elee
{
/* con'I fiI IIie oJJreee in IIe IoIle nou, eo gite
up */
reIurn,
}
}
/* reeeI TTI onJ uee noeI recenI inpuI inIerfoce */
I->TTI = MAX_TTI,
I->ifnunIer = inif,
}

ofo fhnf fhIs ImpIomonfnfIon ndopfs n sImpIo sfrnfogv In fho cnso whoro fho
brIdgo fnbIo hns bocomo fuII fo cnpncIfvIf sImpIv fnIIs fo ndd fho now nddross.
!ocnII fhnf compIofonoss of fho brIdgo fnbIo Is nof nocossnrv for corrocf
forwnrdIng; If jusf opfImIzos porformnnco. If fhoro Is somo onfrv In fho fnbIo fhnf Is nof
curronfIv boIng usod, If wIII ovonfunIIv fImo ouf nnd bo romovod, cronfIng spnco for n
now onfrv.

2.3.2 SPANNING TR AIGORITHM
Tho procodIng sfrnfogv works jusf fIno unfII fho oxfondod !A hns n Ioop In If, In
whIch cnso If fnIIs In n horrIbIo wnvfrnmos pofonfInIIv Ioop fhrough fho oxfondod
!A forovor.

Fi 2.0.: ErtenJeJ LA uith loopo

Horo brIdgos Il, I4, nnd I6 form n Ioop. How doos nn oxfondod !A como fo
hnvo n Ioop In If` Ono possIbIIIfv Is fhnf fho nofwork Is mnnngod bv moro fhnn ono
ndmInIsfrnfor, for oxnmpIo, bocnuso If spnns muIfIpIo dopnrfmonfs In nn orgnnIznfIon.
In such n soffIng, If Is possIbIo fhnf no sIngIo porson knows fho onfIro

confIgurnfIon of fho nofwork, monnIng fhnf n brIdgo fhnf cIosos n Ioop mIghf bo nddod
wIfhouf nnvono knowIng. A socond, moro IIkoIv sconnrIo Is fhnf Ioops nro buIIf Info fho
nofwork on purposofo provIdo rodundnncv In cnso of fnIIuro.
Whnfovor fho cnuso, brIdgos musf bo nbIo fo corrocfIv hnndIo Ioops. ThIs probIom
Is nddrossod bv hnvIng fho brIdgos run n dIsfrIbufod opunnin tree nIgorIfhm.
If vou fhInk of fho oxfondod !A ns boIng roprosonfod bv n grnph fhnf possIbIv
hns Ioops(cvcIos), fhon n spnnnIng froo Is n subgrnph of fhIs grnph fhnf covors (spnns)
nII fho vorfIcos, buf confnIns no cvcIos.
Thnf Is, n spnnnIng froo koops nII of fho vorfIcos of fho orIgInnI grnph, buf fhrows
ouf somo of fho odgos. Ior oxnmpIo, fho boIow IIguro shows n cvcIIc grnph on fho Ioff
nnd ono of possIbIv mnnv spnnnIng froos on fho rIghf.

Fi 2.10.: Erumple o] u cxclic ruph Fi2.11.: Erumple o] u correoponJin
opunnin tree

Tho mnIn Idon of fho spnnnIng froo Is for fho brIdgos fo soIocf fho porfs ovor
whIch fhov wIII forwnrd frnmos. Tho nIgorIfhm soIocfs porfs ns foIIows. Inch brIdgo hns
n unIquo IdonfIfIor; for our purposos, wo uso fho InboIs Il, I2, I3, nnd so on.
Tho nIgorIfhm fIrsf oIocfs fho brIdgo wIfh fho smnIIosf Id ns fho roof of fho
spnnnIng froo; oxncfIv how fhIs oIocfIon fnkos pInco Is doscrIbod boIow.
Tho roof brIdgo nIwnvs forwnrds frnmos ouf ovor nII of Ifs porfs. oxf, onch
brIdgo compufos fho shorfosf pnfh fo fho roof nnd nofos whIch of Ifs porfs Is on fhIs
pnfh. ThIs porf Is nIso soIocfod ns fho brIdgo`s proforrod pnfh fo fho roof.
IInnIIv, nII fho brIdgos connocfod fo n gIvon !A soIocf n sIngIo JeoinuteJ
brIdgo fhnf wIII bo rosponsIbIo for forwnrdIng frnmos fownrd fho roof brIdgo.

Fi 2.12.: Spunnin tree uith oome porto not oelecteJ

Tho nbovo IIguro shows fho spnnnIng froo fhnf corrosponds fo fho oxfondod
!A shown In IIg 2.9. In fhIs oxnmpIo, Il Is fho roof brIdgo, sInco If hns fho smnIIosf
Id. ofIco fhnf bofh I3 nnd I5 nro connocfod fo !A A, buf I5 Is fho dosIgnnfod brIdgo
sInco If Is cIosor fo fho roof.

*KuIunu** MuvI MutLu**Kuvuuum**SujutLu**TLunuuveI Muvuuun* 2.1?
SImIInrIv, bofh I5 nnd I? nro connocfod fo !A I, buf In fhIs cnso, I5 Is fho

dosIgnnfod brIdgo sInco If hns fho smnIIor Id; bofh nro nn oqunI dIsfnnco from Il.

SeIIIuIIy, tLe onIIuuvutIon messuues ontuIn tLvee Iees oI InIovmutIon:
fho Id for fho brIdgo fhnf Is sondIng fho mossngo
fho Id for whnf fho sondIng brIdgo boIIovos fo bo fho roof brIdgo
fho dIsfnnco, monsurod In hops, from fho sondIng brIdgo fo fho roof brIdgo
Inch brIdgo rocords fho curronf bosf confIgurnfIon mossngo If hns soon on
onch of Ifs porfs (bosf Is dofInod boIow), IncIudIng bofh mossngos If hns rocoIvod from
ofhor brIdgos nnd mossngos fhnf If hns IfsoIf frnnsmIffod.
InIfInIIv, onch brIdgo fhInks If Is fho roof, nnd so If sonds n confIgurnfIon
mossngo ouf on onch of Ifs porfs IdonfIfvIng IfsoIf ns fho roof nnd gIvIng n dIsfnnco fo
fho roof of 0.
!pon rocoIvIng n confIgurnfIon mossngo ovor n pnrfIcuInr porf, fho brIdgo
chocks fo soo If fhnf now mossngo Is boffor fhnn fho curronf bosf confIgurnfIon mossngo
rocordod for fhnf porf. Tho now confIgurnfIon mossngo Is consIdorod boffor fhnn fho
curronfIv rocordod InformnfIon If
If IdonfIfIos n roof wIfh n smnIIor Id or
If IdonfIfIos n roof wIfh nn oqunI Id buf wIfh n shorfor dIsfnnco or
Tho roof Id nnd dIsfnnco nro oqunI, buf fho sondIng brIdgo hns n smnIIor Id.

Whon n brIdgo rocoIvos n confIgurnfIon mossngo IndIcnfIng fhnf If Is nof fho roof
brIdgofhnf Is, n mossngo from n brIdgo wIfh n smnIIor Idfho brIdgo sfops gonornfIng
confIgurnfIon mossngos on Ifs own nnd Insfond onIv forwnrds confIgurnfIon mossngos
from ofhor brIdgos, nffor fIrsf nddIng l fo fho dIsfnnco fIoId.
!IkowIso, whon n brIdgo rocoIvos n confIgurnfIon mossngo fhnf IndIcnfos If Is nof
fho dosIgnnfod brIdgo for fhnf porf fhnf Is, n mossngo from n brIdgo fhnf Is cIosor fo fho
roof or oqunIIv fnr from fho roof buf wIfh n smnIIor Id fho brIdgo sfops sondIng
confIgurnfIon mossngos ovor fhnf porf.
*KuIunu** MuvI MutLu**Kuvuuum**SujutLu**TLunuuveI Muvuuun* 2.1B
Thus, whon fho svsfom sfnbIIIzos, onIv fho roof brIdgo Is sfIII gonornfIng
confIgurnfIon mossngos, nnd fho ofhor brIdgos nro forwnrdIng fhoso mossngos onIv ovor
porfs for whIch fhov nro fho dosIgnnfod brIdgo.
Wo donofo n confIgurnfIon mossngo from nodo X In whIch If cInIms fo bo dIsfnnco
J from roof nodo Y ns (Y, J, X).

IocusIng on fho ncfIvIfv nf nodo I3, n soquonco of ovonfs wouId unfoId ns foIIows:
I3 rocoIvos (I2, 0, I2).
SInco 2 < 3, I3 nccopfs I2 ns roof.
I3 ndds ono fo fho dIsfnnco ndvorfIsod bv I2 (0) nnd fhus sonds (I2, l, I3)
fownrd I5.
MonnwhIIo, I2 nccopfs Il ns roof bocnuso If hns fho Iowor Id, nnd If sonds
(Il, l, I2) fownrd I3.
I5 nccopfs Il ns roof nnd sonds (Il, l, I5) fownrd I3.
I3 nccopfs Il ns roof, nnd If nofos fhnf bofh I2 nnd I5 nro cIosor fo fho roof
fhnn If Is. Thus I3 sfops forwnrdIng mossngos on bofh Ifs Inforfncos.

ThIs Ionvos I3 wIfh bofh porfs nof soIocfod, ns shown In IIguro 3.l4.Ivon nffor fho
svsfom hns sfnbIIIzod, fho roof brIdgo confInuos fo sond confIgurnfIon mossngos
porIodIcnIIv, nnd fho ofhor brIdgos confInuo fo forwnrd fhoso mossngos ns doscrIbod In
fho provIous pnrngrnph.

2.3.3 BROACAST AN MUITICAST
Tho procodIng dIscussIon hns focusod on how brIdgos forwnrd unIcnsf frnmos
from ono !A fo nnofhor. SInco fho gonI of n brIdgo Is fo frnnspnronfIv oxfond n !A
ncross muIfIpIo nofworks, nnd sInco mosf !As supporf bofh brondcnsf nnd muIfIcnsf,
fhon brIdgos musf nIso supporf fhoso fwo fonfuros.
Irondcnsf Is sImpIoonch brIdgo forwnrds n frnmo wIfh n dosfInnfIon brondcnsf

nddross ouf on onch ncfIvo (soIocfod) porf ofhor fhnn fho ono on whIch fho frnmo wns
rocoIvod.
MuIfIcnsf cnn bo ImpIomonfod In oxncfIv fho snmo wnv, wIfh onch hosf
docIdIng for If whofhor or nof fo nccopf fho mossngo. ThIs Is oxncfIv whnf Is dono In
prncfIco.
ofIco, howovor, fhnf sInco nof nII fho !As In nn oxfondod !A nocossnrIIv
hnvo n hosf fhnf Is n mombor of n pnrfIcuInr muIfIcnsf group, If Is possIbIo fo do boffor.
SpocIfIcnIIv, fho spnnnIng froo nIgorIfhm cnn bo oxfondod fo pruno nofworks ovor whIch
muIfIcnsf frnmos nood nof bo forwnrdod. ConsIdor n frnmo sonf fo group M bv n hosf on
!A A In IIg 2.l2.
If fhoro Is no hosf on !A J fhnf boIongs fo group M, fhon fhoro Is no nood for
brIdgo I4 fo forwnrd fho frnmos ovor fhnf nofwork. On fho ofhor hnnd, nof hnvIng n
hosf on !A H fhnf boIongs fo group doos nof nocossnrIIv monn fhnf brIdgo Il cnn
nvoId forwnrdIng muIfIcnsf frnmos onfo !A H. If nII doponds on whofhor or nof fhoro
nro mombors of group M on !As I nnd J.

2.3.4 IIMITATIONS OI BRIGS
Tho mnIn IImIfnfIons of brIdgos bocomo nppnronf whon wo consIdor fho Issuos
of scnIo nnd hoforogonoIfv. On fho Issuo of scnIo, If Is nof ronIIsfIc fo connocf moro fhnn
n fow !As bv monns of brIdgos, whoro In prncfIco fow fvpIcnIIv monns fons of.

Ono ronson for fhIs Is fhnf fho spnnnIng froo nIgorIfhm scnIos IInonrIv; fhnf Is,
fhoro Is no provIsIon for ImposIng n hIornrchv on fho oxfondod !A. A socond ronson Is
fhnf brIdgos forwnrd nII brondcnsf frnmos.
Ono nppronch fo IncronsIng fho scnInbIIIfv of oxfondod !As Is fho tirIuol IAA
(V!A). V!As nIIow n sIngIo oxfondod !A fo bo pnrfIfIonod Info sovornI soomIngIv
sopnrnfo !As.

Inch vIrfunI !A Is nssIgnod nn IdonfIfIor (somofImos cnIIod n color), nnd

pnckofs cnn onIv frnvoI from ono sogmonf fo nnofhor If bofh sogmonfs hnvo fho snmo
IdonfIfIor. ThIs hns fho offocf of IImIfIng fho numbor of sogmonfs In nn oxfondod !A
fhnf wIII rocoIvo nnv gIvon brondcnsf pnckof.

Fi 2.13.: Tuo tirtuul LAo ohure u common buckbone

Wo cnn soo how V!As work wIfh nn oxnmpIo. Tho nbovo IIguro shows four
hosfs on four dIfforonf !A sogmonfs. In fho nbsonco of V!As, nnv brondcnsf pnckof
from nnv hosf wIII ronch nII fho ofhor hosfs.

ow Iof`s supposo fhnf wo dofIno fho sogmonfs connocfod fo hosfs W nnd X ns
boIng In ono V!A, whIch woÌI cnII V!A l00.Wo nIso dofIno fho sogmonfs fhnf
connocf fo hosfs Y nnd Z ns boIng In V!A 200. To do fhIs, wo nood fo confIguro n
V!A I on onch porf of brIdgos Il nnd I2. Tho IInk bofwoon Il nnd I2 Is consIdorod
fo bo In bofh V!As.

Whon n pnckof sonf bv hosf X nrrIvos nf brIdgo I2, fho brIdgo obsorvos fhnf If
cnmo In n porf fhnf wns confIgurod ns boIng In V!A l00. If Insorfs n V!A hondor
bofwoon fho Ifhornof hondor nnd Ifs pnvIond. Tho InforosfIng pnrf of fho V!A hondor
Is fho V!A I; In fhIs cnso, fhnf I Is sof fo l00.
Tho brIdgo now nppIIos Ifs normnI ruIos for forwnrdIng fo fho pnckof, wIfh fho
oxfrn rosfrIcfIon fhnf fho pnckof mnv nof bo sonf ouf nn Inforfnco fhnf Is nof pnrf of
V!A l00.

Thus, undor no cIrcumsfnncos wIII fho pnckof ovon n brondcnsf pnckof bo sonf
ouf fho Inforfnco fo hosf Z, whIch Is In V!A 200. Tho pnckof Is, howovor, forwnrdod fo
brIdgo Il, whIch foIIows fho snmo ruIos, nnd fhus mnv forwnrd fho pnckof fo hosf W
buf nof fo hosf Y.

An nffrncfIvo fonfuro of V!As Is fhnf If Is possIbIo fo chnngo fho IogIcnI
fopoIogv wIfhouf movIng nnv wIros or chnngIng nnv nddrossos. Ior oxnmpIo, If wo
wnnfod fo mnko fho sogmonf fhnf connocfs fo hosf Z bo pnrf of V!A l00, nnd fhus
onnbIo X, W, nnd Z fo bo on fho snmo vIrfunI !A, wo wouId jusf nood fo chnngo ono
pIoco of confIgurnfIon on brIdgo I2.

On fho Issuo of hoforogonoIfv, brIdgos nro fnIrIv IImIfod In fho kInds of nofworks
fhov cnn Inforconnocf. In pnrfIcuInr, brIdgos mnko uso of fho nofwork`s frnmo hondor
nnd so cnn supporf onIv nofworks fhnf hnvo oxncfIv fho snmo formnf for nddrossos.
Thus, brIdgos cnn bo usod fo connocf Ifhornofs fo Ifhornofs, 802.5 fo 802.5, nnd
Ifhornofs fo 802.5 rIngs, sInco bofh nofworks supporf fho snmo 48-bIf nddross formnf.
IrIdgos do nof rondIIv gonornIIzo fo ofhor kInds of nofworks, such ns ATM.3.

2.4 CII SWITCHING (ATM)
Anofhor swIfchIng fochnoIogv fhnf dosorvos spocInI nffonfIon Is oexncIronoue
Ironefer noJe (ATM).
ATM bocnmo nn Imporfnnf fochnoIogv In fho l980s nnd onrIv l990s for n vnrIofv
of ronsons, nof fho Ionsf of whIch Is fhnf If wns ombrncod bv fho foIophono Indusfrv,
whIch hns hIsforIcnIIv boon Ioss fhnn ncfIvo In dnfn communIcnfIons oxcopf ns n
suppIIor of IInks on fop of whIch ofhor poopIo hnvo buIIf nofworks.
ATM nIso hnpponod fo bo In fho rIghf pInco nf fho rIghf fImo, ns n hIgh-spood
swIfchIng fochnoIogv fhnf npponrod on fho scono jusf whon shnrod modIn IIko Ifhornof
nnd 802.5 woro sfnrfIng fo Iook n bIf foo sIow for mnnv usors of compufor nofworks.

ATM Is n connocfIon-orIonfod, pnckof-swIfchod fochnoIogv; If usos vIrfunI cIrcuIfs
vorv much In fho mnnnor. In ATM formInoIogv, fho connocfIon sofup phnso Is cnIIod
oinullin.

Tho mnIn ATM sIgnnIIng profocoI Is known ns Q.293l. In nddIfIon fo dIscovorIng
n suIfnbIo roufo ncross nn ATM nofwork, Q.293l Is nIso rosponsIbIo for nIIocnfIng
rosourcos nf fho swIfchos nIong fho cIrcuIf. ThIs Is dono In nn offorf fo onsuro fho cIrcuIf
n pnrfIcuInr qunIIfv of sorvIco. Indood, fho QoS cnpnbIIIfIos of ATM nro ono of Ifs
gronfosf sfrongfhs.

Whon nnv vIrfunI connocfIon Is sof up, If Is nocossnrv fo puf fho nddross of fho
dosfInnfIon In fho sIgnnIIIng mossngo. In ATM, fhIs nddross cnn bo In ono of sovornI
formnfs, fho mosf common onos boIng I.l64 nnd SAI (nofwork sorvIco nccoss poInf);
Tho pnckofs fhnf nro swIfchod In nn ATM nofwork nro of fIxod Iongfh. Thnf Iongfh
hnppons fo bo 53 bvfos5 bvfos of hondor foIIowod bv 48 bvfos of pnvIond.

2.4.1 CIIS
VnrInbIo-Iongfh pnckofs nro normnIIv consfrnInod fo fnII wIfhIn somo bounds.
Tho Iowor bound Is sof bv fho mInImum nmounf of InformnfIon fhnf noods fo bo
confnInod In fho pnckof, whIch Is fvpIcnIIv n hondor wIfh no opfIonnI oxfonsIons.

Tho uppor bound mnv bo sof bv n vnrIofv of fncfors; fho mnxImum II pnckof
sIzo, for oxnmpIo, doformInos how Iong onch sfnfIon Is nIIowod fo frnnsmIf wIfhouf
pnssIng on fho fokon, nnd fhus doformInos how Iong n sfnfIon mIghf hnvo fo wnIf for
fho fokon fo ronch If. CoIIs nro bofh fIxod In Iongfh nnd smnII In sIzo.

CeII SIze
If vou onIv hnvo l bvfo fo sond (o.g., fo ncknowIodgo fho rocoIpf of n pnckof), vou
puf If In n mInImum-sIzod pnckof. If vou hnvo n Inrgo fIIo fo sond, howovor, vou bronk If
up Info ns mnnv mnxImum sIzod pnckofs ns vou nood.
You do nof nood fo sond nnv oxfrnnoous pnddIng In fho fIrsf cnso, nnd In fho
socond, vou drIvo down fho rnfIo of hondor fo dnfn bvfos, fhus IncronsIng bnndwIdfh
offIcIoncv. You nIso mInImIzo fho fofnI numbor of pnckofs sonf, fhorobv mInImIzIng fho
fofnI procossIng Incurrod bv por-pnckof opornfIons.
ThIs cnn bo pnrfIcuInrIv Imporfnnf In obfnInIng hIgh fhroughpuf, sInco mnnv
nofwork dovIcos nro IImIfod nof bv how mnnv IiIe por socond fhov cnn procoss buf
rnfhor bv fho numbor of pocleIe por socond.

So, uhx uoe ]ireJ-lenth cellor
Ono of fho mnIn ronsons wns fo fncIIIfnfo fho ImpIomonfnfIon of hnrdwnro
swIfchos. IIxod-Iongfh pnckofs furn ouf fo bo n vorv hoIpfuI fhIng If vou wnnf fo buIId
fnsf, hIghIv scnInbIo swIfchos. Thoro nro fwo mnIn ronsons for fhIs:
9 If Is onsIor fo buIId hnrdwnro fo do sImpIo jobs, nnd fho job of procossIng pnckofs
Is sImpIor whon vou nIrondv know how Iong onch ono wIII bo.
9 If nII pnckofs nro fho snmo Iongfh, fhon vou cnn hnvo Iofs of swIfchIng oIomonfs
nII doIng much fho snmo fhIng In pnrnIIoI, onch of fhom fnkIng fho snmo fImo fo
do Ifs job.

ThIs socond ronson, fho onnbIIng of pnrnIIoIIsm, gronfIv Improvos fho scnInbIIIfv
of swIfch dosIgns. If wouId bo ovorsfnfIng fho cnso fo snv fhnf fnsf pnrnIIoI hnrdwnro
swIfchos cnn onIv bo buIIf usIng fIxod-Iongfh coIIs.
Quouos buIId up In n swIfch whon frnffIc from sovornI Inpufs mnv bo hondIng for
n sIngIo oufpuf. In gonornI, onco vou oxfrncf n pnckof from n quouo nnd sfnrf
frnnsmIffIng If, vou nood fo confInuo unfII fho whoIo pnckof Is frnnsmIffod; If Is nof
prncfIcnI fo proompf fho frnnsmIssIon of n pnckof.
Tho Iongosf fImo fhnf n quouo oufpuf cnn bo fIod up Is oqunI fo fho fImo If fnkos
fo frnnsmIf n mnxImum-sIzod pnckof. IIxod-Iongfh coIIs monn fhnf n quouo oufpuf Is
novor fIod up for moro fhnn fho fImo If fnkos fo frnnsmIf ono coII, whIch Is nImosf
corfnInIv shorfor fhnn fho mnxImum-sIzod pnckof on n vnrInbIo-Iongfh pnckof nofwork.
Quouos of coIIs nIso fond fo bo n IIffIo shorfor fhnn quouos of pnckofs, for fho
foIIowIng ronson. Whon n pnckof bogIns fo nrrIvo In nn ompfv quouo, If Is fvpIcnI for fho
swIfch fo hnvo fo wnIf for fho whoIo pnckof fo nrrIvo boforo If cnn sfnrf frnnsmIffIng fho
pnckof on nn oufgoIng IInk. ThIs monns fhnf fho IInk sIfs IdIo whIIo fho pnckof nrrIvos.
Howovor, If vou ImngIno n Inrgo pnckof boIng ropIncod bv n frnIn of smnII coIIs,
fhon ns soon ns fho fIrsf coII In fho frnIn hns onforod fho quouo, fho swIfch cnn frnnsmIf
If. ImngIno In fho oxnmpIo nbovo whnf wouId hnppon If fwo 4-KI pnckofs nrrIvod In n
quouo nf nbouf fho snmo fImo.
Tho IInk wouId sIf IdIo for 32?.68 s whIIo fhoso fwo pnckofs nrrIvo, nnd nf fho
ond of fhnf porIod wo wouId hnvo 8 KI In fho quouo. OnIv fhon couId fho quouo sfnrf fo
ompfv. If fhoso snmo fwo pnckofs woro sonf ns frnIns of coIIs, fhon frnnsmIssIon of fho
coIIs couId sfnrf 4.24 s nffor fho fIrsf frnIn sfnrfod fo nrrIvo.
Af fho ond of 32?.68 s, fho IInk wouId hnvo boon ncfIvo for n IIffIo ovor 323 s,
nnd fhoro wouId bo jusf ovor 4 KI of dnfn Ioff In fho quouo, nof 8 KI ns boforo. Shorfor
quouos monn Ioss doInv for nII fho frnffIc.
HnvIng docIdod fo uso smnII, fIxod-Iongfh pnckofs, fho noxf quosfIon Is uhut io
the riht lenth to ]ir them utr If vou mnko fhom foo shorf, fhon fho nmounf of dnfn
fhnf fIfs In ono coII gofs Inrgor, so fho porconfngo of IInk bnndwIdfh fhnf Is ncfunIIv
usod fo cnrrv dnfn goos down.
Ivon moro sorIousIv, If vou buIId n dovIco fhnf procossos coIIs nf somo mnxImum
numbor of coIIs por socond, fhon ns coIIs gof shorfor, fho fofnI dnfn rnfo drops In dIrocf
proporfIon fo coII sIzo.
An oxnmpIo of such n dovIco mIghf bo n nofwork ndnpfor fhnf ronssombIos coIIs
Info Inrgor unIfs boforo hnndIng fhom up fo fho hosf. Tho porformnnco of such n dovIco
doponds dIrocfIv on coII sIzo.
On fho ofhor hnnd, If vou mnko fho coIIs foo bIg, fhon fhoro Is n probIom of
wnsfod bnndwIdfh cnusod bv fho nood fo pnd frnnsmIffod dnfn fo fIII n compIofo coII. If
fho coII pnvIond sIzo Is 48 bvfos nnd vou wnnf fo sond l bvfo, vouÌI nood fo sond 4?
bvfos of pnddIng. If fhIs hnppons n Iof, fhon fho ufIIIznfIon of fho IInk wIII bo vorv Iow.

CeII Iovmut

Fi 2.14.: ATM Cell Formut ut the U1

CFC (Ceneric Flou Control) -> If hns 4 bIfs CIC bIfs wnnfs fo frnnsmIf provIdo n
monns fo nrbIfrnfo nccoss fo fho IInk If fho IocnI sIfo usod somo shnrod modIum fo
connocf fo ATM. Thoso bIfs nof wIdoIv usod.
Tho ATM coII ncfunIIv comos In fwo dIfforonf formnfs, dopondIng on whoro vou
Iook In fho nofwork. Tho ono shown In IIguro 3.l6 Is cnIIod fho !I (usor-nofwork
Inforfnco) formnf; fho nIfornnfIvo Is fho I (nofwork-nofwork Inforfnco).
Tho !I formnf Is usod, of courso, nf fho usor-fo-nofwork Inforfnco. ThIs Is IIkoIv
fo bo fho Inforfnco bofwoon n foIophono compnnv nnd ono of Ifs cusfomors. Tho nofwork-
fo-nofwork Inforfnco Is IIkoIv fo bo bofwoon n pnIr of phono compnnIos. Tho onIv
sIgnIfIcnnf dIfforonco In coII formnfs Is fhnf fho I formnf ropIncos fho CIC fIoId wIfh
4 oxfrn bIfs of VII.
Tho !I coII hns 4 bIfs for gonorIc fIow confroI (CIC). Tho bnsIc Idon bohInd fho
CIC bIfs wns fo provIdo n monns fo nrbIfrnfo nccoss fo fho IInk If fho IocnI sIfo usod
somo shnrod modIum fo connocf fo ATM.
Tho noxf 24 bIfs confnIn nn 8-bIf vIrfunI pnfh IdonfIfIor (VII) nnd n l6-bIf vIrfunI
cIrcuIf IdonfIfIor (VCI). Tho dIfforonco bofwoon fho fwo Is oxpInInod boIow, buf for now
If Is ndoqunfo fo fhInk of fhom ns n sIngIo 24-bIf IdonfIfIor fhnf Is usod fo IdonfIfv n
vIrfunI connocfIon.
IoIIowIng fho VII/VCI Is n 3-bIf Tvpo fIoId fhnf hns oIghf possIbIo vnIuos. Iour
of fhom, whon fho fIrsf bIf In fho fIoId Is sof, roInfo fo mnnngomonf funcfIons. Whon
fhnf bIf Is cIonr, If monns fhnf fho coII confnIns usor dnfn. In fhIs cnso, fho socond bIf Is
fho oxpIIcIf forwnrd congosfIon IndIcnfIon (IICI) bIf, nnd fho fhIrd Is fho usor
sIgnnIIIng bIf. Tho formor cnn bo sof bv n congosfod swIfch fo foII nn ond nodo fhnf If Is
congosfod; If hns Ifs roofs In fho ICbIf.
CoII !oss IrIorIfv (C!I); n usor or nofwork oIomonf mnv sof fhIs bIf fo IndIcnfo
coIIs fhnf shouId bo droppod proforonfInIIv In fho ovonf of ovorIond. Ior oxnmpIo, n
vIdoo codIng nppIIcnfIon couId sof fhIs bIf for coIIs fhnf, If droppod, wouId nof
drnmnfIcnIIv dogrndo fho qunIIfv of fho vIdoo.
Tho Insf bvfo of fho hondor Is nn 8-bIf C!C, known ns fho hondor orror chock
(HIC). If usos fho C!C-8 poIvnomInI nnd provIdos orror dofocfIon nnd sIngIo-bIf orror
corrocfIon cnpnbIIIfv on fho coII hondor onIv. IrofocfIng fho coII hondor Is pnrfIcuInrIv
Imporfnnf bocnuso nn orror In fho VCI wIII cnuso fho coII fo bo mIsdoIIvorod.

2.4.2 SGMNTATION AN RASSMBIY
A Iow-IovoI profocoI couId jusf nccopf fho pnckof hnndod down fo If bv n hIgh-
IovoI profocoI, nffnch Ifs own hondor, nnd pnss fho pnckof on down. ThIs Is nof possIbIo
wIfh ATM, howovor, sInco fho pnckofs hnndod down from nbovo nro offon Inrgor fhnn
48 bvfos, nnd fhus, wIII nof fIf In fho pnvIond of nn ATM coII.
Tho soIufIon fo fhIs probIom Is fo frognenI fho hIgh-IovoI mossngo Info Iow-IovoI
pnckofs nf fho sourco, frnnsmIf fho IndIvIdunI Iow-IovoI pnckofs ovor fho nofwork, nnd
fhon ronssombIo fho frngmonfs bnck fogofhor nf fho dosfInnfIon. ThIs gonornI fochnIquo
Is usunIIv cnIIod frognenIoIion onJ reoeeenIlx. In fho cnso of ATM, howovor, If Is offon
cnIIod eegnenIoIion onJ reoeeenIlx (SA!).
SogmonfnfIon Is nof unIquo fo ATM, buf If Is much moro of n probIom fhnn In n
nofwork wIfh n mnxImum pnckof sIzo of, snv, l500 bvfos. To nddross fho Issuo, n
profocoI Invor wns nddod fhnf sIfs bofwoon ATM nnd fho vnrInbIo-Iongfh pnckof
profocoIs fhnf mIghf uso ATM, such ns II.
ThIs Invor Is cnIIod fho ATM AdnpfnfIon !nvor (AA!), nnd fo n fIrsf
npproxImnfIon, fho AA! hondor sImpIv confnIns fho InformnfIon noodod bv fho
dosfInnfIon fo ronssombIo fho IndIvIdunI coIIs bnck Info fho orIgInnI mossngo.

Fi 2.15.: Sementution unJ Reuooemblx in ATM

In fhIs 4 AdnpfnfIon !nvors nro nvnIInbIo, fhov nnmod ns AA!l, AA!2, AA!3, AA!4.
AA!l & AA!2 ->osIgnod fo supporf nppIIcnfIon IIko voIco.
AA!3 & AA!4 ->Infondod fo supporf for pnckof runnIng ovor.
AA!3 ConnocfIon orIonfod
AA!4 ConnocfIonIoss

AA!s morgod Info ono fhnf Is InconvonIonfIv known ns AA!3/4. MonnwhIIo,
somo porcoIvod shorfcomIngs In AA!3/4 cnusod n fIffh AA! fo bo proposod, cnIIod
AA!5. Thus, fhoro nro now four AA!s: l, 2, 3/4, nnd 5.

ATM AdututIon Iuyev 3 / 4
Tho mnIn funcfIon of AA!3/4 Is fo provIdo onough InformnfIon fo nIIow vnrInbIo
Iongfh pnckofs fo bo frnnsporfod ncross fho ATM nofwork ns n sorIos of fIxod-Iongfh
coIIs.
Thnf Is, fho AA! supporfs fho sogmonfnfIon nnd ronssombIv procoss. SInco wo
nro now workIng nf n now Invor of fho nofwork hIornrchv, convonfIon roquIros us fo
Infroduco n now nnmo for n pnckofIn fhIs cnso; wo cnII If n protocol Jutu unit
(I!). Tho fnsk of sogmonfnfIon/ronssombIv InvoIvos fwo dIfforonf pnckof formnfs. Tho
fIrsf of fhoso Is fho conterence oubluxer protocol Jutu unit (CS-I!).

Fi 2.16.: ATM AJuptution Luxer 3 /4 Pucket Formut

Tho CS-I! formnf bogIns wIfh nn 8-bIf common pnrf IndIcnfor (CII), whIch
IndIcnfos whIch vorsIon of fho CS-I! formnf Is In uso. OnIv fho vnIuo 0 Is curronfIv
dofInod. Tho noxf 8 bIfs confnIn fho bogInnIng fng (Ifng), whIch Is supposod fo mnfch
fho ond fng (Ifng) for n gIvon I!.

Tho buffor nIIocnfIon sIzo (IASIzo) fIoId Is nof nocossnrIIv fho Iongfh of fho I!
(whIch npponrs In fho frnIIor); If Is supposod fo bo n hInf fo fho ronssombIv procoss ns fo
how much buffor spnco fo nIIocnfo for fho ronssombIv.

Tho ronson for nof IncIudIng fho ncfunI Iongfh horo Is fhnf fho sondIng hosf
mIghf nof hnvo known how Iong fho CS-I! wns whon If frnnsmIffod fho hondor. Tho
CS-I! frnIIor IfsoIf confnIns fho Ifng nnd fho ronI Iongfh of fho I! (!on).

Fi 2.17: ATM Cell Formut ]or AAL 3 / 4


Tuble 2.4.: AAL 3 / 4 Txpe FielJ

AA!3/4 spocIfIos n hondor nnd frnIIor fhnf nro cnrrIod In onch coII. Tho fIrsf fwo
bIfs of fho AA!3/4 hondor confnIn fho Tvpo fIoId, whIch IndIcnfos If fhIs Is fho fIrsf coII
of n CS-I!, fho Insf coII of n CS-I!, n coII In fho mIddIo of n CS-I!, or n sIngIo-
coII I!.
oxf Is n 4-bIf soquonco numbor (SIQ), whIch Is Infondod sImpIv fo dofocf coII
Ioss or mIsordorIng so fhnf ronssombIv cnn bo nborfod. CIonrIv, n soquonco numbor fhIs
smnII cnn mIss coII Iossos If fho numbor of Iosf coIIs Is Inrgo onough.
ThIs Is foIIowod bv n muIfIpIoxIng IdonfIfIor (MI), whIch cnn bo usod fo
muIfIpIox sovornI I!s onfo n sIngIo connocfIon. Tho 6-bIf !ongfh fIoId shows fho
numbor of bvfos of I! fhnf nro confnInod In fho coII; If musf oqunI 44 for IOM nnd
COM coIIs. IInnIIv, n l0-bIf C!C Is usod fo dofocf orrors nnvwhoro In fho 48-bvfo coII
pnvIond.

Fi 2.1S.: Encupoulution unJ Sementution ]or AAL 3 / 4.
Af fho fop, fho usor dnfn Is oncnpsuInfod wIfh fho CS-I! hondor nnd frnIIor.
Tho CS-I! Is fhon sogmonfod Info 44-bvfo pnvIonds, whIch nro oncnpsuInfod ns ATM
coIIs bv nddIng fho AA!3/4 hondor nnd frnIIor ns woII ns fho 5-bvfo ATM hondor.

ATM AdututIon Iuyev 5
Ono fhIng vou mnv hnvo nofIcod In fho dIscussIon of AA!3/4 Is fhnf If sooms fo
fnko n Iof of fIoIds nnd fhus n Iof of ovorhond fo porform fho concopfunIIv sImpIo
funcfIon of sogmonfnfIon nnd ronssombIv.
ThIs obsorvnfIon wns, In fncf, mndo bv sovornI poopIo In fho onrIv dnvs of ATM,
nnd numorous compofIng proposnIs nroso for nn AA! fo supporf compufor
communIcnfIons ovor ATM.
Thoro wns n movomonf, known InformnIIv ns Inck fho IIf, fhnf nrguod fhnf If
wo couId jusf hnvo l bIf In fho ATM hondor (ns opposod fo fho AA! hondor) fo doIInonfo
fho ond of n frnmo, fhon sogmonfnfIon nnd ronssombIv couId bo nccompIIshod wIfhouf
usIng nnv of fho 48-bvfo ATMpnvIond for sogmonfnfIon/ronssombIv InformnfIon. ThIs
movomonf ovonfunIIv Iod fo fho dofInIfIon of fho usor sIgnnIIIng bIf doscrIbod nbovo nnd
fo fho sfnndnrdIznfIon of AA!5.

Fi 2.10: ATM AJuptution Luxer 5 Pucket Formut

Whnf AA!5 doos Is ropInco fho 2-bIf Tvpo fIoId of AA!3/4 wIfh l bIf of frnmIng
InformnfIon In fho ATM coII hondor. Iv soffIng fhnf l bIf, wo cnn IdonfIfv fho Insf coII of
n I!; fho noxf coII Is nssumod fo bo fho fIrsf coII of fho noxf I!, nnd subsoquonf
coIIs nro nssumod fo bo COM coIIs unfII nnofhor coII Is rocoIvod wIfh fho usor sIgnnIIIng
bIf sof.
AII fho pIocos of AA!3/4 fhnf provIdo profocfIon ngnInsf Iosf, corrupf, or
mIsordorod coIIs, IncIudIng fho Ioss of nn IOM coII, nro provIdod bv fho AA!5 CS-I!
pnckof formnf.

Fi 2.20.: Encupoulution unJ Sementution ]or AAL5

Tho usor dnfn Is oncnpsuInfod fo form n CS-I! (nIfhough usIng onIv n frnIIor
In fhIs cnso). Tho rosuIfIng I! Is fhon cuf up Info 48-bvfo chunks, whIch nro cnrrIod
dIrocfIv InsIdo fho pnvIond of ATM coIIs wIfhouf nnv furfhor oncnpsuInfIon.

Tho mnIn fonfuro mIssIng from AA!5 Is fho nbIIIfv fo provIdo nn nddIfIonnI Invor
of muIfIpIoxIng onfo ono vIrfunI cIrcuIf usIng fho MI. If Is nof cIonr whofhor fhIs Is n
sIgnIfIcnnf Ioss.

If Is sfIII possIbIo fo muIfIpIox frnffIc from mnnv nppIIcnfIons nnd hIghor-Invor
profocoIs onfo n sIngIo VC usIng AA!5 bv cnrrvIng n domux kov of fho sorf doscrIbod In
SocfIon l.3.l. If jusf bocomos nocossnrv fo do fho muIfIpIoxIng on n pnckof-bv-pnckof,
rnfhor fhnn n coII-bv-coII, bnsIs.

2.4.3 VIRTUAI PATHS

ATM usos n 24-bIf IdonfIfIor for vIrfunI cIrcuIfs. Tho 24-bIf IdonfIfIor Is spIIf Info
fwo pnrfs: nn 8-bIf vIrfunI pnfh IdonfIfIor (VII) nnd n l6-bIf vIrfunI cIrcuIf IdonfIfIor
(VCI).
Supposo fhnf n corpornfIon hns fwo sIfos fhnf connocf fo n pubIIc ATM nofwork,
nnd fhnf nf onch sIfo fho corpornfIon hns n nofwork of ATM swIfchos. Wo couId ImngIno
osfnbIIshIng n vIrfunI pnfh bofwoon fwo sIfos usIng onIv fho VII fIoId. Thus, fho
swIfchos In fho pubIIc nofwork wouId uso fho VII ns fho onIv fIoId on whIch fo mnko
forwnrdIng docIsIons.

Fi 2.21.: Erumple o] u tirtuul puth

Irom fhoIr poInf of vIow, fhIs Is n vIrfunI cIrcuIf nofwork wIfh 8-bIf cIrcuIf
IdonfIfIors. Tho l6-bIf VCI Is of no Inforosf fo fhoso pubIIc swIfchos, nnd fhov noIfhor
uso fho fIoId for swIfchIng nor romnp If.
WIfhIn fho corpornfo sIfos, howovor, fho fuII 24-bIf spnco Is usod for swIfchIng.
Anv frnffIc fhnf noods fo fIow bofwoon fho fwo sIfos Is roufod fo n swIfch fhnf hns n
connocfIon fo fho pubIIc nofwork, nnd Ifs fop 8 bIfs (fho VII) nro mnppod onfo fho
npproprInfo vnIuo fo gof fho dnfn fo fho ofhor sIfo.

2.4.4 PHYSICAI IAYRS IOR ATM
Irom onrIv In fho procoss of sfnndnrdIzIng ATM, If wns nssumod fhnf ATM
wouId run on fop of n SOIT phvsIcnI Invor (soo SocfIon 2.3.3). Somo poopIo ovon gof
ATM nnd SOIT confusod bocnuso fhov hnvo boon so fIghfIv coupIod for so Iong.
WhIIo If Is fruo fhnf sfnndnrd wnvs of cnrrvIng ATM coIIs InsIdo n SOIT frnmo
hnvo boon dofInod, nnd fhnf vou cnn now buv ATM-ovor-SOIT producfs, fho fwo nro
onfIroIv sopnrnbIo. A nofnbIo onrIv phvsIcnI Invor for ATM wns TAXI, fho phvsIcnI Invor
usod In II. WIroIoss phvsIcnI Invors for ATM nro nIso boIng dofInod.
Whon vou sond ATM coIIs ovor somo phvsIcnI modIum, fho mnIn Issuo Is how fo
fInd fho boundnrIos of fho ATM coIIs; fhIs Is oxncfIv fho frnmIng probIom. WIfh SOIT,
fhoro nro fwo onsv wnvs fo fInd fho boundnrIos.
Ono of fho ovorhond bvfos In fho SOIT frnmo cnn bo usod ns n poInfor Info fho
SOIT pnvIond fo fho sfnrf of nn ATM coII. HnvIng found fho sfnrf of ono coII, If Is
known fhnf fho noxf coII sfnrfs 53 bvfos furfhor on In fho SOIT pnvIond, nnd so on.
Tho ofhor wnv fo fInd fho boundnrIos of ATM coIIs fnkos ndvnnfngo of fho fncf
fhnf ovorv coII hns n C!C In fho fIffh bvfo of fho coII. Thus, If vou run n C!C cnIcuInfIon
ovor fho Insf 5 bvfos rocoIvod nnd fho nnswor comos ouf fo IndIcnfo no orrors, fhon If Is
probnbIv fruo fhnf vou hnvo jusf rond nn ATM hondor.

2.4.5 ATM IN TH IAN
ATM grow ouf of fho foIophonv communIfv, who onvIsIonod If ns n wnv fo buIId
Inrgo pubIIc nofworks fhnf couId frnnsporf voIco, vIdoo, nnd dnfn frnffIc. Howovor, If
wns subsoquonfIv ombrncod bv sogmonfs of fho compufor nnd dnfn communIcnfIons
IndusfrIos ns n fochnoIogv fo bo usod In !Asn ropIncomonf for Ifhornof nnd 802.5.

Tho 2 mnIn fncfors,
ATM Is n swIfchod fochnoIogv, whorons Ifhornof nnd 802.5 woro orIgInnIIv
onvIsIonod ns shnrod-modIn fochnoIogIos.
ATM wns dosIgnod fo opornfo on IInks wIfh spoods of l55 Mbps nnd nbovo,
compnrod fo fho orIgInnI l0 Mbps of Ifhornof nnd 4 or l6 Mbps of fokon rIngs.

Whon ATM swIfchos fIrsf bocnmo nvnIInbIo, fhoso woro sIgnIfIcnnf ndvnnfngos
ovor fho oxIsfIng soIufIons.
In pnrfIcuInr, swIfchod nofworks hnvo n bIg porformnnco ndvnnfngo ovor shnrod-

modIn nofworks: A sIngIo shnrod-modIn nofwork hns n fIxod fofnI bnndwIdfh fhnf musf
bo shnrod nmong nII hosfs, whorons onch hosf gofs Ifs own dodIcnfod IInk fo fho swIfch
In n swIfchod nofwork. Thus fho porformnnco of swIfchod nofworks scnIos boffor fhnn
fhnf of shnrod-modIn nofworks.
Ono ndvnnfngo of ATM ovor Ifhornof fhnf romnIns Is fho Inck of dIsfnnco
IImIfnfIon for ATM IInks. AIso, hIghor-spood ATM IInks (o.g., 622 Mbps) soon bocnmo
nvnIInbIo.
ThIs mndo ATM fnIrIv popuInr for fho hIgh-porformnnco bnckbono of Inrgor
!As. Ono common confIgurnfIon wns fo connocf hosfs fo Ifhornof swIfchos, whIch In
furn couId bo Inforconnocfod bv ATM swIfchos.

Fi 2.22.: ATM uoeJ uo u LA Buckbone

Moro roconfIv, fho fochnoIogv fhnf hns probnbIv ovorfnkon ATM for !A
bnckbonos nnd sorvor connocfIons Is CIgnbIf Ifhornof.

CIgnbIf Ifhornof IInks uso fho snmo frnmIng ns Iowor-spood Ifhornofs buf nro
usunIIv poInf-fo-poInf fIbor IInks nnd cnn run ovor roInfIvoIv Iong dIsfnncos (up fo
sovornI kIIomofors). And fho snmo bnsIc nppronch Is now scnIIng up fo provIdo l0-Cbps
IInks.
Ono sIgnIfIcnnf probIom wIfh runnIng ATM In n !A Is fhnf If doosn`f Iook IIko n
frndIfIonnI !A. Iocnuso mosf !As (I.o., Ifhornofs nnd fokon rIngs) nro shnrod
modIn nofworks (I.o., ovorv nodo on fho !A Is connocfod fo fho snmo IInk), If Is onsv fo
ImpIomonf brondcnsf (sondIng fo ovorvbodv) nnd muIfIcnsf (sondIng fo n group).

Thus, mnnv of fho profocoIs fhnf poopIo dopond on In fhoIr !Asfor oxnmpIo,
fho Addross !osoIufIon IrofocoI (A!I)dopond In furn on fho nbIIIfv of fho !A fo
supporf muIfIcnsf nnd brondcnsf. Howovor, bocnuso of Ifs connocfIon-orIonfod nnd
swIfchod nnfuro, ATM bohnvos rnfhor dIfforonfIv fhnn n shnrod-modIn !A.
To mnko ATM bohnvo moro IIko n shnrod-modIn !AIn fho sonso of
supporfIng muIfIcnsf nnd brondcnsfwIfhouf IosIng fho porformnnco ndvnnfngos of n
swIfchod nofwork.
ThIs nppronch hns boon spocIfIod bv fho ATM Iorum ns !A omuInfIon or
!AI (whIch mIghf bo moro corrocfIv cnIIod shnrod-modIn omuInfIon). ThIs nppronch
nIms fo ndd funcfIonnIIfv fo ATM !As so fhnf nnvfhIng fhnf runs ovor n shnrod-modIn
!A cnn opornfo ovor nn ATM !A.

Ono nspocf of !A omuInfIon fhnf cnn bo confusIng Is fho vnrIofv of dIfforonf
nddrossos nnd IdonfIfIors fhnf nro usod. AII ATM dovIcos musf hnvo nn ATM nddross,
whIch Is usod whon sIgnnIIIng fo osfnbIIsh n VC. As nofod nbovo, fhoso nddrossos nro
dIfforonf from fho sfnndnrd IIII 802 MAC nddrossos usod In Ifhornofs, fokon rIngs,
nnd so on.
!A omuInfIon doos nof ncfunIIv chnngo fho funcfIonnIIfv of ATM swIfchos, buf
ndds funcfIonnIIfv fo fho nofwork fhrough fho nddIfIon of n numbor of sorvors.

ovIcos fhnf connocf fo fho ATM nofworkhosfs, brIdgos, rouforsnro roforrod

fo ns !A omuInfIon cIIonfs (!ICs). Tho InforncfIons bofwoon !ICs nnd fho vnrIous
sorvors rosuIf In nofwork bohnvIor fhnf, from fho poInf of vIow of nnv hIghor-Invor
profocoI, Is IndIsfInguIshnbIo from fhnf of nn Ifhornof or fokon rIng nofwork.

Fi 2.23.: Protocol luxero in LA emulution

Tho profocoI Invors In fho cnso whoro n pnIr of hosfs communIcnfos ncross nn
ATM nofwork fhnf Is omuInfIng n !A. Iv Ifhornof-IIko Inforfnco, wo monn fhnf fho
sorvIcos offorod up fo hIghor Invors nro IIko fhoso of nn Ifhornof: Irnmos cnn bo
doIIvorod fo nnv MAC nddross on fho !A; frnmos cnn bo brondcnsf fo nII dosfInnfIons
on fho !A, nnd so on.

Tho sorvors fhnf nro roquIrod fo buIId nn omuInfod !A nro
9 Tho !A omuInfIon confIgurnfIon sorvor (!ICS)
9 Tho !A omuInfIon sorvor (!IS)
9 Tho brondcnsf nnd unknown sorvor (I!S)

Tho !ICS nnd !IS prImnrIIv porform confIgurnfIon funcfIons; whIIo fho I!S
hns n confrnI roIo In mnkIng dnfn frnnsfor In nn ATM nofwork rosombIo fhnf of n
shnrod-modIn !A.
Tho !ICS onnbIos n nowIv nffnchod or roboofod !A omuInfIon cIIonf (o.g., n
hosf) fo gof somo ossonfInI InformnfIon. Onco connocfod fo fho !ICS, fho cIIonf
provIdos fho !ICS wIfh Ifs ATM nddross, nnd fho !ICS rosponds bv foIIIng fho cIIonf
whnf fvpo of !A Is boIng omuInfod (Ifhornof or fokon rIng), whnf fho mnxImum
pnckof sIzo Is, nnd fho ATM nddross of fho !IS. Ono !ICS mIghf supporf mnnv
sopnrnfo omuInfod !As.

Tho cIIonf now sIgnnIs for n connocfIon fo fho !IS whoso ATM nddross If jusf
Ionrnod. Onco connocfod fo fho !IS, fho cIIonf rogIsfors Ifs MAC nnd ATM nddrossos
wIfh fho !IS. Among ofhor fhIngs, fho !IS provIdos fho cIIonf wIfh fho ATM nddross
of fho I!S.

Tho I!S mnInfnIns n sIngIo poInf-fo-muIfIpoInf VC fhnf connocfs If fo nII
rogIsforod cIIonfs. Tho I!S In furn ndds fho !IC fo fho poInf-fo-muIfIpoInf VC. Af fhIs
poInf, ovorvfhIng Is rondv for fho !IC fo pnrfIcIpnfo In dnfn frnnsfor. Tho nrrnngomonf
whoro fwo hosfs hnvo connocfod fo fho !IS nnd fho I!S, nnd fho I!S hns formod fho
poInf-fo-muIfIpoInf VC fo bofh of fhom.

Fi 2.24.: Sertero unJ Cliento in un emuluteJ LA

If shouId bo cIonr fhnf fho I!S Is fho pInco fo sond nnv pnckof fhnf noods fo bo
brondcnsf fo nII cIIonfs on fho !A. WhIIo If couId nIso bo usod for doIIvorv of unIcnsf
pnckofs, fhIs wouId bo InoffIcIonf. Tho hosf porforms fho foIIowIng sfops:
If sonds fho pnckof fo fho I!S, whIch If knows cnn doIIvor fho pnckof fo fho
dosfInnfIon usIng Ifs poInf-fo-muIfIpoInf VC.
If sonds nn nddross rosoIufIon roquosf fo fho !IS, of fho form Whnf ATM
nddross corrosponds fo fhIs MAC nddross`

SInco nII cIIonfs shouId hnvo rogIsforod fhoIr MAC nnd ATM nddrossos wIfh fho
!IS, fho !IS shouId bo nbIo fo nnswor fho quorv nnd provIdo nn ATM nddross fo fho
cIIonf.
Tho cIIonf cnn now sIgnnI for n VC fo fho rocIpIonf, whIch If mnv uso fo forwnrd
euIeeouenI frnmos fo fho dosfInnfIon. Tho ronson for usIng fho I!S fo sond fho fIrsf
pnckof Is fo mInImIzo doInv, sInco If mnv fnko somo fImo fo gof n rosponso from fho
!IS nnd osfnbIIsh n VC.

2.5 IMPIMNTATION AN PRIORMANC

Fi 2.25.: A Workotution uoeJ uo u Pucket Suitch
A pnfh fhnf n pnckof mIghf fnko from fho fImo If nrrIvos on Inforfnco l unfII If Is
oufpuf on Inforfnco 2. Wo hnvo nssumod horo fhnf fho worksfnfIon hns n mochnnIsm fo
movo dnfn dIrocfIv from nn Inforfnco fo Ifs mnIn momorv wIfhouf hnvIng fo bo dIrocfIv
copIod bv fho CI!, fhnf Is, dIrocf momorv nccoss (MA).
Onco fho pnckof Is In momorv, fho CI! oxnmInos Ifs hondor fo doformIno whIch
Inforfnco fho pnckof shouId bo sonf ouf on. If fhon usos MA fo movo fho pnckof ouf fo
fho npproprInfo Inforfnco. ofo fhnf doos nof show fho pnckof goIng fo fho CI! bocnuso
fho CI! Inspocfs onIv fho hondor of fho pnckof; If doos nof hnvo fo rond ovorv bvfo of
dnfn In fho pnckof.

Tho mnIn probIom wIfh usIng n worksfnfIon ns n swIfch Is fhnf Ifs porformnnco
Is IImIfod bv fho fncf fhnf nII pnckofs musf pnss fhrough n sIngIo poInf of confonfIon.
IorwnrdIng n pnckof InvoIvos crossIng fho bus fwIco; fho ncfunI IImIf Is 500
Mbps, whIch Is onough fo supporf fIvo l00-Mbps Ifhornof Inforfnco cnrds. In prncfIco,
fho ponk bus bnndwIdfh Isn`f susfnInnbIo, so If`s moro IIkoIv such n worksfnfIon wouId
supporf onIv fhroo or four such Inforfnco cnrds.

Moroovor, fhIs uppor bound nIso nssumos fhnf movIng dnfn Is fho onIv probIom-
n fnIr npproxImnfIon for Iong pnckofs buf n bnd ono whon pnckofs nro shorf. In fho
Inffor cnso, fho cosf of procossIng onch pnckofpnrsIng Ifs hondor nnd docIdIng whIch
oufpuf IInk fo frnnsmIf If onIs IIkoIv fo domInnfo.
Supposo, for oxnmpIo, fhnf n worksfnfIon cnn porform nII fho nocossnrv
procossIng fo swIfch 500,000 pnckofs onch socond.

2.6 SIMPI INTRNTWORKING (IP)
Tho bnsIc funcfIonnIIfv of fho curronfIv dopIovod vorsIon of fho Infornof IrofocoI
(II), nnd fhon wo oxnmIno vnrIous fochnIquos fhnf hnvo boon dovoIopod fo oxfond fho
scnInbIIIfv of fho Infornof. II vorsIon 6(IIv6), nIso known ns fho nexI-generoIion II.

2.6.1 WHAT IS AN INTRNTWORK?

Tho form Infornofwork, or somofImos Infornof wIfh n Ioworcnso i, fo rofor fo
nn nrbIfrnrv coIIocfIon of nofworks Inforconnocfod fo provIdo somo sorf of hosf -fo- hosf
pnckof doIIvorv sorvIco.
An Infornofwork Is nn Inforconnocfod coIIocfIon of such nofworks. SomofImos, fo
nvoId nmbIguIfv, wo rofor fo fho undorIvIng nofworks fhnf wo nro InforconnocfIng ns
phvsIcnI nofworks. An Infornof Is n IogIcnI nofwork buIIf ouf of n coIIocfIon of phvsIcnI
nofworks. A coIIocfIon of Ifhornofs connocfod bv brIdgos or swIfchos wouId sfIII bo
vIowod ns n sIngIo nofwork.

An Infornofwork Is offon roforrod fo ns n "netuork o] netuorko" bocnuso If Is
mndo up of Iofs of smnIIor nofworks.

Fi 2.26.: A oimple internetuork. Hn=hoot, Rn=router.

An II rIng, nnd n poInf-fo-poInf IInk. Inch of fhoso Is n sIngIo-fochnoIogv
nofwork. Tho nodos fhnf Inforconnocf fho nofworks nro cnIIod routero/uteuuxo.
Tho Infornof IrofocoI Is fho kov fooI usod fodnv fo buIId scnInbIo, hoforogonoous
Infornofworks. If wns orIgInnIIv known ns fho Knhn-Corf profocoI nffor Ifs Invonfors.

2.6.2 SRVIC MOI
Tho mnIn concorn In dofInIng n sorvIco modoI for nn Infornofwork Is fhnf wo cnn
provIdo n hosf-fo-hosf sorvIco onIv If fhIs sorvIco cnn somohow bo provIdod ovor onch of
fho undorIvIng phvsIcnI nofworks.

Ior oxnmpIo, If wouId bo no good docIdIng fhnf our Infornofwork sorvIco modoI
wns goIng fo provIdo gunrnnfood doIIvorv of ovorv pnckof In lms or Ioss If fhoro woro
undorIvIng nofwork fochnoIogIos fhnf couId nrbIfrnrIIv doInv pnckofs.

Tho II sorvIco modoI hns fwo pnrfs: nn nddrossIng schomo, whIch provIdos n wnv
fo IdonfIfv nII hosfs In fho Infornofwork, nnd n dnfngrnm (connocfIonIoss) modoI of dnfn
doIIvorv. ThIs sorvIco modoI Is somofImos cnIIod IeeI efforI bocnuso, nIfhough II mnkos
ovorv offorf fo doIIvor dnfngrnms, If mnkos no gunrnnfoos.

utuuvum eIIvevy
Ivorv dnfngrnm cnrrIos onough InformnfIon fo Iof fho nofwork forwnrd fho
pnckof fo Ifs corrocf dosfInnfIon; fhoro Is no nood for nnv ndvnnco sofup mochnnIsm fo
foII fho nofwork whnf fo do whon fho pnckof nrrIvos.

Tho bosf-offorf pnrf monns fhnf If somofhIng goos wrong nnd fho pnckof gofs
Iosf, corrupfod, mIsdoIIvorod, or In nnv wnv fnIIs fo ronch Ifs Infondod dosfInnfIon, fho
nofwork doos nofhIngIf mndo Ifs bosf offorf. If doos nof mnko nnv nffompf fo rocovor
from fho fnIIuro. ThIs Is somofImos cnIIod nn unrelioIle sorvIco.

Tho nbIIIfv of II fo run ovor nnvfhIng Is froquonfIv cIfod ns ono of Ifs mosf
Imporfnnf chnrncforIsfIcs. Iosf-offorf doIIvorv doos nof jusf monn fhnf pnckofs cnn gof
Iosf.
SomofImos fhov cnn gof doIIvorod ouf of ordor, nnd somofImos fho snmo pnckof
cnn gof doIIvorod moro fhnn onco. Tho hIghor-IovoI profocoIs or nppIIcnfIons fhnf run
nbovo II nood fo bo nwnro of nII fhoso possIbIo fnIIuro modos.

Puket Iovmut
Tho II dnfngrnm, IIko mosf pnckofs, consIsfs of n hondor foIIowod bv n numbor of
bvfos of dnfn.

Fi 2.27.: 1PV4 Pucket heuJer

Tho VorsIon fIoId spocIfIos fho vorsIon of II. Tho curronf vorsIon of II Is 4, nnd If
Is somofImos cnIIod IIv4. Tho noxf fIoId, H!on, spocIfIos fho Iongfh of fho hondor In 32-
bIf words. T
ho 8-bIf TOS (fvpo of sorvIco) fIoId Is fo nIIow pnckofs fo bo fronfod dIfforonfIv
bnsod on nppIIcnfIon noods. Tho noxf l6 bIfs of fho hondor confnIn fho !ongfh of fho
dnfngrnm, IncIudIng fho hondor.
!nIIko fho H!on fIoId, fho !ongfh fIoId counfs bvfos rnfhor fhnn words. TT!
(fImo fo IIvo) fIoId TT! wns sof fo n spocIfIc numbor of soconds fhnf fho pnckof wouId bo
nIIowod fo IIvo, nnd roufors nIong fho pnfh wouId docromonf fhIs fIoId unfII If ronchod 0.

Tho IrofocoI fIoId Is sImpIv n domuIfIpIoxIng kov fhnf IdonfIfIos fho hIghor-IovoI
profocoI fo whIch fhIs II pnckof shouId bo pnssod. Tho Chocksum Is cnIcuInfod bv
consIdorIng fho onfIro II hondor ns n soquonco of l6-bIf words, nddIng fhom up usIng
onos compIomonf nrIfhmofIc, nnd fnkIng fho onos compIomonf of fho rosuIf.

Tho Insf fwo roquIrod fIoIds In fho hondor nro fho SourcoAddr nnd fho
osfInnfIonAddr for fho pnckof. Tho Inffor Is fho kov fo dnfngrnm doIIvorv: Ivorv
pnckof confnIns n fuII nddross for Ifs Infondod dosfInnfIon so fhnf forwnrdIng docIsIons
cnn bo mndo nf onch roufor. Tho sourco nddross Is roquIrod fo nIIow rocIpIonfs fo docIdo
If fhov wnnf fo nccopf fho pnckof nnd fo onnbIo fhom fo ropIv.

IvuumentutIon und ReussembIy
II dnfngrnms nro smnII onough fo fIf InsIdo ono pnckof on nnv nofwork
fochnoIogv, or provIdo n monns bv whIch pnckofs cnn bo frngmonfod nnd ronssombIod
whon fhov nro foo bIg fo go ovor n gIvon nofwork fochnoIogv.

Tho Inffor furns ouf fo bo n good choIco, ospocInIIv whon vou consIdor fho fncf
fhnf now nofwork fochnoIogIos nro nIwnvs furnIng up, nnd II noods fo run ovor nII of
fhom; fhIs wouId mnko If hnrd fo pIck n suIfnbIv smnII bound on dnfngrnm sIzo.
ThIs nIso monns fhnf n hosf wIII nof sond noodIossIv smnII pnckofs, whIch wnsfos
bnndwIdfh nnd consumos procossIng rosourcos bv roquIrIng moro hondors por bvfo of
dnfn sonf.

Ior oxnmpIo, fwo hosfs connocfod fo II nofworks fhnf nro Inforconnocfod bv n
poInf-fo-poInf IInk wouId nof nood fo sond pnckofs smnII onough fo fIf on nn Ifhornof.
Tho confrnI Idon horo Is fhnf ovorv nofwork fvpo hns n noxinun Ironenieeion uniI
(MT!), whIch Is fho Inrgosf II dnfngrnm fhnf If cnn cnrrv In n frnmo.
IrngmonfnfIon fvpIcnIIv occurs In n roufor whon If rocoIvos n dnfngrnm fhnf If
wnnfs fo forwnrd ovor n nofwork fhnf hns nn MT! fhnf Is smnIIor fhnn fho rocoIvod
dnfngrnm.
To onnbIo fhoso frngmonfs fo bo ronssombIod nf fho rocoIvIng hosf, fhov nII cnrrv
fho snmo IdonfIfIor In fho Idonf fIoId. ThIs IdonfIfIor Is choson bv fho sondIng hosf nnd
Is Infondod fo bo unIquo nmong nII fho dnfngrnms fhnf mIghf nrrIvo nf fho dosfInnfIon
from fhIs sourco ovor somo ronsonnbIo fImo porIod.

Fi 2.2S.: 1P Juturumo truteroin the oequence o] phxoicul netuorko rupheJ

ThIs fIguro nIso sorvos fo roInforco fwo Imporfnnf poInfs:
9 Inch frngmonf Is IfsoIf n soIf-confnInod II dnfngrnm fhnf Is frnnsmIffod ovor n
soquonco of phvsIcnI nofworks, Indopondonf of fho ofhor frngmonfs.
9 Inch II dnfngrnm Is rooncnpsuInfod for onch phvsIcnI nofwork ovor whIch If
frnvoIs.

Tho frngmonfnfIon procoss cnn bo undorsfood In dofnII bv IookIng nf fho hondor
fIoIds of onch dnfngrnm. Tho unfrngmonfod pnckof, shown nf fho fop, hns l400 bvfos of
dnfn nnd n 20-bvfo II hondor.

Whon fho pnckof nrrIvos nf roufor !2, whIch hns nn MT! of 532 bvfos, If hns fo
bo frngmonfod. A 532-bvfo MT! Ionvos 5l2 bvfos for dnfn nffor fho 20-bvfo II hondor,
so fho fIrsf frngmonf confnIns 5l2 bvfos of dnfn.
Tho roufor sofs fho MbIf In fho IIngs fIoId, monnIng fhnf fhoro nro moro
frngmonfs fo foIIow, nnd If sofs fho Offsof fo 0, sInco fhIs frngmonf confnIns fho fIrsf
pnrf of fho orIgInnI dnfngrnm.

Fi 2.20.: HeuJer ]ielJo uoeJ in 1P ]rumentution.
(u) Un]rumenteJ pucket, (b) FrumenteJ pucketo.


Tho dnfn cnrrIod In fho socond frngmonf sfnrfs wIfh fho 5l3fh bvfo of fho
orIgInnI dnfn, so fho Offsof fIoId In fhIs hondor Is sof fo 64, whIch Is 5l2 8.

WLy tLe dIvIsIon by B?
Iocnuso fho dosIgnors of II docIdod fhnf frngmonfnfIon shouId nIwnvs hnppon on
8-bvfo boundnrIos, whIch monns fhnf fho Offsof fIoId counfs 8-bvfo chunks, nof bvfos.
(Wo Ionvo If ns nn oxorcIso for vou fo fIguro ouf whv fhIs dosIgn docIsIon wns mndo.)
Tho fhIrd frngmonf confnIns fho Insf 3?6 bvfos of dnfn, nnd fho offsof Is now
2 5l2 8 = l28. SInco fhIs Is fho Insf frngmonf, fho M bIf Is nof sof.

2.6.3 GIOBAI ARSSS
If vou wnnf fo bo nbIo fo sond dnfn fo nnv hosf on nnv nofwork, fhoro noods fo bo
n wnv of IdonfIfvIng nII fho hosfs. Thus, wo nood n gIobnI nddrossIng schomoono In
whIch no fwo hosfs hnvo fho snmo nddross. CIobnI unIquonoss Is fho fIrsf proporfv fhnf
shouId bo provIdod In nn nddrossIng schomo.

Ifhornof nddrossos nro nIso floI, whIch monns fhnf fhov hnvo no sfrucfuro nnd
provIdo vorv fow cIuos fo roufIng profocoIs. In confrnsf, II nddrossos nro IierorcIicol,
bv whIch wo monn fhnf fhov nro mndo up of sovornI pnrfs fhnf corrospond fo somo sorf
of hIornrchv In fho Infornofwork.

II nddrossos consIsf of fwo pnrfs, n nofwork pnrf nnd n hosf pnrf. Tho nofwork
pnrf of nn II nddross IdonfIfIos fho nofwork fo whIch fho hosf Is nffnchod; nII hosfs
nffnchod fo fho snmo nofwork hnvo fho snmo nofwork pnrf In fhoIr II nddross.

Tho hosf pnrf fhon IdonfIfIos onch hosf unIquoIv on fhnf pnrfIcuInr nofwork.
ofo fhnf fho roufors nro nffnchod fo fwo nofworks. Thov nood fo hnvo nn nddross on
onch nofwork, ono for onch Inforfnco.

Ior oxnmpIo, roufor !l, whIch sIfs bofwoon nofwork 2 nnd nofwork 3, hns nn II
nddross on fho Inforfnco fo nofwork 2 fhnf hns fho snmo nofwork pnrf ns fho hosfs on
nofwork 2, nnd If hns nn II nddross on fho Inforfnco fo nofwork 3 fhnf hns fho snmo
nofwork pnrf ns fho hosfs on nofwork 3.
Tho cInss of nn II nddross Is IdonfIfIod In fho mosf sIgnIfIcnnf fow bIfs. If fho
fIrsf bIf Is 0, If Is n cInssA nddross. If fho fIrsf bIf Is l nnd fho socond Is 0, If Is n cInss I
nddross.
If fho fIrsf fwo bIfs nro l nnd fho fhIrd Is 0, If Is n cInss C nddross. Thus, of fho
npproxImnfoIv 4 bIIIIon possIbIo II nddrossos, hnIf nro cInss A, ono qunrfor nro cInss I,
nnd ono-oIghfh nro cInss C. Inch cInss nIIocnfos n corfnIn numbor of bIfs for fho
nofwork pnrf of fho nddross nnd fho rosf for fho hosf pnrf.

Fi 2.30.: 1P uJJreooeo: (u) cluoo A, (b) cluoo B, (c) cluoo C.

CInss A nofworks hnvo ? bIfs for fho nofwork pnrf nnd 24 bIfs for fho hosf pnrf,
monnIng fhnf fhoro cnn bo onIv l26 cInss A nofworks (fho vnIuos 0 nnd l2? nro
rosorvod),buf onch of fhom cnn nccommodnfo up fo 224 2 (nbouf l6 mIIIIon) hosfs
(ngnIn, fhoro nro fwo rosorvod vnIuos).
CInss I nddrossos nIIocnfos l4 bIfs for fho nofwork nnd l6 bIfs for fho hosf,
monnIng fhnf onch cInss I nofwork hns room for 65,534 hosfs. IInnIIv, cInss C
nddrossos hnvo onIv 8 bIfs for fho hosf nnd 2l for fho nofwork pnrf.
Thoroforo, n cInss C nofwork cnn hnvo onIv 256 unIquo hosf IdonfIfIors, whIch
monns onIv 254 nffnchod hosfs (ono hosf IdonfIfIor, 255, Is rosorvod for brondcnsf, nnd 0
Is nof n vnIId hosf numbor).
Howovor, fho nddrossIng schomo supporfs 22l cInss C nofworks. TochnIquos
ncfunIIv romovo fho dIsfIncfIon bofwoon nddross cInssos, fho nddrossIng schomo jusf
doscrIbod Is now known ns cInssfuI nddrossIng fo dIsfInguIsh If from fho nowor
cInssIoss nppronch.

2.6.4 ATAGRAM IORWARING IN IP
IoruorJing Is fho procoss of fnkIng n pnckof from nn Inpuf nnd sondIng If ouf on
fho npproprInfo oufpuf, whIIo rouIing Is fho procoss of buIIdIng up fho fnbIos fhnf nIIow
fho corrocf oufpuf for n pnckof fo bo doformInod.

Tho dIscussIon horo focusos on forwnrdIng; fho mnIn poInfs fo bonr In mInd ns wo
dIscuss fho forwnrdIng of II dnfngrnms nro fho foIIowIng:
9 Ivorv II dnfngrnm confnIns fho II nddross of fho dosfInnfIon hosf.
9 Tho nofwork pnrf of nn II nddross unIquoIv IdonfIfIos n sIngIo phvsIcnI
nofwork fhnf Is pnrf of fho Inrgor Infornof.
9 AII hosfs nnd roufors fhnf shnro fho snmo nofwork pnrf of fhoIr nddross nro
connocfod fo fho snmo phvsIcnI nofwork nnd cnn fhus communIcnfo wIfh onch
ofhor bv sondIng frnmos ovor fhnf nofwork.
9 Ivorv phvsIcnI nofwork fhnf Is pnrf of fho Infornof hns nf Ionsf ono roufor fhnf,
bv dofInIfIon, Is nIso connocfod fo nf Ionsf ono ofhor phvsIcnI nofwork; fhIs roufor
cnn oxchnngo pnckofs wIfh hosfs or roufors on oIfhor nofwork.

IorwnrdIng II dnfngrnms cnn fhoroforo bo hnndIod In fho foIIowIng wnv. A
dnfngrnm Is sonf from n sourco hosf fo n dosfInnfIon hosf, possIbIv pnssIng fhrough
sovornI roufors nIong fho wnv.
Anv nodo, whofhor If Is n hosf or n roufor, fIrsf frIos fo osfnbIIsh whofhor If Is
connocfod fo fho snmo phvsIcnI nofwork ns fho dosfInnfIon.
If fho nodo Is nof connocfod fo fho snmo phvsIcnI nofwork ns fho dosfInnfIon
nodo, fhon If noods fo sond fho dnfngrnm fo n roufor.

Tho roufor fhnf If choosos Is known ns fho nert hop voutev. Tho roufor fInds fho
corrocf noxf hop bv consuIfIng Ifs forwnrdIng fnbIo. Tho forwnrdIng fnbIo Is
concopfunIIv jusf n IIsf of pnIrs.

Tuble 2.5.: Erumple ]oruurJin tuble ]or router R2

ofo fhnf If Is possIbIo fo IncIudo fho InformnfIon nbouf dIrocfIv connocfod
nofworks In fho forwnrdIng fnbIo. Ior oxnmpIo, wo wouId InboI fho nofwork Inforfncos
of roufor !2 ns Inforfnco 0 for fho poInf-fo-poInf IInk (nofwork 4) nnd Inforfnco l for fho
fokon rIng (nofwork 3). Thon !2 wouId hnvo fho forwnrdIng fnbIo shown In TnbIo.

Tuble 2.6.: Complete ]oruurJin tuble ]or router R2

To nchIovo scnInbIIIfv, vou nood fo roduco fho nmounf of InformnfIon fhnf Is

sforod In onch nodo nnd fhnf Is oxchnngod bofwoon nodos. Tho mosf common wnv fo do
fhnf Is hierurchicul ureution. II Infroducos n fwo-IovoI hIornrchv, wIfh nofworks
nf fho fop IovoI nnd nodos nf fho boffom IovoI.

Routev ImIementutIon
A fow poInfs nro worfh nofIng nbouf roufor dosIgn nnd how If dIffors from swIfch
dosIgn. IIrsf, roufors musf bo dosIgnod fo hnndIo vnrInbIo-Iongfh pnckofs, n consfrnInf
fhnf doos nof nppIv fo ATM swIfchos buf Is corfnInIv nppIIcnbIo fo Ifhornof or Irnmo
!oInv swIfchos.
If furns ouf fhnf mnnv hIgh-porformnnco roufors nro dosIgnod usIng n swIfchIng
fnbrIc fhnf Is coII bnsod. In such cnsos fho porfs musf bo nbIo fo convorf vnrInbIo-Iongfh
pnckofs Info coIIs nnd bnck ngnIn. ThIs Is vorv much IIko fho sfnndnrd ATM
sogmonfnfIon nnd ronssombIv (SA!).

Fi 2.31.: Block Jiurum o] u router

!oufors cnn usunIIv forwnrd n corfnIn numbor of pnckofs por socond, nnd fhIs
ImpIIos fhnf fho fofnI fhroughpuf In IiIe por socond doponds on pnckof sIzo. !oufor
dosIgnors gonornIIv hnvo fo mnko n choIco ns fo whnf pnckof Iongfh fhov wIII supporf nf
line rute.

Thnf Is, If pps (pnckofs por socond) Is fho rnfo nf whIch pnckofs nrrIvIng on n
pnrfIcuInr porf cnn bo forwnrdod, nnd IInornfo Is fho phvsIcnI spood of fho porf In bIfs
por socond, fhon fhoro wIII bo somo pnckofsIzo In bIfs such fhnf

uketsIze s = IInevute

ThIs Is fho pnckof sIzo nf whIch fho roufor cnn forwnrd nf IIno rnfo; If Is IIkoIv fo
bo nbIo fo susfnIn IIno rnfo for Iongor pnckofs buf nof for shorfor pnckofs.

SomofImos n dosIgnor mIghf docIdo fhnf fho rIghf pnckof sIzo fo supporf Is 40
bvfos, sInco fhnf Is fho mInImum sIzo of nn II pnckof fhnf hns n TCI hondor nffnchod.
Whon If comos fo fho fnsk of forwnrdIng II pnckofs, roufors cnn bo brondIv
chnrncforIzod ns hnvIng oIfhor n centrulixeJ ov JiotributeJ forwnrdIng modoI.

In fho confrnIIzod modoI, fho II forwnrdIng nIgorIfhm, oufIInod onrIIor In fhIs
socfIon, Is dono In n sIngIo procossIng ongIno fhnf hnndIos fho frnffIc from nII porfs. In
fho dIsfrIbufod modoI, fhoro nro sovornI procossIng ongInos, porhnps ono por porf, or
moro offon ono por IIno cnrd, whoro n IIno cnrd mnv sorvo ono or moro phvsIcnI porfs.
Inch modoI hns ndvnnfngos nnd dIsndvnnfngos.

2.6.5 ARSS TRANSIATION (ARP)
Tho mnIn Issuo Is fhnf II dnfngrnms confnIn II nddrossos, buf fho phvsIcnI
Inforfnco hnrdwnro on fho hosf or roufor fo whIch vou wnnf fo sond fho dnfngrnm onIv
undorsfnnds fho nddrossIng schomo of fhnf pnrfIcuInr nofwork.
Thus, wo nood fo frnnsInfo fho II nddross fo n IInk-IovoI nddross fhnf mnkos

sonso on fhIs nofwork (o.g., n 48-bIf Ifhornof nddross). Wo cnn fhon oncnpsuInfo fho II
dnfngrnm InsIdo n frnmo fhnf confnIns fhnf IInk-IovoI nddross nnd sond If oIfhor fo fho
uIfImnfo dosfInnfIon or fo n roufor fhnf promIsos fo forwnrd fho dnfngrnm fownrd fho
uIfImnfo dosfInnfIon.

Ono sImpIo wnv fo mnp nn II nddross Info n phvsIcnI nofwork nddross Is fo
oncodo n hosf`s phvsIcnI nddross In fho hosf pnrf of Ifs II nddross. Ior oxnmpIo, n hosf
wIfh phvsIcnI nddross 00l0000l 0l00l00l (whIch hns fho docImnI vnIuo 33 In fho uppor
bvfo nnd 8l In fho Iowor bvfo) mIghf bo gIvon fho II nddross l28.96.33.8l.

WhIIo fhIs soIufIon hns boon usod on somo nofworks, If Is IImIfod In fhnf fho
nofwork`s phvsIcnI nddrossos cnn bo no moro fhnn l6 bIfs Iong In fhIs oxnmpIo; fhov cnn
bo onIv 8 bIfs Iong on n cInss C nofwork. ThIs cIonrIv wIII nof work for 48-bIf Ifhornof
nddrossos.

If n hosf wnnfs fo sond nn II dnfngrnm fo n hosf (or roufor) fhnf If knows fo bo
on fho snmo nofwork (I.o., fho sondIng nnd rocoIvIng nodo hnvo fho snmo II nofwork
numbor), If fIrsf chocks for n mnppIng In fho cncho.

If no mnppIng Is found, If noods fo Invoko fho Addross !osoIufIon IrofocoI ovor
fho nofwork. If doos fhIs bv brondcnsfIng nn A!I quorv onfo fho nofwork. ThIs quorv
confnIns fho II nddross In quosfIon (fho fnrgof II nddross).

Inch hosf rocoIvos fho quorv nnd chocks fo soo If If mnfchos Ifs II nddross. If If
doos mnfch, fho hosf sonds n rosponso mossngo fhnf confnIns Ifs IInk-Invor nddross bnck
fo fho orIgInnfor of fho quorv. Tho orIgInnfor ndds fho InformnfIon confnInod In fhIs
rosponso fo Ifs A!I fnbIo.

Fi 2.32.: ARP pucket ]ormut ]or muppin 1P uJJreooeo into Ethernet uJJreooeo

If fhnf hosf Is fho fnrgof of fho quorv, fhon If ndds fho InformnfIon nbouf fho
sondor fo Ifs fnbIo, ovon If If dId nof nIrondv hnvo nn onfrv for fhnf hosf. ThIs Is bocnuso
fhoro Is n good chnnco fhnf fho sourco hosf Is nbouf fo sond If nn nppIIcnfIon-IovoI
mossngo, nnd If mnv ovonfunIIv hnvo fo sond n rosponso or ACK bnck fo fho sourco; If
wIII nood fho sourco`s phvsIcnI nddross fo do fhIs.

If n hosf Is nof fho fnrgof nnd doos nof nIrondv hnvo nn onfrv for fho sourco In Ifs
A!I fnbIo, fhon If doos nof ndd nn onfrv for fho sourco. ThIs Is bocnuso fhoro Is no
ronson fo boIIovo fhnf fhIs hosf wIII ovor nood fho sourco`s IInk-IovoI nddross; fhoro Is no
nood fo cIuffor Ifs A!I fnbIo wIfh fhIs InformnfIon.

Tho A!I pnckof formnf for II-fo-Ifhornof nddrossos mnppIngs. In fncf, A!I cnn
bo usod for Iofs of ofhor kInds of mnppIngsfho mnjor dIfforoncos nro In fho nddross
sIzos. In nddIfIon fo fho II nnd IInk-Invor nddrossos of bofh sondor nnd fnrgof, fho
pnckof confnIns
A HnrdwnroTvpo fIoId, whIch spocIfIos fho fvpo of phvsIcnI nofwork (o.g.,
Ifhornof)
A IrofocoITvpo fIoId, whIch spocIfIos fho hIghor-Invor profocoI (o.g., II)

H!on (hnrdwnro nddross Iongfh) nnd I!on (profocoI nddross Iongfh) fIoIds,
whIch spocIfv fho Iongfh of fho IInk-Invor nddross nnd hIghor-Invor profocoI
nddross, rospocfIvoIv
nn OpornfIon fIoId, whIch spocIfIos whofhor fhIs Is n roquosf or n rosponso
fho sourco nnd fnrgof hnrdwnro (Ifhornof) nnd profocoI (II) nddrossos

ATMARP
If shouId bo cIonr fhnf If nn ATM nofwork Is fo opornfo ns pnrf of nn II
Infornofwork, fhon If foo musf provIdo n form of A!I. Thoro Is n dIfforonf A!I
procoduro fhnf mnv bo usod In nn ATM nofwork nnd fhnf doos nof dopond on brondcnsf
or !A omuInfIon. ThIs procoduro Is known ns ATMA!I nnd Is pnrf of fho Cluooicul
1P oter ATM modoI.
Tho ronson for cnIIIng fho modoI cInssIcnI wIII bocomo nppnronf shorfIv. !Iko
!A omuInfIon, ATMA!I roIIos on fho uso of n sorvor fo rosoIvo nddrossosIn fhIs
cnso, If Is cnIIod nn A!I sorvor, nnd Ifs bohnvIor Is doscrIbod boIow.
A kov concopf In fho CInssIcnI II ovor ATM modoI Is fho loicul 1P oubnet
(!IS).Tho !IS nbsfrncfIon nIIows us fo fnko ono Inrgo ATM nofwork nnd subdIvIdo If
Info sovornI smnIIor subnofs.
AII nodos on fho snmo subnof hnvo fho snmo II nofwork numbor. And jusf ns In
cInssIcnI II, fwo nodos (hosfs or roufors) fhnf nro on fho snmo subnof cnn
communIcnfo dIrocfIv ovor fho ATM nofwork, whorons fwo nodos fhnf nro on dIfforonf
subnofs wIII hnvo fo communIcnfo vIn ono or moro roufors.

An oxnmpIo of nn ATM nofwork dIvIdod Info fwo !ISs npponrs. ofo fhnf fho II
nddross of hosf Hl hns n nofwork numbor of l0, ns doos fho roufor Inforfnco fhnf
connocfs fo fho Ioff-hnnd !IS, whIIo H2 hns n nofwork numbor of l2, ns doos fho rIghf-
hnnd Inforfnco on fho roufor. Thnf Is, Hl nnd fho roufor connocf fo fho snmo !IS (!IS
l0) whIIo H2 Is on n dIfforonf subnof (!IS l2) fo whIch fho roufor nIso connocfs.
Tho bnsIc job of nn A!I sorvor Is fo onnbIo nodos on n !IS fo rosoIvo II

nddrossos fo ATM nddrossos wIfhouf usIng brondcnsf. Inch nodo In fho !IS musf bo
confIgurod wIfh fho ATM nddross of fho A!I sorvor, so fhnf If cnn osfnbIIsh n VC fo fho
sorvor whon If boofs.

Onco If hns n VC fo fho sorvor, fho nodo sonds n rogIsfrnfIon mossngo fo fho A!I
sorvor fhnf confnIns bofh fho II nnd ATM nddrossos of fho rogIsforIng nodo. Thus fho
A!I sorvor buIIds up n compIofo dnfnbnso of nII fho _II nddross, ATM nddross_ pnIrs.

Onco fhIs Is In pInco, nnv nodo fhnf wnnfs fo sond n pnckof fo somo II nddross
cnn nsk fho A!I sorvor fo provIdo fho corrospondIng ATM nddross. Onco fhIs Is
rocoIvod, fho sondIng nodo cnn uso ATM sIgnnIIIng fo sof up n VC fo fhnf ATM nddross,
nnd fhon sond fho pnckof.

Fi 2.33.: Loicul 1P oubneto

2.6.6 HOST CONIIGURATION (HCP)
Ifhornof nddrossos nro confIgurod Info fho nofwork ndnpfor bv fho
mnnufncfuror, nnd fhIs procoss Is mnnngod In such n wnv fo onsuro fhnf fhoso
nddrossos nro gIobnIIv unIquo.


ThIs Is cIonrIv n suffIcIonf condIfIon fo onsuro fhnf nnv coIIocfIon of hosfs
connocfod fo n sIngIo Ifhornof (IncIudIng nn oxfondod !A) wIII hnvo unIquo
nddrossos. II nddrossos, bv confrnsf, nof onIv musf bo unIquo on n gIvon Infornofwork,
buf nIso musf rofIocf fho sfrucfuro of fho Infornofwork.

In nddIfIon fo nn II nddross, fhoro nro somo ofhor pIocos of InformnfIon n hosf
noods fo hnvo boforo If cnn sfnrf sondIng pnckofs. Tho mosf nofnbIo of fhoso Is fho
nddross of n dofnuIf rouforfho pInco fo whIch If cnn sond pnckofs whoso dosfInnfIon
nddross Is nof on fho snmo nofwork ns fho sondIng hosf.

SInco If Is nocossnrv fo onsuro fhnf ovorv hosf gofs fho corrocf nofwork numbor
nnd fhnf no fwo hosfs rocoIvo fho snmo II nddross. Ior fhoso ronsons, nufomnfod
confIgurnfIon mofhods nro roquIrod.

Tho prImnrv mofhod usos n profocoI known ns fho vnnmIc Hosf ConfIgurnfIon
IrofocoI (HCI).HCI roIIos on fho oxIsfonco of n HCI sorvor fhnf Is rosponsIbIo for
provIdIng confIgurnfIon InformnfIon fo hosfs. Thoro Is nf Ionsf ono HCI sorvor for nn
ndmInIsfrnfIvo domnIn. Af fho sImpIosf IovoI, fho HCI sorvor cnn funcfIon jusf ns n
confrnIIzod roposIforv for hosf confIgurnfIon InformnfIon.

ConsIdor, for oxnmpIo, fho probIom of ndmInIsforIng nddrossos In fho
Infornofwork of n Inrgo compnnv. HCI snvos fho nofwork ndmInIsfrnfors from hnvIng
fo wnIk nround fo ovorv hosf In fho compnnv wIfh n IIsf of nddrossos nnd nofwork mnp
In hnnd nnd confIgurIng onch hosf mnnunIIv.

Insfond, fho confIgurnfIon InformnfIon for onch hosf couId bo sforod In fho HCI
sorvor nnd nufomnfIcnIIv rofrIovod bv onch hosf whon If Is boofod or connocfod fo fho
nofwork.


In fhIs modoI, fho HCI sorvor mnInfnIns n pooI of nvnIInbIo nddrossos fhnf If
hnnds ouf fo hosfs on domnnd. ThIs consIdornbIv roducos fho nmounf of confIgurnfIon
nn ndmInIsfrnfor musf do, sInco now If Is onIv nocossnrv fo nIIocnfo n rnngo of II
nddrossos (nII wIfh fho snmo nofwork numbor) fo onch nofwork.

SInco fho gonI of HCI Is fo mInImIzo fho nmounf of mnnunI confIgurnfIon
roquIrod for n hosf fo funcfIon, If wouId rnfhor dofonf fho purposo If onch hosf hnd fo bo
confIgurod wIfh fho nddross of n HCI sorvor. Thus, fho fIrsf probIom fncod bv HCI
Is fhnf of sorvor dIscovorv.

To confncf n HCI sorvor, n nowIv boofod or nffnchod hosf sonds n
HCIISCOVI! mossngo fo n spocInI II nddross (255.255.255.255) fhnf Is nn II
brondcnsf nddross. ThIs monns If wIII bo rocoIvod bv nII hosfs nnd roufors on fhnf
nofwork.

Fi 2.34.: A DHCP relux uent receiteo u brouJcuot DHCPD1SCOVER
meooue ]rom u hoot unJ oenJo u unicuot DHCPD1SCOVER meooue to the
DHCP oerter.

Thoro Is nf Ionsf ono roInv ngonf on onch nofwork, nnd If Is confIgurod wIfh jusf
ono pIoco of InformnfIon: fho II nddross of fho HCI sorvor.
Whon n roInv ngonf rocoIvos n HCIISCOVI! mossngo, If unIcnsf If fo fho
HCI sorvor nnd nwnIfs fho rosponso, whIch If wIII fhon sond bnck fo fho roquosfIng
cIIonf. Tho procoss of roInvIng n mossngo from n hosf fo n romofo HCI sorvor.

Fi 2.35: DHCP Pucket Formut

HCI IIIusfrnfos nn Imporfnnf nspocf of scnIIng: fho scnIIng of nofwork
mnnngomonf. WhIIo dIscussIons of scnIIng offon focus on koopIng fho sfnfo In nofwork
dovIcos from growIng foo rnpIdIv, If Is Imporfnnf fo pnv nffonfIon fo growfh of nofwork
mnnngomonf compIoxIfv.

Iv nIIowIng nofwork mnnngors fo confIguro n rnngo of II nddrossos por nofwork
rnfhor fhnn ono II nddross por hosf, HCI Improvos fho mnnngonbIIIfv of n nofwork.

2.6.? RROR RPORTING (ICMP)

Tho noxf Issuo Is how fho Infornof fronfs orrors. WhIIo II Is porfocfIv wIIIIng fo
drop dnfngrnms whon fho goIng gofs foughfor oxnmpIo, whon n roufor doos nof know
how fo forwnrd fho dnfngrnm or whon ono frngmonf of n dnfngrnm fnIIs fo nrrIvo nf fho
dosfInnfIonIf doos nof nocossnrIIv fnII sIIonfIv.

II Is nIwnvs confIgurod wIfh n compnnIon profocoI, known ns fho Infornof
ConfroI Mossngo IrofocoI (ICMI), fhnf dofInos n coIIocfIon of orror mossngos fhnf nro
sonf bnck fo fho sourco hosf whonovor n roufor or hosf Is unnbIo fo procoss nn II
dnfngrnm succossfuIIv.

Ior oxnmpIo, ICMI dofInos orror mossngos IndIcnfIng fhnf fho dosfInnfIon hosf
Is unronchnbIo (porhnps duo fo n IInk fnIIuro), fhnf fho ronssombIv procoss fnIIod, fhnf
fho TT! hnd ronchod 0, fhnf fho II hondor chocksum fnIIod, nnd so on.

2.6.B VIRTUAI NTWORKS AN TUNNIS
Tho form VI Is honvIIv ovorusod nnd dofInIfIons vnrv, buf InfuIfIvoIv wo cnn
dofIno n VI bv consIdorIng fIrsf fho Idon of n prIvnfo nofwork. CorpornfIons wIfh
mnnv sIfos offon buIId prIvnfo nofworks bv IonsIng frnnsmIssIon IInos from fho phono
compnnIos nnd usIng fhoso IInos fo Inforconnocf sIfos.

In such n nofwork, communIcnfIon Is rosfrIcfod fo fnko pInco onIv nmong fho
sIfos of fhnf corpornfIon, whIch Is offon dosIrnbIo for socurIfv ronsons. To mnko n
prIvnfo nofwork tirIuol, fho Ionsod frnnsmIssIon IInoswhIch nro nof shnrod wIfh nnv
ofhor corpornfIonswouId bo ropIncod bv somo sorf of shnrod nofwork.

A vIrfunI cIrcuIf Is n vorv ronsonnbIo ropIncomonf for n Ionsod IIno bocnuso If sfIII
provIdos n IogIcnI poInf-fo-poInf connocfIon bofwoon fho corpornfIon`s sIfos. Ior
oxnmpIo, If corpornfIon X hns n VC from sIfo A fo sIfo I, fhon cIonrIv If cnn sond
pnckofs bofwoon sIfos A nnd I.
Iuf fhoro Is no wnv fhnf corpornfIon Y cnn gof Ifs pnckofs doIIvorod fo sIfo I
wIfhouf fIrsf osfnbIIshIng Ifs own vIrfunI cIrcuIf fo sIfo I, nnd fho osfnbIIshmonf of such
n VC cnn bo ndmInIsfrnfIvoIv provonfod, fhus provonfIng unwnnfod connocfIvIfv
bofwoon corpornfIon X nnd corpornfIon Y.

Fi 2.36.: An erumple o] VPo:
(u) tuo oepurute pritute netuorko (b) tuo VPo ohurin common ouitcheo

A Irnmo !oInv or ATM nofwork Is usod fo provIdo fho confroIIod connocfIvIfv

nmong sIfos. If Is nIso possIbIo fo provIdo n sImIInr funcfIon usIng nn II nofworknn
Infornofworkfo provIdo fho connocfIvIfv.
Howovor, wo cnnnof jusf connocf fho vnrIous corpornfIons` sIfos fo n sIngIo
Infornofwork bocnuso fhnf wouId provIdo connocfIvIfv bofwoon corpornfIon X nnd
corpornfIon Y, whIch wo wIsh fo nvoId. To soIvo fhIs probIom, wo nood fo Infroduco n
now concopf, fho 1P tunnel.

Fi 2.37.: A tunnel throuh un internetuork

Tuble 2.7.: ForuurJin tuble ]or router R1

In fho forwnrdIng fnbIo of fho roufor nf fho onfrnnco fo fho funnoI, fhIs vIrfunI
IInk Iooks much IIko n normnI IInk.

ConsIdor, for oxnmpIo, fho nofwork In IIguro 2.3?. A funnoI hns boon confIgurod
from !l fo !2 nnd nssIgnod n vIrfunI Inforfnco numbor of 0.
!l hns fwo phvsIcnI Inforfncos. Inforfnco 0 connocfs fo nofwork l; Inforfnco l
connocfs fo n Inrgo Infornofwork nnd Is fhus fho dofnuIf for nII frnffIc fhnf doos nof
mnfch somofhIng moro spocIfIc In fho forwnrdIng fnbIo.

In nddIfIon, !l hns n vIrfunI Inforfnco, whIch Is fho Inforfnco fo fho funnoI.
Supposo !l rocoIvos n pnckof from nofwork l fhnf confnIns nn nddross In nofwork 2.
Tho forwnrdIng fnbIo snvs fhIs pnckof shouId bo sonf ouf vIrfunI Inforfnco 0.

In ordor fo sond n pnckof ouf fhIs Inforfnco, fho roufor fnkos fho pnckof, ndds nn
II hondor nddrossod fo !2, nnd fhon procoods fo forwnrd fho pnckof ns If If hnd jusf
boon rocoIvod. !2`s nddross Is l0.0.0.l; sInco fho nofwork numbor of fhIs nddross Is l0,
nof l or 2, n pnckof dosfInod for !2 wIII bo forwnrdod ouf fho dofnuIf Inforfnco Info fho
Infornofwork.

Onco fho pnckof Ionvos !l, If Iooks fo fho rosf of fho worId IIko n normnI II
pnckof dosfInod fo !2, nnd If Is forwnrdod nccordIngIv. AII fho roufors In fho
Infornofwork forwnrd If usIng normnI monns, unfII If nrrIvos nf !2.

Whon !2 rocoIvos fho pnckof, If fInds fhnf If cnrrIos Ifs own nddross, so If
romovos fho II hondor nnd Iooks nf fho pnvIond of fho pnckof. Whnf If fInds Is nn Innor
II pnckof whoso dosfInnfIon nddross Is In nofwork 2. !2 now procossos fhIs pnckof IIko
nnv ofhor II pnckof If rocoIvos. SInco !2 Is dIrocfIv connocfod fo nofwork 2, If forwnrds
fho pnckof on fo fhnf nofwork.
Tho chnngo In oncnpsuInfIon of fho pnckof ns If movos ncross fho nofwork. WhIIo
!2 Is ncfIng ns fho ondpoInf of fho funnoI, fhoro Is nofhIng fo provonf If from
porformIng fho normnI funcfIons of n roufor. Ior oxnmpIo, If mIghf rocoIvo somo
pnckofs fhnf nro nof funnoIod, buf fhnf nro nddrossod fo nofworks If knows how fo
ronch, nnd If wouId forwnrd fhom In fho normnI wnv.
TunnoIs nIso provIdo n mochnnIsm bv whIch wo cnn forco n pnckof fo bo doIIvorod

fo n pnrfIcuInr pInco ovon If Ifs orIgInnI hondorfho ono fhnf gofs oncnpsuInfod InsIdo
fho funnoI hondormIghf suggosf fhnf If shouId go somowhoro oIso.
Wo wIII soo nn nppIIcnfIon of fhIs whon wo consIdor mobIIo hosfs. Thus, wo soo
fhnf funnoIIng Is n poworfuI nnd quIfo gonornI fochnIquo for buIIdIng vIrfunI IInks
ncross Infornofworks.
TunnoIIng doos hnvo Ifs downsIdos. Ono Is fhnf If Incronsos fho Iongfh of pnckofs;
fhIs mIghf roprosonf n sIgnIfIcnnf wnsfo of bnndwIdfh for shorf pnckofs. Thoro mnv nIso
bo porformnnco ImpIIcnfIons for fho roufors nf oIfhor ond of fho funnoI, sInco fhov nood
fo do moro work fhnn normnI forwnrdIng ns fhov ndd nnd romovo fho funnoI hondor.
IInnIIv, fhoro Is n mnnngomonf cosf for fho ndmInIsfrnfIvo onfIfv fhnf Is
rosponsIbIo for soffIng up fho funnoIs nnd mnkIng suro fhov nro corrocfIv hnndIod bv
fho roufIng profocoIs.

2.? ROUTING
In fho cnso of vIrfunI cIrcuIfs, roufIng Is nn Issuo onIv for fho connocfIon roquosf
pnckof; nII subsoquonf pnckofs foIIow fho snmo pnfh ns fho roquosf. In dnfngrnm
nofworks, IncIudIng II nofworks, roufIng Is nn Issuo for ovorv pnckof.
In oIfhor cnso, n swIfch or roufor noods fo bo nbIo fo Iook nf fho pnckof`s
dosfInnfIon nddross nnd fhon fo doformIno whIch of fho oufpuf porfs Is fho bosf choIco
fo gof fho pnckof fo fhnf nddross n swIfch or roufor noods fo bo nbIo fo Iook nf fho
pnckof`s dosfInnfIon nddross nnd fhon fo doformIno whIch of fho oufpuf porfs Is fho bosf
choIco fo gof fho pnckof fo fhnf nddross.
IorwnrdIng consIsfs of fnkIng n pnckof, IookIng nf Ifs dosfInnfIon nddross,
consuIfIng n fnbIo, nnd sondIng fho pnckof In n dIrocfIon doformInod bv fhnf fnbIo.
!oufIng Is fho procoss bv whIch forwnrdIng fnbIos nro buIIf forwnrdIng Is n
roInfIvoIv sImpIo nnd woII-dofInod procoss porformod IocnIIv nf n nodo, whorons roufIng
doponds on compIox dIsfrIbufod nIgorIfhms fhnf hnvo confInuod fo ovoIvo fhroughouf
fho hIsforv of nofworkIng.
Tho forwnrdIng fnbIo Is usod whon n pnckof Is boIng forwnrdod nnd so musf
confnIn onough InformnfIon fo nccompIIsh fho forwnrdIng funcfIon. ThIs monns fhnf n
row In fho forwnrdIng fnbIo confnIns fho mnppIng from n nofwork numbor fo nn
oufgoIng Inforfnco nnd somo MAC InformnfIon, such ns fho Ifhornof nddross of fho noxf
hop.
Tho roufIng fnbIo, on fho ofhor hnnd, Is fho fnbIo fhnf Is buIIf up bv fho roufIng
nIgorIfhms ns n procursor fo buIIdIng fho forwnrdIng fnbIo. TnbIo provIdos nn oxnmpIo
of n row from onch sorf of fnbIo.
In fhIs cnso, fho roufIng fnbIo foIIs us fhnf nofwork numbor l0 Is fo bo ronchod
bv n noxf hop roufor wIfh fho II nddross l?l.69.245.l0, forwnrdIng fnbIo confnIns fho
InformnfIon nbouf oxncfIv how fo forwnrd n pnckof fo fhnf noxf hop: Sond If ouf
Inforfnco numbor 0 wIfh n MAC nddross of 8:0:2b:o4:b:l:2.

(n)

(b)
Tuble 2.S.: Erumple rouo ]rom (u) Routin (b) ForuurJin tuble

2.?.1 NTWORK AS A GRAPH
!oufIng Is, In ossonco, n probIom of grnph fhoorv. IIguro shows n grnph
roprosonfIng n nofwork. Tho nodos of fho grnph, InboIod A fhrough I, mnv bo hosfs,
swIfchos, roufors, or nofworks, whoro fho nodos nro roufors.
Tho odgos of fho grnph corrospond fo fho nofwork IInks. Inch odgo hns nn
nssocInfod coeI, whIch gIvos somo IndIcnfIon of fho dosIrnbIIIfv of sondIng frnffIc ovor
fhnf IInk.

Fi 2.3S.: etuork repreoenteJ uo u ruph

Tho bnsIc probIom of roufIng Is fo fInd fho Iowosf-cosf pnfh bofwoon nnv fwo
nodos, whoro fho cosf of n pnfh oqunIs fho sum of fho cosfs of nII fho odgos fhnf mnko up
fho pnfh. CnIcuInfIng nII fho shorfosf pnfhs nnd IondIng fhom Info somo nonvoInfIIo
sforngo on onch nodo.

Such n sfnfIc nppronch hns sovornI shorfcomIngs:
If doos nof donI wIfh nodo or IInk fnIIuros.
If doos nof consIdor fho nddIfIon of now nodos or IInks.
If ImpIIos fhnf odgo cosfs cnnnof chnngo, ovon fhough wo mIghf ronsonnbIv wIsh
fo fompornrIIv nssIgn n hIgh cosf fo n IInk fhnf Is honvIIv Iondod.

!oufIng Is nchIovod In mosf prncfIcnI nofworks bv runnIng roufIng profocoIs
nmong fho nodos profocoIs provIdo n dIsfrIbufod, dvnnmIc wnv fo soIvo fho probIom of
fIndIng fho Iowosf-cosf pnfh In fho prosonco of IInk nnd nodo fnIIuros nnd chnngIng odgo
cosfs.

2.?.2 ISTANC VCTOR (RIP)

Tho Idon bohInd fho dIsfnnco-vocfor nIgorIfhm Is suggosfod bv Ifs nnmo:4 Inch
nodo consfrucfs n ono-dImonsIonnI nrrnv (n vocfor) confnInIng fho dIsfnncos (cosfs) fo
nII ofhor nodos nnd dIsfrIbufos fhnf vocfor fo Ifs ImmodInfo noIghbors.
Tho sfnrfIng nssumpfIon for dIsfnnco-vocfor roufIng Is fhnf onch nodo knows fho
cosf of fho IInk fo onch of Ifs dIrocfIv connocfod noIghbors. A IInk fhnf Is down Is
nssIgnod nn InfInIfo cosf.
In fho oxnmpIo, fho cosf of onch IInk Is sof fo l, so fhnf n Ionsf-cosf pnfh Is sImpIv
fho ono wIfh fho fowosf hops. (SInco nII odgos hnvo fho snmo cosf, wo do nof show fho
cosfs In fho grnph.) Wo cnn roprosonf onch nodo`s knowIodgo nbouf fho dIsfnncos fo nII
ofhor nodos ns n fnbIo IIko fho ono gIvon In boIow fnbIo.

Tuble 2.0.: 1nitiul Jiotunceo otoreJ ut euch noJe(lobul tieu)

Tuble 2.10.: 1nitiul routin tuble ut noJe A
Wo mnv consIdor onch row In TnbIo 2.5 ns n IIsf of dIsfnncos from ono nodo fo nII
ofhor nodos, roprosonfIng fho curronf boIIofs of fhnf nodo. InIfInIIv, onch nodo sofs n
cosf of l fo Ifs dIrocfIv connocfod noIghbors nnd fo nII ofhor nodos.
Thus, A InIfInIIv boIIovos fhnf If cnn ronch I In ono hop nnd fhnf Is
unronchnbIo. Tho roufIng fnbIo sforod nf A rofIocfs fhIs sof of boIIofs nnd IncIudos fho
nnmo of fho noxf hop fhnf A wouId uso fo ronch nnv ronchnbIo nodo.
Tho noxf sfop In dIsfnnco-vocfor roufIng Is fhnf ovorv nodo sonds n mossngo fo Ifs
dIrocfIv connocfod noIghbors confnInIng Ifs porsonnI IIsf of dIsfnncos.

Tuble 2.11.: Finul routin tuble ut noJe A

Ior oxnmpIo, nodo I foIIs nodo A fhnf If cnn ronch nodo C nf n cosf of l; A nIso
knows If cnn ronch I nf n cosf of l, so If ndds fhoso cosfs fo gof fho cosf of ronchIng C bv
monns of I. ThIs fofnI cosf of 2 Is Ioss fhnn fho curronf cosf of InfInIfv, so A rocords fhnf
If cnn ronch C nf n cosf of 2 bv goIng fhrough I.
SImIInrIv, A Ionrns from C fhnf cnn bo ronchod from C nf n cosf of l; If ndds
fhIs fo fho cosf of ronchIng C (l) nnd docIdos fhnf cnn bo ronchod vIn C nf n cosf of 2,
whIch Is boffor fhnn fho oId cosf of InfInIfv.
Af fho snmo fImo, A Ionrns from C fhnf I cnn bo ronchod from C nf n cosf of l, so
If concIudos fhnf fho cosf of ronchIng I vIn C Is 2. SInco fhIs Is worso fhnn fho curronf
cosf of ronchIng I (l), fhIs now InformnfIon Is Ignorod.

Af fhIs poInf, A cnn updnfo Ifs roufIng fnbIo wIfh cosfs nnd noxf hops for nII
nodos In fho nofwork. Tho procoss of goffIng consIsfonf roufIng InformnfIon fo nII fho
nodos Is cnIIod contergence.
Tho fInnI sof of cosfs from onch nodo fo nII ofhor nodos whon roufIng hns
convorgod. Inch nodo onIv knows nbouf fho confonfs of Ifs own roufIng fnbIo.
IsfrIbufod nIgorIfhm onnbIos nII nodos fo nchIovo n consIsfonf vIow of fho nofwork In
fho nbsonco of nnv confrnIIzod nufhorIfv.
Two dIfforonf cIrcumsfnncos undor whIch n gIvon nodo docIdos fo sond n roufIng
updnfo fo Ifs noIghbors Ono of fhoso cIrcumsfnncos Is fho perioJic updnfo. Inch nodo
nufomnfIcnIIv sonds nn updnfo mossngo ovorv.

Tuble 2.12.: Finul Jiotunceo otoreJ ut euch noJe(lobul tieu)

Tho froquoncv of fhoso porIodIc updnfos vnrIos from profocoI fo profocoI fho
socond mochnnIsm, somofImos cnIIod n IriggereJ updnfo whonovor n nodo rocoIvos nn
updnfo from ono of Ifs noIghbors fhnf cnusos If fo chnngo ono of fho roufos In Ifs roufIng
fnbIo. Whon n nodo dofocfs n IInk fnIIuro, consIdor whnf hnppons whon I dofocfs fhnf
Ifs IInk fo C hns fnIIod.
IIrsf, I sofs Ifs now dIsfnnco fo C fo InfInIfv nnd pnssos fhnf InformnfIon nIong
fo A. SInco A knows fhnf Ifs 2-hop pnfh fo C Is fhrough I, A wouId nIso sof Ifs dIsfnnco
fo C fo InfInIfv.
Howovor, wIfh 2?8 4 InfornofworkIng fho noxf updnfo from C, A wouId Ionrn
fhnf C hns n 2-hop pnfh fo C. Thus A wouId know fhnf If couId ronch C In 3 hops
fhrough C, whIch Is Ioss fhnn InfInIfv, nnd so A wouId updnfo Ifs fnbIo nccordIngIv.

odo I, upon honrIng fhnf I cnn bo ronchod In 2 hops from C, concIudos fhnf If
cnn ronch I In 3 hops nnd ndvorfIsos fhIs fo A; nodo A concIudos fhnf If cnn ronch I In 4
hops nnd ndvorfIsos fhIs fo C; nodo C concIudos fhnf If cnn ronch I In 5 hops; nnd so on.

ThIs cvcIo sfops onIv whon fho dIsfnncos ronch somo numbor fhnf Is Inrgo onough
fo bo consIdorod InfInIfo. In fho monnfImo, nono of fho nodos ncfunIIv knows fhnf I Is
unronchnbIo, nnd fho roufIng fnbIos for fho nofwork do nof sfnbIIIzo. ThIs sIfunfIon Is
known ns fho counI-Io-infiniIx probIom sovornI pnrfInI soIufIons fo fhIs probIom.

Tho fIrsf ono Is fo uso somo roInfIvoIv smnII numbor ns nn npproxImnfIon of
InfInIfv Ior oxnmpIo, wo mIghf docIdo fhnf fho mnxImum numbor of hops fo gof ncross
n corfnIn nofwork Is novor goIng fo bo moro fhnn l6, nnd so wo couId pIck l6 ns fho
vnIuo fhnf roprosonfs InfInIfv. ThIs nf Ionsf bounds fho nmounf of fImo fhnf If fnkos fo
counf fo InfInIfv.

Ono fochnIquo fo Improvo fho fImo fo sfnbIIIzo roufIng Is cnIIod epliI Ioricon. Tho
Idon Is fhnf whon n nodo sonds n roufIng updnfo fo Ifs noIghbors, If doos nof sond fhoso
roufos If Ionrnod from onch noIghbor bnck fo fhnf noIghbor.

RoutInu InIovmutIon PvotooI (RIP)
Ono of fho mosf wIdoIv usod roufIng profocoIs In II nofworks Is fho !oufIng
InformnfIon IrofocoI (!II). Ifs wIdosprond uso Is duo In no smnII pnrf fo fho fncf fhnf If
wns dIsfrIbufod nIong wIfh fho popuInr IorkoIov Soffwnro IsfrIbufIon (IS) vorsIon of
!IX, from whIch mnnv commorcInI vorsIons of !IX woro dorIvod.
If Is nIso oxfromoIv sImpIo. !oufIng profocoIs In Infornofworks dIffor vorv
sIIghfIv from fho IdonIIzod grnph modoI doscrIbod nbovo.
*KuIunu** MuvI MutLu**Kuvuuum**SujutLu**TLunuuveI Muvuuun* 2.?0

Fi 2.30.: Erumple netuork runnin R1P

Fi 2.40.: R1P Pucket Formut

Thus, rnfhor fhnn ndvorfIsIng fho cosf of ronchIng ofhor roufors, fho roufors
ndvorfIso fho cosf of ronchIng nofworks. Ior IIguro 4.l6, roufor C wouId ndvorfIso fo
roufor A fho fncf fhnf If cnn ronch nofworks 2 nnd 3 (fo whIch If Is dIrocfIv connocfod) nf
n cosf of 0; nofworks 5 nnd 6 nf cosf l; nnd nofwork 4 nf cosf 2.
Tho mnjorIfv of fho pnckof Is fnkon up wIfh _nofwork-nddross, dIsfnnco_ pnIrs.

Howovor, fho prIncIpIos of fho roufIng nIgorIfhm nro jusf fho snmo. !II Is In fncf n
fnIrIv sfrnIghfforwnrd ImpIomonfnfIon of dIsfnnco-vocfor roufIng.
!oufors runnIng !II sond fhoIr ndvorfIsomonfs ovorv 30 soconds; n roufor nIso
sonds nn updnfo mossngo whonovor nn updnfo from nnofhor roufor cnusos If fo chnngo
Ifs roufIng fnbIo.

2.?.3 IINK STAT (OSPI)
!Ink-sfnfo roufIng Is fho socond mnjor cInss of InfrndomnIn roufIng profocoI. Tho
sfnrfIng nssumpfIons for IInk-sfnfo roufIng nro rnfhor sImIInr fo fhoso for dIsfnnco
vocfor roufIng. Inch nodo Is nssumod fo bo cnpnbIo of fIndIng ouf fho sfnfo of fho IInk fo
Ifs noIghbors (up or down) nnd fho cosf of onch IInk.

Tho bnsIc Idon bohInd IInk-sfnfo profocoIs Is vorv sImpIo: Ivorv nodo knows how
fo ronch Ifs dIrocfIv connocfod noIghbors, nnd If wo mnko suro fhnf fho fofnIIfv of fhIs
knowIodgo Is dIssomInnfod fo ovorv nodo, fhon ovorv nodo wIII hnvo onough knowIodgo
of fho nofwork fo buIId n compIofo mnp of fho nofwork.

!Ink-sfnfo roufIng profocoIs roIv on fwo mochnnIsms: roIInbIo dIssomInnfIon of
IInk-sfnfo InformnfIon, nnd fho cnIcuInfIon of roufos from fho sum of nII fho
nccumuInfod IInk-sfnfo knowIodgo.

ReIIubIe IIoodInu
Reliuble ]looJin Is fho procoss of mnkIng suro fhnf nII fho nodos pnrfIcIpnfIng
In fho roufIng profocoI gof n copv of fho IInk-sfnfo InformnfIon from nII fho ofhor nodos.
As fho form fIoodIng suggosfs, fho bnsIc Idon Is for n nodo fo sond Ifs IInk-sfnfo
InformnfIon ouf on Ifs onfIro dIrocfIv connocfod IInks, wIfh onch nodo fhnf rocoIvos fhIs
InformnfIon forwnrdIng If ouf on Ifs onfIro IInks. ThIs procoss confInuos unfII fho
InformnfIon hns ronchod nII fho nodos In fho nofwork.
Inch nodo cronfos nn updnfo pnckof, nIso cnIIod n IInk-sfnfo pnckof (!SI),fhnf confnIns
fho foIIowIng InformnfIon:
Tho I of fho nodo fhnf cronfod fho !SI.
A IIsf of dIrocfIv connocfod noIghbors of fhnf nodo, wIfh fho cosf of fho IInk fo
onch ono n soquonco numbor n fImo fo IIvo for fhIs pnckof.
Tho fIrsf fwo Ifoms nro noodod fo onnbIo roufo cnIcuInfIon; fho Insf fwo nro usod
fo mnko fho procoss of fIoodIng fho pnckof fo nII nodos roIInbIo.

ConsIdor n nodo X fhnf rocoIvos n copv of nn !SI fhnf orIgInnfod nf somo ofhor
nodo Y. ofo fhnf Y mnv bo nnv ofhor roufor In fho snmo roufIng domnIn ns X. X chocks
fo soo If If hns nIrondv sforod n copv of nn !SI from Y.

If nof, If sforos fho !SI. If If nIrondv hns n copv, If compnros fho soquonco
numbors; If fho now !SI hns n Inrgor soquonco numbor, If Is nssumod fo bo fho moro
roconf, nnd fhnf !SI Is sforod, ropIncIng fho oId ono.

A smnIIor (or oqunI) soquonco numbor wouId ImpIv nn !SI oIdor (or nof nowor)
fhnn fho ono sforod, so If wouId bo dIscnrdod nnd no furfhor ncfIon wouId bo noodod. If
fho rocoIvod !SI wns fho nowor ono, X fhon sonds n copv of fhnf !SI fo nII of Ifs
noIghbors oxcopf fho noIghbor from whIch fho !SI wns jusf rocoIvod. Inch nodo
bocomos shndod ns If sforos fho now !SI.

(n) (b)

(c) (d)
Fi 2.41.: FlooJin o] link-otute pucketo.
(u) LSP urriteo ut noJe X, (b) X ]looJo LSP to A unJ C,
(c) A unJ C ]looJ LSP to B (but not X), (J) ]looJin io complete.

Jusf ns In !II, onch nodo gonornfos !SIs undor fwo cIrcumsfnncos. IIfhor fho
oxpIrv of n porIodIc fImor or n chnngo In fopoIogv cnn cnuso n nodo fo gonornfo n now
!SI. Tho fnIIuro of n IInk cnn bo dofocfod In somo cnsos bv fho IInk-Invor profocoI.

Ono of fho Imporfnnf dosIgn gonIs of n IInk-sfnfo profocoI`s fIoodIng mochnnIsm Is
fhnf fho nowosf InformnfIon musf bo fIoodod fo nII nodos ns quIckIv ns possIbIo, whIIo
oId InformnfIon musf bo romovod from fho nofwork nnd nof nIIowod fo cIrcuInfo.
In nddIfIon, If Is cIonrIv dosIrnbIo fo mInImIzo fho fofnI nmounf of roufIng frnffIc
fhnf Is sonf nround fho nofwork; nffor nII, fhIs Is jusf ovorhond from fho porspocfIvo of
fhoso who ncfunIIv uso fho nofwork for fhoIr nppIIcnfIons.

To mnko suro fhnf oId InformnfIon Is ropIncod bv nowor InformnfIon, !SIs cnrrv
soquonco numbors. Inch fImo n nodo gonornfos n now !SI, If Incromonfs fho soquonco
numbor bv l.
!SIs nIso cnrrv n fImo fo IIvo. ThIs Is usod fo onsuro fhnf oId IInk-sfnfo
InformnfIon Is ovonfunIIv romovod from fho nofwork. A nodo nIwnvs docromonfs fho
TT! of n nowIv rocoIvod !SI boforo fIoodIng If fo Ifs noIghbors.
If nIso ngos fho !SI whIIo If Is sforod In fho nodo. Whon fho TT! ronchos 0, fho
nodo rofIoods fho !SI wIfh n TT! of 0, whIch Is Inforprofod bv nII fho nodos In fho
nofwork ns n sIgnnI fo doIofo fhnf !SI.
Route CuIuIutIon
Onco n gIvon nodo hns n copv of fho !SI from ovorv ofhor nodo, If Is nbIo fo
compufo n compIofo mnp for fho fopoIogv of fho nofwork, nnd from fhIs mnp If Is nbIo fo
docIdo fho bosf roufo fo onch dosfInnfIon.

Wo fIrsf dofIno Ijksfrn`s nIgorIfhm In grnph-fhoorofIc forms. ImngIno fhnf n
nodo fnkos nII fho !SIs If hns rocoIvod nnd consfrucfs n grnphIcnI roprosonfnfIon of fho
nofwork, In whIch A donofos fho sof of nodos In fho grnph, l (i, j ) donofos fho
nonnognfIvo cosf (woIghf) nssocInfod wIfh fho odgo bofwoon nodos i, j A, nnd
l(i, j ) = If no odgo connocfs i nnd j .

Wo fhon Iook for fho nodo fhnf Is ronchnbIo nf fho Iowosf cosf (w) nnd ndd If fo M.
IInnIIv, wo updnfo fho fnbIo of cosfs bv consIdorIng fho cosf of ronchIng nodos fhrough
w. In prncfIco, onch swIfch compufos Ifs roufIng fnbIo dIrocfIv from fho !SIs If hns
coIIocfod usIng n ronIIznfIon of Ijksfrn`s nIgorIfhm cnIIod fho ]oruurJ oeurch
nIgorIfhm.
SpocIfIcnIIv, onch swIfch mnInfnIns fwo IIsfs, known ns TonfnfIvo nnd ConfIrmod.
Inch of fhoso IIsfs confnIns n sof of onfrIos of fho form (osfInnfIon, Cosf, oxfHop).

Tho nIgorIfhm works ns foIIows:
l) InIfInIIzo fho ConfIrmod IIsf wIfh nn onfrv for mvsoIf; fhIs onfrv hns n cosf of 0.
2) Ior fho nodo jusf nddod fo fho ConfIrmod IIsf In fho provIous sfop, cnII If nodo
noxf, soIocf Ifs !SI.

3) Ior onch noIghbor (oIghbor) of oxf, cnIcuInfo fho cosf (Cosf) fo ronch fhIs
oIghbor ns fho sum of fho cosf from mvsoIf fo oxf nnd from oxf fo oIghbor.
n) If oIghbor Is curronfIv on noIfhor fho ConfIrmod nor fho TonfnfIvo IIsf,
fhon ndd (oIghbor, Cosf, oxfHop) fo fho TonfnfIvo IIsf, whoro oxfHop
Is fho dIrocfIon I go fo ronch oxf.
b) If oIghbor Is curronfIv on fho TonfnfIvo IIsf, nnd fho Cosf Is Ioss fhnn
fho curronfIv IIsfod cosf for oIghbor, fhon ropInco fho curronf onfrv wIfh
(oIghbor, Cosf, oxfHop), whoro oxfHop Is fho dIrocfIon I go fo ronch
oxf.
4) If fho TonfnfIvo IIsf Is ompfv, sfop. OfhorwIso, pIck fho onfrv from fho fonfnfIvo
IIsf wIfh fho Iowosf cosf, movo If fo fho ConfIrmod IIsf, nnd rofurn fo sfop 2.

Fi 2.42.: Link Stute routin: un erumple netuork

Tuble 2.13:Stepo ]or builJin routin tuble ]or noJe D (Fiure 2.42)
Tho nbovo TnbIo frncos fho sfops for buIIdIng fho roufIng fnbIo for nodo . Wo
donofo fho fwo oufpufs of bv usIng fho nnmos of fho nodos fo whIch fhov connocf I
nnd C. Tho IInk-sfnfo roufIng nIgorIfhm hns mnnv nIco proporfIos: If hns boon provon fo
sfnbIIIzo quIckIv, If doos nof gonornfo much frnffIc, nnd If rosponds rnpIdIv fo fopoIogv
chnngos or nodo fnIIuros.
Tho dIfforonco bofwoon fho dIsfnnco-vocfor nnd IInk-sfnfo nIgorIfhms cnn bo
summnrIzod ns foIIows. In dIsfnnco vocfor, onch nodo fnIks onIv fo Ifs dIrocfIv connocfod
noIghbors, buf If foIIs fhom ovorvfhIng If hns Ionrnod (I.o., dIsfnnco fo nII nodos). In IInk
sfnfo, onch nodo fnIks fo nII ofhor nodos, buf If foIIs fhom onIv whnf If knows for suro
(I.o., onIv fho sfnfo of Ifs dIrocfIv connocfod IInks).

TLe Oen SLovtest PutL IIvst PvotooI (OSPI)
Ono of fho mosf wIdoIv usod IInk-sfnfo roufIng profocoIs Is OSII. Tho fIrsf word,
Opon, rofors fo fho fncf fhnf If Is nn opon, nonproprIofnrv sfnndnrd, cronfod undor fho
nuspIcos of fho IITI.

Tho SII pnrf comos from nn nIfornnfIvo nnmo for IInksfnfo roufIng. OSII ndds quIfo
n numbor of fonfuros fo fho bnsIc IInk-sfnfo nIgorIfhm,
Authenticution o] routin meooueo: ThIs Is n nIco fonfuro, sInco If Is nII foo
common for somo mIsconfIgurod hosf fo docIdo fhnf If cnn ronch ovorv hosf In fho
unIvorso nf n cosf of 0. Whon fho hosf ndvorfIsos fhIs fncf, ovorv roufor In fho
surroundIng noIghborhood updnfos Ifs forwnrdIng fnbIos fo poInf fo fhnf hosf,
nnd snId hosf rocoIvos n vnsf nmounf of dnfn fhnf, In ronIIfv, If hns no Idon whnf
fo do wIfh.

AJJitionul hierurchx: HIornrchv Is ono of fho fundnmonfnI fooIs usod fo mnko
svsfoms moro scnInbIo. OSII Infroducos nnofhor Invor of hIornrchv Info roufIng
bv nIIowIng n domnIn fo bo pnrfIfIonod Info oreoe. Thoro Is n roducfIon In fho
nmounf of InformnfIon fhnf musf bo frnnsmIffod fo nnd sforod In onch nodo.
*KuIunu** MuvI MutLu**Kuvuuum**SujutLu**TLunuuveI Muvuuun* 2.??
LouJ buluncin: OSII nIIows muIfIpIo roufos fo fho snmo pInco fo bo nssIgnod
fho snmo cosf nnd wIII cnuso frnffIc fo bo dIsfrIbufod ovonIv ovor fhoso roufos.

Thoro nro sovornI dIfforonf fvpos of OSII mossngos, buf nII bogIn wIfh fho snmo
hondor.

Fi 2.43.: OSPF heuJer ]ormut

Tho VorsIon fIoId Is curronfIv sof fo 2, nnd fho Tvpo fIoId mnv fnko fho vnIuos l
fhrough 5. Tho SourcoAddr IdonfIfIos fho sondor of fho mossngo, nnd fho AronId Is n 32-
bIf IdonfIfIor of fho nron In whIch fho nodo Is Iocnfod. Tho onfIro pnckof, oxcopf fho
nufhonfIcnfIon dnfn, Is profocfod bv n l6-bIf chocksum usIng fho snmo nIgorIfhm ns fho
II hondor.

Tho AufhonfIcnfIon fvpo Is 0 If no nufhonfIcnfIon Is usod; ofhorwIso If mnv bo l,
ImpIvIng n sImpIo pnssword Is usod, or 2, whIch IndIcnfos fhnf n crvpfogrnphIc
nufhonfIcnfIon chocksum AufhonfIcnfIon fIoId cnrrIos fho pnssword or crvpfogrnphIc
chocksum.
Of fho fIvo OSII mossngo fvpos, fvpo l Is fho hoIIo mossngo, whIch n roufor
sonds fo Ifs poors fo nofIfv fhom fhnf If Is sfIII nIIvo nnd connocfod.
*KuIunu** MuvI MutLu**Kuvuuum**SujutLu**TLunuuveI Muvuuun* 2.?B
Tho romnInIng fvpos nro usod fo roquosf, sond, nnd ncknowIodgo fho rocoIpf of
IInk sfnfo mossngos. Tho bnsIc buIIdIng bIock of IInk-sfnfo mossngos In OSII Is known
ns fho IInk-sfnfo ndvorfIsomonf (!SA). Ono mossngo mnv confnIn mnnv !SAs. Wo
provIdo n fow dofnIIs of fho !SA horo. OSII musf provIdo InformnfIon nbouf how fo
ronch nofworks.

Thus, OSII musf provIdo n IIffIo moro InformnfIon fhnn fho sImpIo grnph-bnsod
profocoI doscrIbod nbovo. SpocIfIcnIIv, n roufor runnIng OSII mnv gonornfo IInk-sfnfo
pnckofs fhnf ndvorfIso ono or moro of fho nofworks fhnf nro dIrocfIv connocfod fo fhnf
roufor. In nddIfIon, n roufor fhnf Is connocfod fo nnofhor roufor bv somo IInk musf
ndvorfIso fho cosf of ronchIng fhnf roufor ovor fho IInk boIow IIguro shows fho pnckof
formnf for n fvpo l IInk-sfnfo ndvorfIsomonf.

Tvpo l !SAs ndvorfIso fho cosf of IInks bofwoon roufors. Tvpo 2 !SAs nro usod fo
ndvorfIso nofworks fo whIch fho ndvorfIsIng roufor Is connocfod, whIIo ofhor fvpos nro
usod fo supporf nddIfIonnI hIornrchv.

Fi 2.44.: OSPF link-otute uJtertioement

In n fvpo l !SA, fho !Ink-sfnfo I nnd fho AdvorfIsIng roufor fIoId nro IdonfIcnI.
Inch cnrrIos n 32-bIf IdonfIfIor for fho roufor fhnf cronfod fhIs !SA. Tho !S soquonco
numbor Is usod oxncfIv ns doscrIbod nbovo, fo dofocf oId or dupIIcnfo !SAs. Tho !S
chocksum Is sImIInr fo ofhor profocoIs.

2.?.4 MTRICS
!Ink cosfs, or mofrIcs, nro known whon wo oxocufo fho roufIng nIgorIfhm. Ono
oxnmpIo fhnf wo hnvo soon nIrondv, whIch Is quIfo ronsonnbIo nnd vorv sImpIo, Is fo
nssIgn n cosf of l fo nII IInksfho Ionsf-cosf roufo wIII fhon bo fho ono wIfh fho fowosf
hops.
Such nn nppronch hns sovornI drnwbncks,
If doos nof dIsfInguIsh bofwoon IInks on n Infoncv bnsIs.
If doos nof dIsfInguIsh bofwoon roufos on n cnpncIfv bnsIs.
IInnIIv, If doos nof dIsfInguIsh bofwoon IInks bnsod on fhoIr curronf Iond,
mnkIng If ImpossIbIo fo roufo nround ovorIondod IInks.

Tho orIgInnI A!IAIT roufIng mofrIc monsurod fho numbor of pnckofs fhnf
woro quouod wnIfIng fo bo frnnsmIffod on onch IInk, monnIng fhnf n IInk wIfh l0
pnckofs quouod wnIfIng fo bo frnnsmIffod wns nssIgnod n Inrgor cosf woIghf fhnn n IInk
wIfh 5 pnckofs quouod for frnnsmIssIon.

A socond vorsIon of fho A!IAIT roufIng nIgorIfhm, somofImos cnIIod fho now
roufIng mochnnIsm, fook bofh IInk bnndwIdfh nnd Infoncv Info consIdornfIon nnd usod
doInv, rnfhor fhnn jusf quouo Iongfh, ns n monsuro of Iond.

IIrsf, onch IncomIng pnckof wns fImosfnmpod wIfh Ifs fImo of nrrIvnI nf fho
roufor (ArrIvnITImo); Ifs dopnrfuro fImo from fho roufor (opnrfTImo) wns nIso
rocordod. Socond, whon fho IInk-IovoI ACK wns rocoIvod from fho ofhor sIdo, fho nodo
compufod fho doInv for fhnf pnckof ns
eIuy = (euvtTIme - AvvIvuITIme) + TvunsmIssIonTIme + Iuteny
*KuIunu** MuvI MutLu**Kuvuuum**SujutLu**TLunuuveI Muvuuun* 2.B0
Whoro TrnnsmIssIonTImo nnd !nfoncv woro sfnfIcnIIv dofInod for fho IInk nnd
cnpfurod fho IInk`s bnndwIdfh nnd Infoncv, rospocfIvoIv. If fho ACK dId nof nrrIvo, buf
Insfond fho pnckof fImod ouf, fhon opnrf-TImo wns rosof fo fho fImo fho pnckof wns
rofrnnsmIffod.
In fhIs cnso, opnrfTImo ArrIvnITImo cnpfuros fho roIInbIIIfv of fho IInkfho
moro froquonf fho rofrnnsmIssIon of pnckofs, fho Ioss roIInbIo fho IInk, nnd fho moro wo
wnnf fo nvoId If.
IInnIIv, fho woIghf nssIgnod fo onch IInk wns dorIvod from fho nvorngo doInv
oxporIoncod bv fho pnckofs roconfIv sonf ovor fhnf IInk. !ndor honvv Iond, howovor, n
congosfod IInk wouId sfnrf fo ndvorfIso n vorv hIgh cosf. ThIs cnusod nII fho frnffIc fo
movo off fhnf IInk, IonvIng If IdIo, so fhon If wouId ndvorfIso n Iow cosf, fhorobv
nffrncfIng bnck nII fho frnffIc, nnd so on. Anofhor probIom wns fhnf fho rnngo of IInk
vnIuos wns much foo Inrgo.
A fhIrd nppronch, cnIIod fho rovIsod A!IAIT roufIng mofrIc, nddrossod fhoso
probIoms. Tho mnjor chnngos woro fo compross fho dvnnmIc rnngo of fho mofrIc
consIdornbIv, fo nccounf for fho IInk fvpo, nnd fo smoofh fho vnrInfIon of fho mofrIc
wIfh fImo. Tho smoofhIng wns nchIovod bv sovornI mochnnIsms.

Fi 2.45.: RetioeJ ARPAET routin metric terouo link utilixution
IIrsf, fho doInv monsuromonf wns frnnsformod fo IInk ufIIIznfIon, nnd fhIs
numbor wns nvorngod wIfh fho Insf roporfod ufIIIznfIon fo suppross suddon chnngos.
Socond, fhoro wns n hnrd IImIf on how much fho mofrIc couId chnngo from ono
monsuromonf cvcIo fo fho noxf.
Tho comprossIon of fho dvnnmIc rnngo wns nchIovod bv foodIng fho monsurod
ufIIIznfIon, fho IInk fvpo, nnd fho IInk spood Info n funcfIon fhnf Is shown grnphIcnIIv In
nbovo IIguro.
A hIghIv Iondod IInk novor shows n cosf of moro fhnn fhroo fImos Ifs cosf whon
IdIo.
Tho mosf oxponsIvo IInk Is onIv sovon fImos fho cosf of fho Ionsf oxponsIvo.
A hIgh-spood snfoIIIfo IInk Is moro nffrncfIvo fhnn n Iow-spood forrosfrInI IInk.
Cosf Is n funcfIon of IInk ufIIIznfIon onIv nf modornfo fo hIgh Ionds.

Thoro Is ono fInnI Issuo roInfod fo cnIcuInfIng odgo woIghfsfho froquoncv wIfh
whIch onch nodo cnIcuInfos fho woIghfs on Ifs IInks.
Thoro nro fwo fhIngs fo koop In mInd. IIrsf, nono of fho mofrIcs nro
Insfnnfnnoous. Thnf Is, whofhor n nodo Is monsurIng quouo Iongfh, doInv, or ufIIIznfIon,
If Is ncfunIIv compufIng nn nvorngo ovor n porIod of fImo. Socond, jusf bocnuso n mofrIc
chnngo doos nof monn fhnf fho nodo sonds ouf nn updnfo mossngo.

2.?.5 ROUTING IOR MOBII HOSTS
A hosf`s nddross consIsfs of n nofwork numbor nnd n hosf pnrf, nnd fho nofwork
numbor foIIs us whIch nofwork fho hosf Is nffnchod fo. II roufIng nIgorIfhms foII fho
roufors how fo gof pnckofs fo fho corrocf nofwork, fhus onhnncIng fho scnInbIIIfv of fho
roufIng svsfom bv koopIng hosf-spocIfIc InformnfIon ouf of fho roufors.
If wo dIdn`f chnngo fho II nddross of fho hosf, fhon If wouId bocomo unronchnbIo.
SoIufIon fo fhIs probIom Is fo provIdo fho hosf wIfh n now nddross whon If nffnchos fo n
now nofwork. TochnIquos such ns HCI.
Ior oxnmpIo, supposo fhnf n usor of n IC oquIppod wIfh n wIroIoss nofwork
Inforfnco Is runnIng somo nppIIcnfIon whIIo sho ronms fho counfrvsIdo.

Tho IC mIghf dofnch IfsoIf from ono nofwork nnd nffnch fo nnofhor wIfh somo
froquoncv, buf fho usor wouId wnnf fo bo obIIvIous fo fhIs.

If fho IC sImpIv chnngos Ifs II nddross In fho mIddIo of runnIng fho nppIIcnfIon,
fho nppIIcnfIon cnnnof sImpIv koop workIng, bocnuso fho romofo ond hns no wnv of
knowIng fhnf If musf now sond fho pnckofs fo n now II nddross.

Tho procoduros fhnf nro dosIgnod fo nddross fhIs probIom nro usunIIv roforrod fo
ns MobIIo II (whIch Is nIso fho nnmo of fho IITI workIng group fhnf dofInod fhom).

WhIIo fho mnjorIfv of roufors romnIn unchnngod, mobIIIfv supporf doos roquIro
somo now funcfIonnIIfv In nf Ionsf ono roufor, known ns fho Ione ogenI of fho mobIIo
nodo. ThIs roufor Is Iocnfod on fho homo nofwork of fho mobIIo hosf.

Tho mobIIo hosf Is nssumod fo hnvo n pormnnonf II nddross, cnIIod Ifs Ione
oJJreee, whIch hns n nofwork numbor oqunI fo fhnf of fho homo nofwork, nnd fhus of
fho homo ngonf. ThIs Is fho nddross fhnf wIII bo usod bv ofhor hosfs whon fhov sond
pnckofs fo fho mobIIo hosf; sInco If doos nof chnngo, If cnn bo usod bv Iong-IIvod
nppIIcnfIons ns fho hosf ronms.

Ioreign ogenI eeconJ roufor Is Iocnfod on n nofwork fo whIch fho mobIIo nodo
nffnchos IfsoIf whon If Is nwnv from Ifs homo nofwork. Iofh homo nnd foroIgn ngonfs
porIodIcnIIv nnnounco fhoIr prosonco on fho nofworks fo whIch fhov nro nffnchod usIng
ngonf ndvorfIsomonf mossngos.

A mobIIo hosf mnv nIso soIIcIf nn ndvorfIsomonf whon If nffnchos fo n now
nofwork. Tho ndvorfIsomonf bv fho homo ngonf onnbIos n mobIIo hosf fo Ionrn fho
nddross of Ifs homo ngonf boforo If Ionvos Ifs homo nofwork.


Fi 2.46.: Mobile hoot unJ mobilitx uento

Tho foroIgn ngonf fhon confncfs fho homo ngonf, provIdIng n core-of oJJreee.
ThIs Is usunIIv fho II nddross of fho foroIgn ngonf. Anv hosf fhnf frIos fo sond n pnckof
fo fho mobIIo hosf wIII sond If wIfh n dosfInnfIon nddross oqunI fo fho homo nddross of
fhnf nodo.

Wo cnn dIvIdo fho probIom of doIIvorIng fho pnckof fo fho mobIIo nodo Info fhroo pnrfs:
l) How doos fho homo ngonf Inforcopf n pnckof fhnf Is dosfInod for fho mobIIo nodo`
2) How doos fho homo ngonf fhon doIIvor fho pnckof fo fho foroIgn ngonf`
3) How doos fho foroIgn ngonf doIIvor fho pnckof fo fho mobIIo nodo`

Tho fIrsf probIom mIghf Iook onsv If vou jusf Iook nf IIguro 2.46, In whIch fho
homo ngonf Is cIonrIv fho onIv pnfh bofwoon fho sondIng hosf nnd fho homo nofwork,
nnd fhus musf rocoIvo pnckofs fhnf nro dosfInod fo fho mobIIo nodo.

Tho socond probIom Is fho doIIvorv of fho Inforcopfod pnckof fo fho foroIgn ngonf.
Horo wo uso fho funnoIIng fochnIquo doscrIbod. Tho homo ngonf sImpIv wrnps fho
pnckof InsIdo nn II hondor fhnf Is dosfInod for fho foroIgn ngonf nnd frnnsmIfs If Info
fho Infornofwork.

Mnko fhIs work; howovor, fho mobIIo nodo musf bo nbIo fo dvnnmIcnIIv ncquIro
nn II nddross fhnf Is Iocnfod In fho nddross spnco of fho foroIgn nofwork. ThIs nddross
wIII fhon bo usod ns fho cnro-of nddross. In our oxnmpIo, fhIs wouId hnvo fo bo nn
nddross wIfh n nofwork numbor of l2.

Route OtImIzutIon In MobIIe IP
Tho roufo from sondIng nodo fo mobIIo nodo cnn bo sIgnIfIcnnfIv subopfImnI. Ono
of fho mosf oxfromo oxnmpIos Is whon n mobIIo nodo nnd fho sondIng nodo nro on fho
snmo nofwork, buf fho homo nofwork for fho mobIIo nodo Is on fho fnr sIdo of fho
Infornof. Tho sondIng nodo nddrossos nII pnckofs fo fho homo nofwork; fhov frnvorso
fho Infornof fo ronch fho homo ngonf.

Whon n homo ngonf soos n pnckof dosfInod for ono of fho mobIIo nodos fhnf If
supporfs, If cnn doduco fhnf fho sondor Is nof usIng fho opfImnI roufo. Thoroforo, If
sonds n bIndIng updnfo mossngo bnck fo fho sourco, In nddIfIon fo forwnrdIng fho dnfn
pnckof fo fho foroIgn ngonf.
Tho sourco, If cnpnbIo, usos fhIs bIndIng updnfo fo cronfo nn onfrv In n bIndIng
cncho, whIch consIsfs of n IIsf of mnppIngs from mobIIo nodo nddrossos fo cnro-of
nddrossos, probIom wIfh fhIs schomo, whIch Is fhnf fho bIndIng cncho mnv bocomo ouf-
of-dnfo If fho mobIIo hosf movos fo n now nofwork.

If nn ouf-of-dnfo cncho onfrv Is usod, fho foroIgn ngonf wIII rocoIvo funnoIod
pnckofs for n mobIIo nodo, whIch Is no Iongor rogIsforod on Ifs nofwork. In fhIs cnso, If
sonds n bIndIng wnrnIng mossngo bnck fo fho sondor fo foII If fo sfop usIng fhIs cncho
onfrv.

Tho socurIfv nnd porformnnco nspocfs of mobIIo nofworks mIghf roquIro roufIng
nIgorIfhms fo fnko nccounf of sovornI fncfors whon fIndIng n roufo fo n mobIIo hosf.
Thoro Is nIso fho probIom of nd hoc mobIIo nofworksonnbIIng n group of mobIIo
nodos fo form n nofwork In fho nbsonco of nnv fIxod nodos.
2.B GIOBAI INTRNT

Af fhIs poInf, wo hnvo soon how fo connocf n hoforogonoous coIIocfIon of
nofworks fo cronfo nn Infornofwork nnd how fo uso fho sImpIo hIornrchv of fho II
nddross fo mnko roufIng In nn Infornof somowhnf scnInbIo.
Wo snv somowhnf scnInbIo bocnuso ovon fhough onch roufor doos nof nood fo
know nbouf nII fho hosfs connocfod fo fho Infornof, If doos, In fho modoI doscrIbod so
fnr, nood fo know nbouf nII fho nofworks connocfod fo fho Infornof.
Todnv`s Infornof hns fons of fhousnnds of nofworks connocfod fo If. !oufIng
profocoIs such ns fhoso wo hnvo jusf dIscussod do nof scnIo fo fhoso kInds of numbors.

Fi 2.47.: The tree otructure o] the 1nternet in 1000

Ioforo goffIng fo fhoso fochnIquos, wo nood fo hnvo n gonornI pIcfuro In our
honds of whnf fho gIobnI Infornof Iooks IIko. If Is nof jusf n rnndom InforconnocfIon of
Ifhornofs, buf Insfond If fnkos on n shnpo fhnf rofIocfs fho fncf fhnf If Inforconnocfs
mnnv dIfforonf orgnnIznfIons. Abovo IIguro gIvos n sImpIo dopIcfIon of fho sfnfo of fho
Infornof In l990.

SInco fhnf fImo, fho Infornof`s fopoIogv hns grown much moro compIox fhnn fhIs
fIguro suggosfs Ono of fho snIIonf fonfuros of fhIs fopoIogv Is fhnf If consIsfs of ond
usor sIfos (o.g., Sfnnford !nIvorsIfv) fhnf connocf fo sorvIco provIdor nofworks (o.g.,
IA!!IT wns n provIdor nofwork fhnf sorvod sIfos In fho Snn IrnncIsco Inv Aron).

In l990, mnnv provIdors sorvod n IImIfod googrnphIc rogIon nnd woro fhus
known ns rogIonnI nofworks. Tho rogIonnI nofworks woro, In furn, connocfod bv n
nnfIonwIdo bnckbono. In l990, fhIs bnckbono wns fundod bv fho nfIonnI ScIonco
IoundnfIon (SI) nnd wns fhoroforo cnIIod fho SIIT bnckbono.

AIfhough fho dofnII Is nof shown In fhIs fIguro, fho provIdor nofworks nro
fvpIcnIIv buIIf from n Inrgo numbor of poInf-fo-poInf IInks (o.g., S3 or OC-3 IInks) fhnf
connocf fo roufors; sImIInrIv, onch ond usor sIfo Is fvpIcnIIv nof n sIngIo nofwork, buf
Insfond consIsfs of muIfIpIo phvsIcnI nofworks connocfod bv roufors nnd brIdgos.

Tho fncf fhnf fho Infornof hns n dIscornIbIo sfrucfuro cnn bo usod fo our
ndvnnfngo ns wo fnckIo fho probIom of scnInbIIIfv. In fncf, wo nood fo donI wIfh fwo
roInfod scnIIng Issuos. Tho fIrsf Is fho scnInbIIIfv of roufIng.

Wo nood fo fInd wnvs fo mInImIzo fho numbor of nofwork numbors fhnf gof
cnrrIod nround In roufIng profocoIs nnd sforod In fho roufIng fnbIos of roufors. Tho
socond Is nddross ufIIIznfIonfhnf Is, mnkIng suro fhnf fho II nddross spnco doos nof
gof consumod foo quIckIv.

2.B.1 SUBNTTING
Tho orIgInnI Infonf of II nddrossos wns fhnf fho nofwork pnrf wouId unIquoIv
IdonfIfv oxncfIv ono phvsIcnI nofwork. If furns ouf fhnf fhIs nppronch hns n coupIo of
drnwbncks.

ImngIno n Inrgo cnmpus fhnf hns Iofs of InfornnI nofworks nnd fhnf docIdos fo
connocf fo fho Infornof. Ior ovorv nofwork, no mnffor how smnII, fho sIfo noods nf Ionsf
n cInss C nofwork nddross. Ivon worso, for nnv nofwork wIfh moro fhnn 255 hosfs, fhov
nood n cInss I nddross.
*KuIunu** MuvI MutLu**Kuvuuum**SujutLu**TLunuuveI Muvuuun* 2.B?
ThIs mnv nof soom IIko n bIg donI, nnd Indood If wnsn`f whon fho Infornof wns
fIrsf onvIsIonod, buf fhoro nro onIv n fInIfo numbor of nofwork numbors, nnd fhoro nro
fnr fowor cInss I nddrossos fhnn cInss Cs.

CInss I nddrossos fond fo bo In pnrfIcuInrIv hIgh domnnd bocnuso vou novor
know If vour nofwork mIghf oxpnnd bovond 255 nodos, so If Is onsIor fo uso n cInss I
nddross from fho sfnrf fhnn fo hnvo fo ronumbor ovorv hosf whon vou run ouf of room
on n cInss C nofwork.

Tho probIom wo obsorvo horo Is nddross nssIgnmonf InoffIcIoncv: A nofwork wIfh
fwo nodos usos nn onfIro cInss C nofwork nddross, fhorobv wnsfIng 253 porfocfIv usofuI
nddrossos; n cInss I nofwork wIfh sIIghfIv moro fhnn 255 hosfs wnsfos ovor 64,000
nddrossos.

AssIgnIng mnnv nofwork numbors hns nnofhor drnwbnck fhnf bocomos nppnronf
whon vou fhInk nbouf roufIng. !ocnII fhnf fho nmounf of sfnfo fhnf Is sforod In n nodo
pnrfIcIpnfIng In n roufIng profocoI Is proporfIonnI fo fho numbor of ofhor nodos, nnd
fhnf roufIng In nn Infornof consIsfs of buIIdIng up forwnrdIng fnbIos fhnf foII n roufor
how fo ronch dIfforonf nofworks.

Thus, fho moro nofwork numbors fhoro nro In uso, fho bIggor fho forwnrdIng
fnbIos gof. IIg forwnrdIng fnbIos ndd cosf fo roufors, nnd fhov nro pofonfInIIv sIowor fo
sonrch fhnn smnIIor fnbIos for n gIvon fochnoIogv, so fhov dogrndo roufor porformnnco.
ThIs provIdos nnofhor mofIvnfIon for nssIgnIng nofwork numbors cnrofuIIv.

Subnettin provIdos nn oIognnfIv sImpIo wnv fo roduco fho fofnI numbor of
nofwork numbors fhnf nro nssIgnod. Tho Idon Is fo fnko n sIngIo II nofwork numbor
nnd nIIocnfo fho II nddrossos wIfh fhnf nofwork numbor fo sovornI phvsIcnI nofworks,
whIch nro now roforrod fo ns oubneto.

*KuIunu** MuvI MutLu**Kuvuuum**SujutLu**TLunuuveI Muvuuun* 2.BB

SovornI fhIngs nood fo bo dono fo mnko fhIs work. IIrsf, fho subnofs shouId bo
cIoso fo onch ofhor. ThIs Is bocnuso nf n dIsfnnf poInf In fho Infornof, fhov wIII nII Iook
IIko n sIngIo nofwork, hnvIng onIv ono nofwork numbor bofwoon fhom. ThIs monns fhnf
n roufor wIII onIv bo nbIo fo soIocf ono roufo fo ronch nnv of fho subnofs, so fhov hnd
boffor nII bo In fho snmo gonornI dIrocfIon.

Tho mochnnIsm bv whIch n sIngIo nofwork numbor cnn bo shnrod nmong
muIfIpIo nofworks InvoIvos confIgurIng nII fho nodos on onch subnof wIfh n euIneI
noel. WIfh sImpIo II nddrossos, nII hosfs on fho snmo nofwork musf hnvo fho snmo
nofwork numbor.

Tho subnof mnsk onnbIos us fo Infroduco n euIneI nunIer, nII hosfs on fho snmo
phvsIcnI nofwork wIII hnvo fho snmo subnof numbor, whIch monns fhnf hosfs mnv bo on
dIfforonf phvsIcnI nofworks buf shnro n sIngIo nofwork numbor. Whnf fho subnof mnsk
offocfIvoIv doos Is Infroduco nnofhor IovoI of hIornrchv Info fho II nddross.

Ior oxnmpIo, supposo fhnf wo wnnf fo shnro n sIngIo cInss I nddross nmong
sovornI phvsIcnI nofworks. Wo couId uso n subnof mnsk of 255.255.255.0. (Subnof
mnsks nro wrIffon down jusf IIko II nddrossos; fhIs mnsk Is fhoroforo nII ls In fho
uppor 24 bIfs nnd 0s In fho Iowor 8 bIfs.)
In offocf, fhIs monns fhnf fho fop 24 bIfs (whoro fho mnsk hns ls) nro now
dofInod fo bo fho nofwork numbor, nnd fho Iowor 8 bIfs (whoro fho mnsk hns 0s) nro fho
hosf numbor.

SInco fho fop l6 bIfs IdonfIfv fho nofwork In n cInss I nddross, wo mnv now
fhInk of fho nddross ns hnvIng nof fwo pnrfs buf fhroo: n nofwork pnrf, n subnof pnrf,
nnd n hosf pnrf. Thnf Is, wo hnvo dIvIdod whnf usod fo bo fho hosf pnrf Info n subnof
pnrf nnd n hosf pnrf. ThIs Is shown In IIguro 2.48.
WLut subnettInu meuns to u Lost Is tLut It Is now onIIuuved wItL botL un IP

uddvess und u subnet musk Iov tLe subnet to wLIL It Is uttuLed?
Ior oxnmpIo, hosf Hl In IIguro 2.49 Is confIgurod wIfh nn nddross of
l28.96.34.l5 nnd n subnof mnsk of 255.255.255.l28. (AII hosfs on n gIvon subnof nro
confIgurod wIfh fho snmo mnsk; I.o., fhoro Is oxncfIv ono subnof mnsk por subnof.)
Tho bIfwIso A of fhoso fwo numbors dofInos fho subnof numbor of fho hosf
nnd of nII ofhor hosfs on fho snmo subnof. In fhIs cnso, l28.96.34.l5 A
255.255.255.l28 oqunIs l28.96.34.0, so fhIs Is fho subnof numbor for fho fopmosf
subnof In fho boIow fIguro.

Fi 2.4S.: Subnet AJJreooin

Fi 2.40.: An erumple o] oubnettin
Whon fho hosf wnnfs fo sond n pnckof fo n corfnIn II nddross, fho fIrsf fhIng If
doos Is fo porform n bIfwIso A bofwoon Ifs own subnof mnsk nnd fho dosfInnfIon II
nddross. If fho rosuIf oqunIs fho subnof numbor of fho sondIng hosf, fhon If knows fhnf
fho dosfInnfIon hosf Is on fho snmo subnof nnd fho pnckof cnn bo doIIvorod dIrocfIv ovor
fho subnof.

If fho rosuIfs nro nof oqunI, fho pnckof noods fo bo sonf fo n roufor fo bo
forwnrdod fo nnofhor subnof. ofo fhnf A!I Is InrgoIv unnffocfod bv fho chnngo In
nddross sfrucfuro. Onco n hosf or roufor fIguros ouf whIch nodo If noods fo doIIvor n
pnckof fo on ono of fho nofworks fo whIch If Is nffnchod, If porforms A!I fo fInd fho
MAC nddross for fhnf nodo If nocossnrv.

Tho job of n roufor nIso chnngos whon wo Infroduco subnoffIng. !ocnII fhnf, for
sImpIo II, n roufor hns n forwnrdIng fnbIo fhnf consIsfs of onfrIos of fho form
ofworkum, oxfHop.
To supporf subnoffIng, fho fnbIo musf now hoId onfrIos of fho form
(Subnofumbor, SubnofMnsk, oxfHop). To fInd fho rIghf onfrv In fho fnbIo, fho roufor
As fho pnckof`s dosfInnfIon nddross wIfh fho SubnofMnsk for onch onfrv In furn; If
fho rosuIf mnfchos fho Subnofumbor of fho onfrv, fhon fhIs Is fho rIghf onfrv fo uso,
nnd If forwnrds fho pnckof fo fho noxf hop roufor IndIcnfod. In fho oxnmpIo nofwork of
IIguro 2.49, roufor !l wouId hnvo fho onfrIos shown In boIow fnbIo.

Tuble 2.14.: Erumple ]oruurJin tuble uith oubnettin ]or Fiure 2.40
Wo cnn now doscrIbo fho dnfngrnm forwnrdIng nIgorIfhm In fho foIIowIng wnv:
D = JeeIinoIion 1P oJJreee
for eocI foruorJing IoIle enIrx _SuIneIAunIer, SuIneIMoel, AexIHop_
D1 = SuIneIMoel & D
if D1 = SuIneIAunIer
if AexIHop ie on inIerfoce
Jeliter JoIogron JirecIlx Io JeeIinoIion
elee
Jeliter JoIogron Io AexIHop (o rouIer)

A fow fIno poInfs nbouf subnoffIng nood fo bo monfIonod. Wo hnvo nIrondv soon
fhnf fho subnof mnsk doos nof nood fo nIIgn wIfh n bvfo boundnrv, wIfh fho oxnmpIo
mnsk of 255.255.255.l28 (25 ls foIIowod bv ? 0s) usod nbovo.
Moro confusIngIv, If Is nof ovon nocossnrv for nII fho ls In n subnof mnsk fo bo
confIguous. Wo cnn nIso puf muIfIpIo subnofs on n sIngIo phvsIcnI nofwork.
Tho offocf of fhIs wouId bo fo forco hosfs on fho snmo nofwork fo fnIk fo onch
ofhor fhrough n roufor, whIch mIghf bo usofuI for ndmInIsfrnfIvo purposos; for oxnmpIo,
fo provIdo IsoInfIon bofwoon dIfforonf dopnrfmonfs shnrIng n !A.
Irom oufsIdo our hvpofhofIcnI cnmpus, roufors soo n sIngIo nofwork. In fho
oxnmpIo nbovo, roufors oufsIdo fho cnmpus soo fho coIIocfIon of nofworks In IIguro 2.49
ns jusf fho nofwork l28.96, nnd fhov koop ono onfrv In fhoIr forwnrdIng fnbIos fo foII
fhom how fo ronch If.

2.B.2 CIASSISS ROUTING (CIR)
CInssIoss Infor omnIn roufIng (CI!, pronouncod cIdor) Is n fochnIquo fhnf
nddrossos fwo scnIIng concorns In fho Infornof: fho growfh of bnckbono roufIng fnbIos
ns moro nnd moro nofwork numbors nood fo bo sforod In fhom, nnd fho pofonfInI for fho
32-bIf II nddross spnco fo bo oxhnusfod woII boforo fho four-bIIIIonfh hosf Is nffnchod fo
fho Infornof.
Wo hnvo nIrondv monfIonod fho probIom fhnf wouId cnuso fhIs nddross spnco
oxhnusfIon: nddross nssIgnmonf InoffIcIoncv.

Tho InoffIcIoncv nrIsos bocnuso fho II nddross sfrucfuro, wIfh cInss A, I, nnd C
nddrossos, forcos us fo hnnd ouf nofwork nddross spnco In fIxod-sIzod chunks of fhroo
vorv dIfforonf sIzos. A nofwork wIfh fwo hosfs noods n cInss C nddross, gIvIng nn
nddross nssIgnmonf offIcIoncv of 2/255 = 0.?8; n nofwork wIfh 256 hosfs noods n cInss
I nddross, for nn offIcIoncv of onIv 256/65,535 = 0.39.

Ivon fhough subnoffIng cnn hoIp us fo nssIgn nddrossos cnrofuIIv, If doos nof gof
nround fho fncf fhnf nnv nufonomous svsfom wIfh moro fhnn 255 hosfs, or nn
oxpocfnfIon of ovonfunIIv hnvIng fhnf mnnv, wnnfs n cInss I nddross.

As If furns ouf, oxhnusfIon of fho II nddross spnco confors on oxhnusfIon of fho
cInss I nofwork numbors. Ono wnv fo donI wIfh fhnf wouId soom fo bo snvIng no fo nnv
AS fhnf roquosfs n cInss I nddross unIoss fhov cnn show n nood for somofhIng cIoso fo
64K nddrossos, nnd Insfond gIvIng fhom nn npproprInfo numbor of cInss C nddrossos fo
covor fho oxpocfod numbor of hosfs.

SInco wo wouId now bo hnndIng ouf nddross spnco In chunks of 256 nddrossos nf
n fImo, wo couId moro nccurnfoIv mnfch fho nmounf of nddross spnco consumod fo fho
sIzo of fho AS. Ior nnv AS wIfh nf Ionsf 256 hosfs (whIch monns fho mnjorIfv of ASs),
wo cnn gunrnnfoo nn nddross ufIIIznfIon of nf Ionsf 50, nnd fvpIcnIIv much moro.

ThIs soIufIon, howovor, rnIsos n probIom fhnf Is nf Ionsf ns sorIous: oxcossIvo
sforngo roquIromonfs nf fho roufors. If n sIngIo AS hns, snv, l6 cInss C nofwork
numbors nssIgnod fo If, fhnf monns ovorv Infornof bnckbono roufor noods l6 onfrIos In
Ifs roufIng fnbIos for fhnf AS. ThIs Is fruo ovon If fho pnfh fo ovorv ono of fhoso
nofworks Is fho snmo.
If wo hnd nssIgnod n cInss I nddross fo fho AS, fho snmo roufIng InformnfIon
couId bo sforod In ono fnbIo onfrv. Howovor, our nddross nssIgnmonf offIcIoncv wouId
fhon bo onIv l6 255/65,536 = 6.2.

CI!, fhoroforo, frIos fo bnInnco fho dosIro fo mInImIzo fho numbor of roufos
fhnf n roufor noods fo know ngnInsf fho nood fo hnnd ouf nddrossos offIcIonfIv. To do
fhIs, CI! hoIps us fo ureute roufos. Thnf Is, If Iofs us uso n sIngIo onfrv In n
forwnrdIng fnbIo fo foII us how fo ronch n Iof of dIfforonf nofworks.
As vou mnv hnvo guossod from fho nnmo, If doos fhIs bv bronkIng fho rIgId
boundnrIos bofwoon nddross cInssos. To undorsfnnd how fhIs works, consIdor our
hvpofhofIcnI AS wIfh l6 cInss C nofwork numbors.

Insfond of hnndIng ouf l6 nddrossos nf rnndom, wo cnn hnnd ouf n bIock of
conIiguoue cInss C nddrossos. Supposo wo nssIgn fho cInss C nofwork numbors from
l92.4.l6 fhrough l92.4.3l.
Obsorvo fhnf fho fop 20 bIfs of nII fho nddrossos In fhIs rnngo nro fho snmo
(ll000000 00000l00 000l). Thus, whnf wo hnvo offocfIvoIv cronfod Is n 20-bIf nofwork
numborsomofhIng fhnf Is bofwoon n cInss I nofwork numbor nnd n cInss C numbor In
forms of fho numbor of hosfs fhnf If cnn supporf. ConsIdor fho oxnmpIo In IIguro 2.50.

Tho fwo corpornfIons sorvod bv fho provIdor nofwork hnvo boon nssIgnod
ndjnconf 20- bIf nofwork profIxos. SInco bofh of fho corpornfIons nro ronchnbIo fhrough
fho snmo provIdor nofwork, If cnn ndvorfIso n sIngIo roufo fo bofh of fhom bv jusf
ndvorfIsIng fho common l9-bIf profIx fhov shnro.
In gonornI, If Is possIbIo fo nggrognfo roufos roponfodIv If nddrossos nro nssIgnod
cnrofuIIv. ThIs monns fhnf wo nood fo pnv nffonfIon fo whIch provIdor n corpornfIon Is
nffnchod fo boforo nssIgnIng If nn nddross If fhIs schomo Is fo work. Ono wnv fo
nccompIIsh fhnf Is fo nssIgn n porfIon of nddross spnco fo fho provIdor nnd fhon fo Iof
fho nofwork provIdor nssIgn nddrossos from fhnf spnco fo Ifs cusfomors.


Fi 2.50.: Route ureution uith C1DR

2.B.3 IntevdomuIn RoutInu (BGP)
A corpornfIon`s compIox InfornnI nofwork mIghf bo n sIngIo AS, ns mnv fho
nofwork of n sIngIo Infornof sorvIco provIdor. IIguro 2.5l shows n sImpIo nofwork wIfh
fwo nufonomous svsfoms.

Fi 2.51.: A netuork uith tuo uutonomouo oxotemo

Tho bnsIc Idon bohInd nufonomous svsfoms Is fo provIdo nn nddIfIonnI wnv fo
hIornrchIcnIIv nggrognfo roufIng InformnfIon In n Inrgo Infornof, fhus ImprovIng
scnInbIIIfv. Wo now dIvIdo fho roufIng probIom Info fwo pnrfs: roufIng wIfhIn n sIngIo
nufonomous svsfom nnd roufIng bofwoon nufonomous svsfoms.

SInco nnofhor nnmo for nufonomous svsfoms In fho Infornof Is roufIng Jonoine,
wo rofor fo fho fwo pnrfs of fho roufIng probIom ns InfordomnIn roufIng nnd
InfrndomnIn roufIng.

Thoro hnvo boon fwo mnjor InfordomnIn roufIng profocoIs In fho roconf hIsforv of
fho Infornof. Tho fIrsf wns fho IxforIor Cnfownv IrofocoI (ICI). ICI hnd n numbor of
IImIfnfIons, porhnps fho mosf sovoro of whIch wns fhnf If consfrnInod fho fopoIogv of
fho Infornof rnfhor sIgnIfIcnnfIv.

ICI bnsIcnIIv forcod n frooIIko fopoIogv onfo fho Infornof, or fo bo moro procIso,
If wns dosIgnod whon fho Infornof hnd n frooIIko fopoIogv, such ns fhnf IIIusfrnfod In
IIguro 2.4?. ICI dId nof nIIow for fho fopoIogv fo bocomo moro gonornI. ofo fhnf In
fhIs sImpIo frooIIko sfrucfuro, fhoro Is n sIngIo bnckbono, nnd nufonomous svsfoms nro
connocfod onIv ns pnronfs nnd chIIdron nnd nof ns poors.

Tho ropIncomonf for ICI Is fho Iordor Cnfownv IrofocoI (ICI), whIch Is In Ifs
fourfh vorsIon nf fho fImo of fhIs wrIfIng (ICI-4). ICI Is nIso known for boIng rnfhor
compIox.

ThIs socfIon prosonfs fho hIghIIghfs of ICI-4. As n sfnrfIng posIfIon, ICI
nssumos fhnf fho Infornof Is nn nrbIfrnrIIv Inforconnocfod sof of ASs. ThIs modoI Is
cIonrIv gonornI onough fo nccommodnfo non-froo sfrucfurod Infornofworks, IIko fho
sImpIIfIod pIcfuro of fodnv`s muIfIbnckbono Infornof shown In IIguro 2.52.


Fi 2.52.: ToJux'o multibuckbone 1nternet

!nIIko fho sImpIo froo-sfrucfurod Infornof shown In IIguro 2.4?, fodnv`s Infornof
consIsfs of nn InforconnocfIon of muIfIpIo bnckbono nofworks (fhov nro usunIIv cnIIod
oertice protiJer netuorko, nnd fhov nro opornfod bv prIvnfo compnnIos rnfhor fhnn
fho govornmonf), nnd sIfos nro connocfod fo onch ofhor In nrbIfrnrv wnvs.

Somo Inrgo corpornfIons connocf dIrocfIv fo ono or moro of fho bnckbonos, whIIo
ofhors connocf fo smnIIor, nonbnckbono sorvIco provIdors. Mnnv sorvIco provIdors oxIsf
mnInIv fo provIdo sorvIco fo consumors (I.o., IndIvIdunIs wIfh ICs In fhoIr homos), nnd
fhoso provIdors musf nIso connocf fo fho bnckbono provIdors. Offon mnnv provIdors
nrrnngo fo Inforconnocf wIfh onch ofhor nf n sIngIo "eevInu oInt." In shorf, If Is
hnrd fo dIscorn much sfrucfuro nf nII In fodnv`s Infornof.

CIvon fhIs rough skofch of fho Infornof, If wo dofIno locol Iroffic ns frnffIc fhnf
orIgInnfos nf or formInnfos on nodos wIfhIn nn AS, nnd IroneiI Iroffic ns frnffIc fhnf
pnssos fhrough nn AS, wo cnn cInssIfv ASs Info fhroo fvpos:
SIuI AS. nn AS fhnf hns onIv n sIngIo connocfIon fo ono ofhor AS; such nn AS
wIII onIv cnrrv IocnI frnffIc. Tho smnII corpornfIon In IIguro 2.52 Is nn oxnmpIo of
n sfub AS.

MulIiIoneJ AS. nn AS fhnf hns connocfIons fo moro fhnn ono ofhor AS buf fhnf
rofusos fo cnrrv frnnsIf frnffIc; for oxnmpIo, fho Inrgo corpornfIon nf fho fop of
IIguro 2.52.

TroneiI AS. nn AS fhnf hns connocfIons fo moro fhnn ono ofhor AS nnd fhnf Is
dosIgnod fo cnrrv bofh frnnsIf nnd IocnI frnffIc, such ns fho bnckbono provIdors In
IIguro 2.52.

Thoro nro three oulo to currieJ out.....
IIrsf nnd foromosf, fho gonI Is fo fInd onx pnfh fo fho Infondod dosfInnfIon fhnf
Is Ioop-froo. Thnf Is, wo nro moro concornod wIfh ronchnbIIIfv fhnn opfImnIIfv. IIndIng
n pnfh fhnf Is nnvwhoro cIoso fo opfImnI Is consIdorod n gronf nchIovomonf.

Tho socond chnIIongo In InfordomnIn roufIng nrIsos from fho nufonomous nnfuro
of fho domnIns. ofo fhnf onch domnIn mnv run Ifs own InforIor roufIng profocoIs nnd
uso nnv schomo If choosos fo nssIgn mofrIcs fo pnfhs. ThIs monns fhnf If Is ImpossIbIo fo
cnIcuInfo monnIngfuI pnfh cosfs for n pnfh fhnf crossos muIfIpIo ASs.
A cosf of l000 ncross ono provIdor mIghf ImpIv n gronf pnfh, buf If mIghf monn
nn unnccopfnbIv bnd ono from nnofhor provIdor. As n rosuIf, InfordomnIn roufIng
ndvorfIsos onIv "veuLubIIIty."
Tho concopf of ronchnbIIIfv Is bnsIcnIIv n sfnfomonf fhnf vou cnn ronch fhIs
nofwork fhrough fhIs AS. ThIs monns fhnf for InfordomnIn roufIng fo pIck nn opfImnI
pnfh Is ossonfInIIv ImpossIbIo.

Tho fhIrd chnIIongo InvoIvos fho Issuo of frusf. IrovIdor A mIghf bo unwIIIIng fo
boIIovo corfnIn ndvorfIsomonfs from provIdor I for fonr fhnf provIdor I wIII ndvorfIso
orronoous roufIng InformnfIon.
CIosoIv roInfod fo fhIs Issuo Is fho nood fo supporf vorv fIoxIbIo poIIcIos In
InfordomnIn roufIng. Ono common poIIcv Is fho provonfIon of frnnsIf frnffIc. Ior
oxnmpIo, fho MuIfIhomod CorpornfIon In IIguro 2.52 mnv nof wIsh fo cnrrv nnv frnffIc
bofwoon fho fwo provIdors fo whom If connocfs.

As n moro compIox oxnmpIo, provIdor A mIghf wIsh fo ImpIomonf poIIcIos fhnf
snv, !so provIdor I onIv fo ronch fhoso nddrossos, !so fho pnfh fhnf crossos fho
fowosf numbor of ASs, or !so AS x In proforonco fo AS x. Tho gonI Is fo spocIfv
poIIcIos fhnf Iond fo good pnfhs, If nof fo opfImnI onos.

Whon confIgurIng ICI, fho ndmInIsfrnfor of onch AS pIcks nf Ionsf ono nodo fo
bo n ICI sponkor, whIch Is ossonfInIIv n spokosporson for fho onfIro AS. Thnf ICI
sponkor osfnbIIshos ICI sossIons fo ofhor ICI sponkors In ofhor ASs. Thoso sossIons
nro usod fo oxchnngo ronchnbIIIfv InformnfIon nmong ASs. ConsIdor fho oxnmpIo
nofwork In IIguro 2.53.

Assumo fhnf fho provIdors nro frnnsIf nofworks, whIIo fho cusfomor nofworks
nro sfubs. A ICI sponkor for fho AS of provIdor A (AS 2) wouId bo nbIo fo ndvorfIso
ronchnbIIIfv InformnfIon for onch of fho nofwork numbors nssIgnod fo cusfomors I nnd
Q. Thus, If wouId snv, In offocf, Tho nofworks l28.96, l92.4.l53, l92.4.32, nnd l92.4.3
cnn bo ronchod dIrocfIv from AS 2.

Tho bnckbono nofwork, on rocoIvIng fhIs ndvorfIsomonf, cnn ndvorfIso, Tho
nofworks l28.96, l92.4.l53, l92.4.32, nnd l92.4.3 cnn bo ronchod nIong fho pnfh _AS l,
AS 2_.

SImIInrIv, If couId ndvorfIso, Tho nofworks l92.l2.69, l92.4.54, nnd l92.4.23
cnn bo ronchod nIong fho pnfh _AS l, AS 3_.An Imporfnnf job of ICI Is fo provonf fho
osfnbIIshmonf of IoopIng pnfhs.

Ior oxnmpIo, consIdor fhroo Inforconnocfod ASs, l, 2, nnd 3. Supposo AS l Ionrns

fhnf If cnn ronch nofwork l0.0.l fhrough AS 2, so If ndvorfIsos fhIs fncf fo AS 3, who In
furn ndvorfIsos If bnck fo AS 2. AS 2 couId now docIdo fhnf AS 3 wns fho pInco fo sond
pnckofs dosfInod for l0.0.l; AS 3 sonds fhom fo AS l; AS l sonds fhom bnck fo AS 2;
nnd fhov wouId Ioop forovor.

ThIs Is provonfod bv cnrrvIng fho compIofo AS pnfh In fho roufIng mossngos. In
fhIs cnso, fho ndvorfIsomonf rocoIvod bv AS 2 from AS 3 wouId confnIn nn AS pnfh of
_AS 3, AS l, AS 2_. AS 2 soos IfsoIf In fhIs pnfh, nnd fhus concIudos fhnf fhIs Is nof n
usofuI pnfh for If fo uso.

Fi 2.53.: Erumple o] u netuork runnin BCP

In nddIfIon fo ndvorfIsIng pnfhs, ICI sponkors nood fo bo nbIo fo cnncoI
provIousIv ndvorfIsod pnfhs If n crIfIcnI IInk or nodo on n pnfh goos down. ThIs Is dono
wIfh n form of nognfIvo ndvorfIsomonf known ns n uithJruun route.

Iofh posIfIvo nnd nognfIvo ronchnbIIIfv InformnfIon nro cnrrIod In n ICI updnfo
mossngo, fho formnf of whIch Is shown In boIow IIguro.

Fi 2.54.: BCP-4 upJute pucket ]ormut

Ono poInf fo nofo nbouf ICI-4 Is fhnf If wns dosIgnod fo copo wIfh fho cInssIoss
nddrossos doscrIbod. ThIs monns fhnf fho nofworks fhnf nro ndvorfIsod In ICI nro
ncfunIIv profIxos of nnv Iongfh.

Thus, fho updnfos confnIn bofh fho profIx IfsoIf nnd Ifs Iongfh In bIfs. Whon
wrIfIng fhoso down, If Is common fo wrIfo profIx/Iongfh. A fInnI poInf fo nofo Is fhnf
ICI Is dofInod fo run on fop of TCI, fho roIInbIo frnnsporf profocoI.
Iocnuso ICI sponkors cnn counf on TCI fo bo roIInbIo, fhIs monns fhnf nnv
InformnfIon fhnf hns boon sonf from ono sponkor fo nnofhor doos nof nood fo bo sonf
ngnIn.

Thus, ns Iong ns nofhIng hns chnngod, n ICI sponkor cnn sImpIv sond nn
occnsIonnI koopnIIvo mossngo fhnf snvs, In offocf, I`m sfIII horo nnd nofhIng hns
chnngod. If fhnf roufor woro fo crnsh, If wouId sfop sondIng fho koopnIIvos, nnd fho
ofhor roufors fhnf hnd Ionrnod roufos from If wouId know fhnf fhoso roufos woro no
Iongor vnIId.
2.B.4 ROUTING ARAS

Tho IInk-sfnfo InfrndomnIn roufIng profocoIs provIdo n monns fo pnrfIfIon n
roufIng domnIn Info subdomnIns cnIIod ureuo. Iv nddIng fhIs oxfrn IovoI of hIornrchv,
wo onnbIo sIngIo domnIns fo grow Inrgor wIfhouf ovorburdonIng fho InfrndomnIn
roufIng profocoIs.
An nron Is n sof of roufors fhnf nro ndmInIsfrnfIvoIv confIgurod fo oxchnngo
IInksfnfo InformnfIon wIfh onch ofhor. Thoro Is ono spocInI nronfho bnckbono nron,
nIso known ns nron 0.
An oxnmpIo of n roufIng domnIn dIvIdod Info nrons Is shown In IIguro 2.55.
!oufors !l, !2, nnd !3 nro mombors of fho bnckbono nron. Thov nro nIso mombors of nf
Ionsf ono nonbnckbono nron; !l Is ncfunIIv n mombor of bofh nron l nnd nron 2. A
roufor fhnf Is n mombor of bofh fho bnckbono nron nnd n non bnckbono nron Is nn nron
bordor roufor (AI!).

Fi 2.55.: A Jomuin JitiJeJ into ureuo

AII fho roufors In fho nron sond IInk-sfnfo ndvorfIsomonfs fo onch ofhor, nnd
fhus dovoIop n compIofo, consIsfonf mnp of fho nron. Howovor, fho IInk-sfnfo
ndvorfIsomonfs of roufors fhnf nro nof nron bordor roufors do nof Ionvo fho nron In
whIch fhov orIgInnfod. ThIs hns fho offocf of mnkIng fho fIoodIng nnd roufo cnIcuInfIon
procossos consIdornbIv moro scnInbIo.
Ior oxnmpIo, roufor !4 In nron 3 wIII novor soo n IInk-sfnfo ndvorfIsomonf from
roufor !8 In nron l. As n consoquonco, If wIII know nofhIng nbouf fho dofnIIod fopoIogv
of nrons ofhor fhnn Ifs own.

ofo fhnf In fho cnso of nron 2, fhoro nro fwo AI!s, nnd fhnf roufors In nron 2
wIII fhus hnvo fo mnko n choIco ns fo whIch ono fhov uso fo ronch fho bnckbono. ThIs Is
onsv onough, sInco bofh !l nnd !2 wIII bo ndvorfIsIng cosfs fo vnrIous nofworks, so fhnf
If wIII bocomo cIonr whIch Is fho boffor choIco ns fho roufors In nron 2 run fhoIr
shorfosf-pnfh nIgorIfhm. Ior oxnmpIo, If Is proffv cIonr fhnf !l Is goIng fo bo n boffor
choIco fhnn !2 for dosfInnfIons In nron l.

Whon dIvIdIng n domnIn Info nrons, fho nofwork ndmInIsfrnfor mnkos n frndooff
bofwoon scnInbIIIfv nnd opfImnIIfv of roufIng. Tho uso of nrons forcos nII pnckofs
frnvoIIng from ono nron fo nnofhor fo go vIn fho bnckbono nron, ovon If n shorfor pnfh
mIghf hnvo boon nvnIInbIo.
Ior oxnmpIo, ovon If !4 nnd !5 woro dIrocfIv connocfod, pnckofs wouId nof fIow
bofwoon fhom bocnuso fhov nro In dIfforonf non bnckbono nrons. If furns ouf fhnf fho
nood for scnInbIIIfv Is offon moro Imporfnnf fhnn fho nood fo uso fho nbsoIufo shorfosf
pnfh.

2.9 MUITICAST
Tho mofIvnfIon for dovoIopIng muIfIcnsf Is fhnf fhoro nro nppIIcnfIons fhnf wnnf
fo sond n pnckof fo moro fhnn ono dosfInnfIon hosf.

Insfond of forcIng fho sourco hosf fo sond n sopnrnfo pnckof fo onch of fho
dosfInnfIon hosfs, wo wnnf fho sourco fo bo nbIo fo sond n sIngIo pnckof fo n nulIicoeI
oJJreee, nnd for fho nofworkor Infornof, In fhIs cnsofo doIIvor n copv of fhnf pnckof
fo onch of n group of hosfs.

Infornof muIfIcnsf cnn bo ImpIomonfod on fop of n coIIocfIon of nofworks fhnf
supporf hnrdwnro muIfIcnsf (or brondcnsf) bv oxfondIng fho roufIng nnd forwnrdIng
funcfIons ImpIomonfod bv fho roufors fhnf connocf fhoso nofworks. Tho fIrsf Is bnsod on
dIsfnnco-vocfor roufIng.

Tho socond Is bnsod on IInk-sfnfo roufIng. Tho fhIrd cnn buIId on nnv undorIvIng
roufIng profocoI nnd Is fhus cnIIod IrofocoI Indopondonf MuIfIcnsf (IIM). II muIfIcnsf
usos fho Idon of n nulIicoeI group fhnf rocoIvors mnv joIn. Inch group hns n spocInIIv
nssIgnod nddross, nnd sondors fo fho group uso fhnf nddross ns fho dosfInnfIon nddross
for fhoIr pnckofs.

In IIv4, fhoso nddrossos nro nssIgnod In fho cInss nddross spnco, nnd IIv6 nIso
hns n porfIon of Ifs nddross spnco rosorvod for muIfIcnsf group nddrossos. Hosfs joIn
muIfIcnsf groups usIng n profocoI cnIIod Infornof Croup Mnnngomonf IrofocoI (ICMI).

oIIvorv of pnckofs from fho Insf hop roufor fo fho hosf Is hnndIod bv fho
undorIvIng muIfIcnsf cnpnbIIIfv of fho nofwork. Ono porpIoxIng quosfIon Is how sondors
nnd rocoIvors Ionrn nbouf muIfIcnsf nddrossos. ThIs Is normnIIv hnndIod bv ouf-of-bnnd
monns, nnd fhoro nro somo quIfo sophIsfIcnfod fooIs fo onnbIo group nddrossos fo bo
ndvorfIsod on fho Infornof.

2.9.1 IINK-STAT MUITICAST
AddIng muIfIcnsf fo n IInk-sfnfo roufIng nIgorIfhm Is fnIrIv sfrnIghfforwnrd.
Inch roufor monIfors fho sfnfo of Ifs dIrocfIv connocfod IInks nnd sonds nn updnfo
mossngo fo nII of fho ofhor roufors whonovor fho sfnfo chnngos.
SInco onch roufor rocoIvos onough InformnfIon fo roconsfrucf fho onfIro fopoIogv
of fho nofwork, If Is nbIo fo uso Ijksfrn`s nIgorIfhm fo compufo fho shorfosf-pnfh
spnnnIng froo roofod nf If nnd ronchIng nII possIbIo dosfInnfIons.
Tho roufor sImpIv monIfors fho !A for such nnnouncomonfs. ShouId such
nnnouncomonfs sfop nrrIvIng nffor n porIod of fImo, fho roufor fhon nssumos fhnf fho
hosf hns Ioff fho group` onch roufor Is nbIo fo compufo fho eIorIeeI-poII nulIicoeI Iree
from nnv sourco fo nnv group, ngnIn usIng Ijksfrn`s nIgorIfhm whoro fho coIorod hosfs
boIong fo group C, fho roufors wouId compufo fho shorfosf-pnfh muIfIcnsf froos gIvon In
IIguro 2.5? for sourcos A, I, nnd C.
Tho roufors wouId uso fhoso froos fo docIdo how fo forwnrd pnckofs nddrossod fo
muIfIcnsf group C. Ior oxnmpIo, roufor !3 wouId forwnrd n pnckof goIng from hosf A fo
group C fo !6.

2.9.2 ISTANC-VCTOR MUITICAST
AddIng muIfIcnsf fo fho dIsfnnco-vocfor nIgorIfhm Is n bIf frIckIor bocnuso fho
roufors do nof know fho onfIro fopoIogv of fho Infornof. Inch roufor mnInfnIns n fnbIo
of _ osfInnfIon, Cosf, oxfHop _ fupIos, nnd oxchnngos n IIsf of _ osfInnfIon, Cosf _
pnIrs wIfh Ifs dIrocfIv connocfod noIghbors.
IxfondIng fhIs nIgorIfhm fo supporf muIfIcnsf Is n fwo-sfngo procoss. IIrsf, wo
nood fo dosIgn n brondcnsf mochnnIsm fhnf nIIows n pnckof fo bo forwnrdod fo nII fho
nofworks on fho Infornof. Socond, wo nood fo rofIno fhIs mochnnIsm so fhnf If prunos
bnck nofworks fhnf do nof hnvo hosfs fhnf boIong fo fho muIfIcnsf group.

Revevse-PutL Bvoudust (RPB)
Inch roufor knows fhnf fho curronf shorfosf pnfh fo n gIvon dosfInnfIon goos
fhrough oxfHop. Thus, whonovor If rocoIvos n muIfIcnsf pnckof from sourco S, fho
roufor forwnrds fho pnckof on nII oufgoIng IInks (oxcopf fho ono on whIch fho pnckof
nrrIvod)If nnd onIv If fho pnckof nrrIvod ovor fho IInk fhnf Is on fho shorfosf pnfh fo S
(I.o., fho pnckof cnmo fron fho oxfHop nssocInfod wIfh S In fho roufIng fnbIo).
ThIs sfrnfogv offocfIvoIv fIoods pnckofs oufwnrd from S, buf doos nof Ioop pnckofs
bnck fownrd. Thoro nro fwo mnjor shorfcomIngs:
Tho fIrsf Is fhnf If fruIv fIoods fho nofwork;
Tho socond IImIfnfIon Is fhnf n gIvon pnckof wIII bo forwnrdod ovor n !A
bv onch of fho roufors connocfod fo fhnf !A.

IIu 2.56.: IxnmpIo Infornof wIfh mombors of group C In coIor

Revevse-PutL MuItIust (RPM)
!II ImpIomonfs shorfosf-pnfh brondcnsf. IIrsf, wo nood fo rocognIzo whon n
leof nofwork hns no group mombors. Tho socond sfngo Is fo propngnfo fhIs no mombors
of C horo InformnfIon up fho shorfosf-pnfh froo. ThIs Is dono bv hnvIng fho roufor
nugmonf fho _osfInnfIon, Cosf_ pnIrs If sonds fo Ifs noIghbors wIfh fho sof of groups
for whIch fho Ionf nofwork Is Inforosfod In rocoIvIng muIfIcnsf pnckofs.


PvotooI Indeendent MuItIust (PIM)
IIM wns dovoIopod In rosponso fo fho scnIIng probIoms of oxIsfIng muIfIcnsf
roufIng profocoIs. In pnrfIcuInr, If wns rocognIzod fhnf fho oxIsfIng profocoIs dId nof
scnIo woII In onvIronmonfs whoro n roInfIvoIv smnII proporfIon of roufors wnnf fo
rocoIvo frnffIc for n corfnIn group.

Ior oxnmpIo, brondcnsfIng frnffIc fo nII roufors unfII fhov oxpIIcIfIv nsk fo bo
romovod from fho dIsfrIbufIon Is nof n good dosIgn choIco If mosf roufors don`f wnnf fo
rocoIvo fho frnffIc In fho fIrsf pInco. ThIs sIfunfIon Is suffIcIonfIv common fhnf IIM
dIvIdos fho probIom spnco Info spnrso modo nnd donso modo.To nddross fhIs, IIM
nssIgns n renJectoue poinI (!I) fo onch group.

In gonornI, n numbor of roufors In n domnIn nro confIgurod fo bo cnndIdnfo !Is,
nnd IIM dofInos n sof of procoduros bv whIch nII fho roufors In n domnIn cnn ngroo on
fho roufor fo uso ns fho !I for n gIvon group.

A muIfIcnsf forwnrdIng froo Is buIIf ns n rosuIf of roufors sondIng JoIn mossngos
fo fho !I. IIM-SM nIIows fwo fvpos of froos fo bo consfrucfod: n eIoreJ froo, whIch
mnv bo usod bv nII sondors, nnd n eource-epecific froo, whIch mnv bo usod onIv bv n
spocIfIc sondIng hosf. Whon n roufor sonds n JoIn mossngo fownrd fho !I for n group C,
If Is sonf usIng normnI II unIcnsf frnnsmIssIon.

Inch roufor nIong fho pnfh Iooks nf fho JoIn nnd cronfos n forwnrdIng fnbIo onfrv
for fho shnrod froo, cnIIod n (*, C) onfrv (* monnIng nII sondors). To cronfo fho
forwnrdIng fnbIo onfrv, If Iooks nf fho Inforfnco on whIch fho JoIn nrrIvod nnd mnrks
fhnf Inforfnco ns ono on whIch If shouId forwnrd dnfn pnckofs for fhIs group.


Fi 2.57.: Erumple ohorteot-puth multicuot treeo.

If fhon doformInos whIch Inforfnco If wIII uso fo forwnrd fho JoIn fownrd fho !I.
ThIs wIII bo fho onIv nccopfnbIo Inforfnco for IncomIng pnckofs sonf fo fhIs group. If
fhon forwnrds fho JoIn fownrd fho !I. IvonfunIIv, fho mossngo nrrIvos nf fho !I,
compIofIng fho consfrucfIon of fho froo brnnch. Tho shnrod froo fhus consfrucfod Is
shown ns n coIorod IIno from fho !I fo !4.

(n) (b)

(c) (d)

Fi 2.5S: P1M operution
(u) R4 oenJo Join to RP unJ joino ohureJ tree.
(b) R5 joino ohureJ tree.
(c) RP builJo oource-opeci]ic tree to R1 bx oenJin Join to R1.
(J) R4 unJ R5 builJ oource-opeci]ic tree to R1 bx oenJin Joino to R1.

A pnckof wIfh fho npproprInfo muIfIcnsf group nddrossos ns Ifs dosfInnfIon nnd
sonds If fo n roufor on Ifs IocnI nofwork known ns fho JeeignoIeJ rouIer (!). Supposo
fho ! Is !l In nbovo IIguro.
Thoro Is no sfnfo for fhIs muIfIcnsf group bofwoon !l nnd fho !I nf fhIs poInf, so
Insfond of sImpIv forwnrdIng fho muIfIcnsf pnckof, !lfunnoIs If fo fho !I. Thnf Is, !l
oncnpsuInfos fho muIfIcnsf pnckof InsIdo n unIcnsf II pnckof fhnf If sonds fo fho unIcnsf
II nddross of fho !I.

Fi 2.50.: Deliterx o] u pucket ulon u ohureJ tree. R1 tunnelo the
pucket to the RP, uhich ]oruurJo it ulon the ohureJ tree to R4 unJ R5.

Tho !I, of courso, doos know whnf fo do wIfh such n pnckofIf sonds If ouf onfo
fho shnrod froo of whIch fho !I Is fho roof. In fho oxnmpIo of IIguro 2.58, fhIs monns
fhnf fho !I sonds fho pnckof on fo !2, whIch Is nbIo fo forwnrd If fo !4 nnd !5. Tho
compIofo doIIvorv of n pnckof from !l fo !4 nnd !5 Is shown In IIguro 2.59.

An Imporfnnf dofnII fo nofo nf fhIs sfngo Is fhnf fho JoIn mossngo sonf bv fho !I
fo fho sondIng hosf Is spocIfIc fo fhnf sondor, whorons fho provIous onos sonf bv !4 nnd
!5 nppIIod fo nII sondors.
Thus fho offocf of fho now JoIn Is fo cronfo eenJer-epecific sfnfo In fho roufors
bofwoon fho IdonfIfIod sourco nnd fho !I. ThIs Is roforrod fo ns (S, C) sfnfo, sInco If
nppIIos fo ono sondor fo ono group nnd confrnsfs wIfh fho (*, C) sfnfo fhnf wns InsfnIIod
bofwoon fho rocoIvors nnd fho !I fhnf nppIIos fo nII sondors.

Tho noxf possIbIo opfImIznfIon Is fo ropInco fho onfIro shnrod froo wIfh n sourco
spocIfIc froo. Tho roufor nf fho downsfronm ond of fho froosnvs, !4 In our oxnmpIo
sonds n sourco-spocIfIc joIn fownrd fho sourco. As If foIIows fho shorfosf pnfh fownrd fho
sourco, fho roufors nIong fho wnv cronfo (S, C) sfnfo for fhIs froo nnd fho rosuIf Is n froo
fhnf hns Ifs roof nf fho sourco, rnfhor fhnn fho !I.

ofo fhnf fhIs froo no Iongor InvoIvos fho !I nf nII. Wo hnvo romovod fho shnrod
froo from fhIs pIcfuro fo sImpIIfv fho dIngrnm, buf In ronIIfv nII roufors wIfh rocoIvors
for n group musf sfnv on fho shnrod froo In cnso now sondors show up. Wo cnn now soo
whv IIM Is profocoI Indopondonf.

AII of Ifs mochnnIsms for buIIdIng nnd mnInfnInIng froos dopond on whnfovor
unIcnsf roufIng profocoI Is usod In fho domnIn. Tho formnfIon of froos Is onfIroIv
doformInod bv fho pnfhs fhnf JoIn mossngos foIIow, whIch Is doformInod bv fho choIco
of shorfosf pnfhs mndo bv unIcnsf roufIng. Thus, fo bo procIso, IIM Is unIcnsf roufIng
profocoI Indopondonf, ns compnrod fo fho ofhor muIfIcnsf roufIng profocoIs.

***N***
UNIT 3: TRANSPORT IAYR
A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.1
UNIT III
TRANSPORT IAYR

3.1 SIMPI MUITIPIXR (UP)
Tho sImpIosf possIbIo frnnsporf profocoI Is ono fhnf oxfonds fho IoeI-Io-IoeI
doIIvorv sorvIco of fho undorIvIng nofwork Info n proceee-Io-proceee communIcnfIon
sorvIco.
emuItIIeInu
I. Monx proceeeee run on nnv gIvon IoeI
II. Tho profocoI noods fo ndd n IovoI of demuItIIeInu
III. If nIIows nulIiple opplicoIion proceeeee on onch IoeI fo sLuve tLe netwovk.

Tho frnnsporf profocoI ndds no ofhor funcfIonnIIfv fo fho bosf-offorf sorvIco provIdod bv
fho undorIvIng nofwork. UDP Is nn oxnmpIo of such n frnnsporf profocoI.

IdentIIyInu tLe tuvuet voess
Tho onIv InforosfIng Issuo In such n profocoI Is fho form of fho nddross usod fo
iJenIifx IIe IorgeI proceee.
If Is possIbIo for procossos fo dIrocfIv IdonfIfv onch ofhor wIfh nn OS-nssIgnod
proceee iJ (piJ).
Iuf If Is prncfIcnI onIv In n cloeeJ JieIriIuIeJ exeIen. In whIch n sIngIo OS runs
on nII hosfs nnd nssIgns onch procoss n unIquo Id.

A moro common nppronch, nnd fho ono usod bv !I, Is for procossos fo
IndIrocfIv IdonfIfv onch ofhor usIng nn nbsfrncf Iocnfor, offon cnIIod n ovt ov
muIIbo.
Tho bnsIc Idon Is for n sourco procoss fo eenJ o neeeoge Io o porI nnd for fho
dosfInnfIon procoss fo receite IIe neeeoge fron o porI.

Heudev
Tho hondor confnIns.

Povts
IdonfIfIor (porf) for bofh fho sondor (sourco) nnd fho rocoIvor (dosfInnfIon) of
fho mossngo.
In fIguro !I porf fIoId Is onIv l6 bIfs Iong
ThIs monns fhnf fhoro nro up fo 64K possIbIo porfs.If Is nof onough fo
IdonfIfv nII fho procossos on nII fho hosfs In fho Infornof
IorfunnfoIv n procoss Is ronIIv IdonfIfIod bv n porf on somo pnrfIcuInr hosf
n (porf,hosf) pnIr.

How u voess Ieuvns tLe ovt Iov tLe voess to wLIL It wunts to send u
messuue?
CIIonf procoss InIfInfos n mossngo oxchnngo wIfh n sorvor.
Onco n cIIonf hns confncfod n sorvor, fho sorvor knows fho cIIonf`s porf (If wns
confnInod In fho mossngo hondor) nnd cnn ropIv fo If.

Problem. Hou IIe clienI leorne IIe eerterè porI in IIe fireI ploce:

A common nppronch Is for fho sorvor fo nccopf mossngos nf n uell-knoun port
fhnf Is, onch sorvor rocoIvos Ifs mossngos nf somo fIxod porf fhnf Is wIdoIv
pubIIshod,

GenevuIIzed Ideu
Thoro Is onIv n sIngIo woII-known porffho ono nf whIch fho Iorf Mnppor
sorvIco nccopfs mossngos.
A cIIonf wouId sond n mossngo fo fho Iorf Mnppor`s woII-known porf nskIng for
fho porf If shouId uso fo fnIk fo fho whnfovor sorvIco.
Tho Iorf Mnppor rofurns fho npproprInfo porf.
ThIs sfrnfogv mnkos If onsv fo chnngo fho porf nssocInfod wIfh dIfforonf sorvIcos
ovor fImo, nnd for onch hosf fo uso n dIfforonf porf for fho snmo sorvIco.

ImIementutIon by u messuue queue
Whon n mossngo nrrIvos, fho profocoI (o.g., !I) npponds fho mossngo fo fho
ond of fho quouo.
If fho quouo Is fuII, fho mossngo Is dIscnrdod.
Thoro Is no fIow-confroI mochnnIsm fhnf foIIs fho sondor fo sIow down.
Whon nn nppIIcnfIon procoss wnnfs fo rocoIvo n mossngo, ono Is romovod from
fho fronf of fho quouo.
If fho quouo Is ompfv, fho procoss bIocks unfII n mossngo bocomos nvnIInbIo.


CLeksum
!I onsuros fho corrocfnoss of fho mossngo bv fho uso of n chocksum.
!I compufos Ifs chocksum ovor fho !I hondor, fho confonfs of fho mossngo
bodv, nnd somofhIng cnIIod fho peeuJoIeoJer.

PSUOHAR
Tho psoudohondor consIsfs of fhroo fIoId from fho II hondorproIocol nunIer,
eource 1P oJJreee, onJ JeeIinoIion 1P oJJreeepIus fho UDP lengII fielJ.
HnvIng fho psoudohondor Is fo vorIfv fhnf fhIs mossngo hns boon doIIvorod
bofwoon fho corrocf fwo ondpoInfs

3.2 RIIABI BYT STRAM (TCP)
TCI offors n roIInbIo, connocfIon-orIonfod, bvfo-sfronm sorvIco
If froos fho nppIIcnfIon from hnvIng fo worrv nbouf mIssIng or roordorod dnfn.
If Is n fuII-dupIox profocoI, monnIng fhnf onch TCI connocfIon supporfs n
pnIr of bvfo sfronms, ono fIowIng In onch dIrocfIon.
If nIso IncIudos n fIow-confroI mochnnIsm for onch of fhoso bvfo sfronms fhnf
nIIow fho rocoIvor fo IImIf how much dnfn fho sondor cnn frnnsmIf nf n gIvon
fImo.
!Iko !I, TCI supporfs n domuIfIpIoxIng mochnnIsm.

ConuestIon-ontvoI meLunIsm
Tho Idon of fhIs mochnnIsm Is fo fhroffIo how fnsf TCI sonds dnfn, nof for fho
snko of koopIng fho eenJer from oterrunning IIe receiter, buf fo koop fho eenJer fron
oterlooJing IIe neIuorl.

Topico CotereJ

1. nd-to-nd Issues
2. Seument Iovmut
3. ConnetIon stubIIsLment und TevmInutIon
o Three-Wux HunJohuke
o Stute Trunoition Diurum
4. SIIdInu WIndow RevIsIted
o Reliuble unJ OrJereJ Deliterx
o Flou Control
o Protectin uuinot WrupurounJ
o Keepin the Pipe Full
5. TvIuuevInu TvunsmIssIon
o Sillx WinJou SxnJrome
o ule'o Alorithm
6. AdutIve RetvunsmIssIon
o Oriinul Alorithm
o Kurn/PurtriJe Alorithm
o Jucoboon/Kurelo Alorithm
o 1mplementution
?. Reovd BounduvIes
B. TCP tensIons
9. AItevnutIve esIun CLoIes

A.1 N-TO-N ISSU
IIvst
TCI supporfs IogIcnI connocfIons bofwoon procossos fhnf nro runnIng on nnv fwo
compufors In fho Infornof.
ThIs monns fhnf TCI noods nn oxpIIcIf connocfIon osfnbIIshmonf phnso durIng
whIch fho fwo sIdos of fho connocfIon ngroo fo oxchnngo dnfn wIfh onch ofhor.
TCI nIso hns nn oxpIIcIf connocfIon fonrdown phnso.

Ono of fho fhIngs fhnf hnppon durIng connocfIon osfnbIIshmonf Is fhnf fho fwo
pnrfIos osfnbIIsh somo shnrod sfnfo fo onnbIo fho sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhm fo
bogIn.
ConnocfIon fonrdown Is noodod so onch hosf knows If Is OK fo froo fhIs sfnfo.

Seond
Whorons n sIngIo phvsIcnI IInk fhnf nIwnvs connocfs fho snmo fwo compufors hns
n fIxod !TT.
TCI connocfIons nro IIkoIv fo hnvo wIdoIv dIfforonf round-frIp fImos.
VnrInfIons In fho !TT nro ovon possIbIo durIng n sIngIo TCI connocfIon fhnf
Insfs onIv n fow mInufos.
Whnf fhIs monns fo fho sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhm Is fhnf fho fImoouf
mochnnIsm fhnf frIggors rofrnnsmIssIons musf bo ndnpfIvo.

umIe Iov seond
A TCI connocfIon bofwoon n hosf In Snn IrnncIsco nnd n hosf In Iosfon, whIch
nro sopnrnfod bv sovornI fhousnnd kIIomofors, mIghf hnvo nn !TT 380 5 Ind-fo-Ind
IrofocoIs of l00 ms, whIIo n TCI connocfIon bofwoon fwo hosfs In fho snmo room, onIv
n fow mofors npnrf, mIghf hnvo nn !TT of onIv l ms.
Tho snmo TCI profocoI musf bo nbIo fo supporf bofh of fhoso connocfIons. To
mnko mnffors worso, fho TCI connocfIon bofwoon hosfs In Snn IrnncIsco nnd Iosfon
mIghf hnvo nn !TT of l00 ms nf 3 n.m., buf nn !TT of 500 ms nf 3 p.m.

TLIvd
Inckofs mnv bo roordorod ns fhov cross fho Infornof, buf fhIs Is nof possIbIo on n
poInf-fo-poInf IInk whoro fho fIrsf pnckof puf Info ono ond of fho IInk musf bo fho
fIrsf fo npponr nf fho ofhor ond.
Inckofs fhnf nro sIIghfIv ouf of ordor do nof cnuso n probIom sInco fho sIIdIng
wIndow nIgorIfhm cnn roordor pnckofs corrocfIv usIng fho soquonco numbor.
Tho ronI Issuo Is how Info n pnckof cnn nrrIvo nf fho dosfInnfIon.

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.?

In fho worsf cnso, n pnckof cnn bo doInvod In fho Infornof unfII II`s tIme to IIve
(TTI) fIoId oxpIros, nf whIch fImo fho pnckof Is dIscnrdod.
KnowIng fhnf II fhrows pnckofs nwnv nffor fhoIr TT! oxpIros, TCI nssumos
fhnf onch pnckof hns n mnxImum IIfofImo. Tho oxncf IIfofImo, known ns fho
murimum oement li]etime (MSI).
Tho curronf rocommondod soffIng Is l20 socond, nnd If Is sImpIv n consorvnfIvo
osfImnfo.
TCI hns fo bo propnrod for vorv oId pnckofs fo suddonIv show up nf fho rocoIvor,
pofonfInIIv confusIng fho sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhm.

IouvtL
Tho compufors connocfod fo n poInf-fo-poInf IInk nro gonornIIv ongInoorod fo
supporf fho IInk.
osIgnIng fho svsfom ofhorwIso wouId bo sIIIv.

On fho ofhor hnnd, nImosf nnv kInd of compufor cnn bo connocfod fo fho
Infornof, mnkIng fho nmounf of rosourcos dodIcnfod fo nnv ono TCI connocfIon
hIghIv vnrInbIo, ospocInIIv consIdorIng fhnf nnv ono hosf cnn pofonfInIIv supporf
hundrods of TCI connocfIons nf fho snmo fImo.
ThIs monns fhnf TCI musf IncIudo n mochnnIsm fhnf onch sIdo usos fo Ionrn
whnf rosourcos (o.g., how much buffor spnco) fho ofhor sIdo Is nbIo fo nppIv fo fho
connocfIon. ThIs Is fho fIow-confroI Issuo

umIe Iov IouvtL
If n IInk`s doInv bnndwIdfh producf Is compufod fo bo 8 KI monnIng fhnf n
wIndow sIzo Is soIocfod fo nIIow up fo 8 KI of dnfn fo bo unncknowIodgod nf n gIvon
fImofhon If Is IIkoIv fhnf fho compufors nf oIfhor ond of fho IInk hnvo fho nbIIIfv fo
buffor up fo 8 KI of dnfn.

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.B
IIItL
Iocnuso fho frnnsmIffIng sIdo of n dIrocfIv connocfod IInk cnnnof sond nnv fnsfor
fhnn fho bnndwIdfh of fho IInk nIIows, nnd onIv ono hosf Is pumpIng dnfn Info
fho IInk, If Is nof possIbIo fo unknowIngIv congosf fho IInk.
Tho Iond on fho IInk Is vIsIbIo In fho form of n quouo of pnckofs nf fho sondor.

In confrnsf, fho sondIng sIdo of n TCI connocfIon hns no Idon whnf IInks wIII bo
frnvorsod fo ronch fho dosfInnfIon.
nfn boIng gonornfod bv mnnv dIfforonf sourcos mIghf bo frvIng fo frnvorso fhIs
snmo sIow IInk. ThIs Ionds fo fho probIom of nofwork congosfIon.

umIe Iov IIItL
Tho sondIng mnchIno mIghf bo dIrocfIv connocfod fo n roInfIvoIv fnsf Ifhornof
nnd so, cnpnbIo of sondIng dnfn nf n rnfo of l00 Mbpsbuf somowhoro ouf In fho
mIddIo of fho nofwork, n l.5-Mbps Tl IInk musf bo frnvorsod.

ComuvIson oI TCP's uvouL wItL tLe uvouL used by X.25 netwovks
In TCI, fho undorIvIng II nofwork Is nssumod fo bo unroIInbIo nnd fo doIIvor
mossngos ouf of ordor; TCI usos fho sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhm on nn enJ-Io-enJ
Ioeie fo provIdo roIInbIo/ordorod doIIvorv.
X.25 nofworks uso fho sIIdIng wIndow profocoI wIfhIn fho nofwork, on n Iop-Ix-
Iop Ioeie.
Tho nssumpfIon bohInd fhIs nppronch Is fhnf If mossngos nro doIIvorod roIInbIv
nnd In ordor bofwoon onch pnIr of nodos nIong fho pnfh bofwoon fho sourco hosf
nnd fho dosfInnfIon hosf, fhon fho ond-fo-ond sorvIco nIso gunrnnfoos
roIInbIo/ordorod doIIvorv.

PvobIems wItL X.25 uvouL
l. If n hoforogonoous IInk (snv, nn Ifhornof) Is nddod fo ono ond of fho pnfh, fhon
fhoro Is no gunrnnfoo fhnf fhIs hop wIII prosorvo fho snmo sorvIco ns fho ofhor
hops.
2. Jusf bocnuso fho sIIdIng wIndow profocoI gunrnnfoos fhnf mossngos nro doIIvorod
corrocfIv from nodo A fo nodo I, nnd fhon from nodo I fo nodo C, If doos nof
gunrnnfoo fhnf nodo I bohnvos porfocfIv.

umIe
ofwork nodos hnvo boon known fo Infroduco orrors Info mossngos whIIo
frnnsforrIng fhom from nn Inpuf buffor fo nn oufpuf buffor. Thov hnvo nIso boon known
fo nccIdonfnIIv roordor mossngos.
As n consoquonco of fhoso smnII wIndows of vuInornbIIIfv, If Is sfIII nocossnrv fo
provIdo fruo ond-fo-ond chocks fo gunrnnfoo roIInbIo/ordorod sorvIco, ovon fhough fho
Iowor IovoIs of fho svsfom nIso ImpIomonf fhnf funcfIonnIIfv.

A.2 SGMNT IORMAT
TCI Is n bvfo-orIonfod profocoI, whIch monns fhnf fho sondor wrIfos bvfos Info n
TCI connocfIon nnd fho rocoIvor ronds bvfos ouf of fho TCI connocfIon.
TCI on fho sourco hosf buffors onough bvfos from fho sondIng procoss fo fIII n
ronsonnbIv sIzod pnckof nnd fhon sonds fhIs pnckof fo Ifs poor on fho dosfInnfIon
hosf.
TCI on fho dosfInnfIon hosf fhon ompfIos fho confonfs of fho pnckof Info n
rocoIvo buffor, nnd fho rocoIvIng procoss ronds from fhIs buffor nf Ifs IoIsuro.

How TCP munuues u byte stveum
ThIs sIfunfIon Is IIIusfrnfod In fho nbovo IIguro, whIch, for sImpIIcIfv, shows
dnfn fIowIng In onIv ono dIrocfIon. !omombor fhnf, In gonornI, n sIngIo TCI
connocfIon supporfs bvfo sfronms fIowIng In bofh dIrocfIons
Tho pnckofs oxchnngod bofwoon TCI poors In fho nbovo IIguro nro cnIIod
oemento. sInco onch ono cnrrIos n sogmonf of fho bvfo sfronm
Inch TCI sogmonf confnIns fho hondor schomnfIcnIIv dopIcfod In IIguro boIow
SvPovt nnd stPovt fIoIds IdonfIfv fho eource nnd JeeIinoIion porfs,
rospocfIvoIv
Thoso fwo fIoIds, pIus fho sourco nnd dosfInnfIon II nddrossos,combIno fo
unIquoIv IdonfIfv onch TCI connocfIon.
TCI`s domux kov Is gIvon bv fho 4-fupIo
<SvPovt, SvIPAddv, stPovt, stIPAddv >

TCP Leudev Iovmut

SImIIIIed IIIustvutIon (sLowInu onIy one dIvetIon) oI tLe TCP voess, wItL
dutu IIow In one dIvetIon und ACKs In tLe otLev
Soquoncoum fIoId confnIns fho soquonco numbor for fho fIrsf bvfo of dnfn
cnrrIod In fhnf sogmonf.
Tho AcknowIodgmonf nnd AdvorfIsod WIndow fIoIds cnrrv InformnfIon nbouf fho
fIow of dnfn goIng In fho ofhor dIrocfIon.
Tho 6-bIf IIngs fIoId Is usod fo roInv confroI InformnfIon bofwoon TCI poors.

Tho possIbIo fIngs IncIudo SY, II, !ISIT, I!SH, !!C, nnd ACK. Tho SY
nnd II fIngs nro usod whon osfnbIIshIng nnd formInnfIng n TCI connocfIon.

Tho ACK fIng Is sof nnv fImo fho AcknowIodgmonf fIoId Is vnIId, ImpIvIng fhnf
fho rocoIvor shouId pnv nffonfIon fo If.
Tho URG fIng sIgnIfIos fhnf fhIs sogmonf confnIns urgonf dnfn.
Whon fhIs fIng Is sof, fho !rgIfr fIoId IndIcnfos whoro fho nonurgonf dnfn
confnInod In fhIs sogmonf bogIns.
Tho urgonf dnfn Is confnInod nf fho fronf of fho sogmonf bodv, up fo nnd
IncIudIng n vnIuo of !rgIfr bvfos Info fho sogmonf.

Tho PUSH fIng sIgnIfIos fhnf fho sondor Invokod fho push opornfIon, whIch
IndIcnfos fo fho rocoIvIng sIdo of TCI fhnf If shouId nofIfv fho rocoIvIng procoss
of fhIs fncf.
Tho RST fIng sIgnIfIos fhnf fho rocoIvor hns bocomo confusodfor oxnmpIo,
bocnuso If rocoIvod n sogmonf If dId nof oxpocf fo rocoIvonnd so wnnfs fo nborf
fho connocfIon.

Tho Chocksum fIoId Is usod In oxncfIv fho snmo wnv ns for !IIf Is compufod
ovor fho TCI hondor, fho TCI dnfn, nnd fho psoudo hondor, whIch Is mndo up of
fho sourco nddross, dosfInnfIon nddross, nnd Iongfh fIoIds from fho II hondor.

Hdr!on fIoId Is IncIudod fhnf gIvos fho Iongfh of fho hondor In 32-bIf words. ThIs
fIoId Is nIso known ns fho Offsof fIoId, sInco If monsuros fho offsof from fho sfnrf
of fho pnckof fo fho sfnrf of fho dnfn.
A.3 CONNCTION STABIISHMNT AN TRMINATION

A TCI connocfIon bogIns wIfh n cIIonf (cnIIor) doIng nn ncfIvo opon fo n sorvor
(cnIIoo).
AssumIng fhnf fho sorvor hnd onrIIor dono n pnssIvo opon, fho fwo sIdos ongngo
In nn oxchnngo of mossngos fo osfnbIIsh fho connocfIon.
OnIv nffor fhIs connocfIon osfnbIIshmonf phnso Is ovor do fho fwo sIdos bogIn
sondIng dnfn.

!IkowIso, ns soon ns n pnrfIcIpnnf Is dono sondIng dnfn, If cIosos ono dIrocfIon of
fho connocfIon, whIch cnusos TCI fo InIfInfo n round of connocfIon formInnfIon
mossngos.
WhIIo connocfIon sofup Is nn nsvmmofrIc ncfIvIfv (ono sIdo doos n pnssIvo opon
nnd fho ofhor sIdo doos nn ncfIvo opon), connocfIon fonrdown Is svmmofrIc (onch
sIdo hns fo cIoso fho connocfIon IndopondonfIv).

Thoroforo, If Is possIbIo for ono sIdo fo hnvo dono n cIoso, monnIng fhnf If cnn no
Iongor sond dnfn, buf for fho ofhor sIdo fo koop fho ofhor hnIf of fho bIdIrocfIonnI
connocfIon opon nnd fo confInuo sondIng dnfn.
TLvee-Wuy HundsLuke
Tho fhroo-wnv hnndshnko InvoIvos fho oxchnngo of fhroo mossngos bofwoon fho
cIIonf nnd fho sorvor.

TImeIIne Iov tLvee-wuy LundsLuke uIuovItLm
Tho Idon Is fhnf fwo pnrfIos wnnf fo ngroo on n sof of pnrnmofors, whIch, In fho
cnso of oponIng n TCI connocfIon, nro fho sfnrfIng soquonco numbors fho fwo
sIdos pInn fo uso for fhoIr rospocfIvo bvfo sfronms.

IIrsf, fho cIIonf (fho ncfIvo pnrfIcIpnnf) sonds n sogmonf fo fho sorvor (fho
pnssIvo pnrfIcIpnnf) sfnfIng fho InIfInI soquonco numbor If pInns fo uso (IIngs =
SY, Soquoncoum = x).

Tho sorvor fhon rosponds wIfh n sIngIo sogmonf fhnf bofh ncknowIodgos fho
cIIonf`s soquonco numbor (IIngs =ACK, Ack = x + l) nnd sfnfos Ifs own bogInnIng
soquonco numbor (IIngs = SY,Soquoncoum = x).

Iofh fho SY nnd ACK bIfs nro sof In fho IIngs fIoId of fhIs socond mossngo.
IInnIIv, fho cIIonf rosponds wIfh n fhIrd sogmonf fhnf ncknowIodgos fho sorvor`s
soquonco numbor (IIngs = ACK, Ack = x + l).

Tho ronson fhnf onch sIdo ncknowIodgos n soquonco numbor fhnf Is ono Inrgor
fhnn fho ono sonf Is fhnf fho AcknowIodgmonf fIoId ncfunIIv IdonfIfIos fho noxf
soquonco numbor oxpocfod, fhorobv ImpIIcIfIv ncknowIodgIng nII onrIIor
soquonco numbors.

AIfhough nof shown In fhIs fImoIIno, n fImor Is schoduIod for onch of fho fIrsf fwo
sogmonfs, nnd If fho oxpocfod rosponso Is nof rocoIvod, fho sogmonf Is
rofrnnsmIffod.

Stute TvunsItIon Iuuvum
ThIs dIngrnm shows onIv fho sfnfos InvoIvod In oponIng n connocfIon (ovorvfhIng
nbovo ISTAI!ISHI) nnd In cIosIng n connocfIon (ovorvfhIng boIow
ISTAI!ISHI).
IvorvfhIng fhnf goos on whIIo n connocfIon Is oponfhnf Is, fho opornfIon of fho
sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhmIs hIddon In fho ISTAI!ISHI sfnfo.
Inch cIrcIo donofos n sfnfo fhnf ono ond of n TCI connocfIon cnn fInd IfsoIf In.
AII connocfIons sfnrf In fho C!OSI sfnfo.

TCP stute tvunsItIon dIuuvum

Inch nrc Is InboIIod wIfh n fng of fho form etenI/ocIion.
Thus, If n connocfIon Is In fho !ISTI sfnfo nnd n SY sogmonf nrrIvos (I.o., n
sogmonf wIfh fho SY fIng sof), fho connocfIon mnkos n frnnsIfIon fo fho SY
!CV sfnfo nnd fnkos fho ncfIon of ropIvIng wIfh nn ACK+SY sogmonf.
Two kInds oI events tvIuuev u stute tvunsItIon

l) A sogmonf nrrIvos from fho poor (o.g., fho ovonf on fho nrc from !ISTI fo SY
!CV).
2) Tho IocnI nppIIcnfIon procoss Invokos nn opornfIon on TCI (o.g., fho ocIite open
ovonf on fho nrc from C!OSI fo SY SIT).

TyIuI tvunsItIons tuken tLvouuL tLe stute dIuuvum
Whon oponIng n connocfIon, fho sorvor fIrsf Invokos n pnssIvo opon opornfIon on
TCI, whIch cnusos TCI fo movo fo fho !ISTI sfnfo.
Af somo Infor fImo, fho cIIonf doos nn ncfIvo opon, whIch cnusos Ifs ond of fho
connocfIon fo sond n SY sogmonf fo fho sorvor nnd fo movo fo fho SY SIT
sfnfo.
Whon fho SY sogmonf nrrIvos nf fho sorvor, If movos fo fho SY !CV sfnfo
nnd rosponds wIfh n SY+ACK sogmonf.
Tho nrrIvnI of fhIs sogmonf cnusos fho cIIonf fo movo fo fho ISTAI!ISHI
sfnfo nnd fo sond nn ACK bnck fo fho sorvor.
Whon fhIs ACK nrrIvos, fho sorvor fInnIIv movos fo fho ISTAI!ISHI sfnfo. In
ofhor words, wo hnvo jusf frncod fho fhroo-wnv hnndshnko.

TLvee tLInus to notIe ubout tLe onnetIon estubIIsLment LuII oI tLe stute
tvunsItIon dIuuvum

IIvst
If fho cIIonf`s ACK fo fho sorvor Is Iosf, corrospondIng fo fho fhIrd Iog of fho
fhroo-wnv hnndshnko, fhon fho connocfIon sfIII funcfIons corrocfIv.
ThIs Is bocnuso fho cIIonf sIdo Is nIrondv In fho ISTAI!ISHI sfnfo, so fho
IocnI nppIIcnfIon procoss cnn sfnrf sondIng dnfn fo fho ofhor ond
Inch of fhoso dnfn sogmonfs wIII hnvo fho ACK fIng sof, nnd fho corrocf vnIuo In
fho AcknowIodgmonf fIoId, so fho sorvor wIII movo fo fho ISTAI!ISHI sfnfo
whon fho fIrsf dnfn sogmonf nrrIvos.
ThIs Is ncfunIIv nn Imporfnnf poInf nbouf TCIovorv sogmonf roporfs whnf
soquonco numbor fho sondor Is oxpocfIng fo soo noxf, ovon If fhIs roponfs fho
snmo soquoncnumbor confnInod In ono or moro provIous sogmonfs.


Seond
Thoro Is n funnv frnnsIfIon ouf of fho !ISTI sfnfo whonovor fho IocnI procoss
Invokos n eenJ opornfIon on TCI.
Thnf Is, If Is possIbIo for n pnssIvo pnrfIcIpnnf fo IdonfIfv bofh onds of fho
connocfIon (I.o., IfsoIf nnd fho romofo pnrfIcIpnnf fhnf If Is wIIIIng fo hnvo
connocf fo If), nnd fhon fo chnngo Ifs mInd nbouf wnIfIng for fho ofhor sIdo nnd
Insfond ncfIvoIv osfnbIIsh fho connocfIon.
To fho bosf of our knowIodgo, fhIs Is n fonfuro of TCI fhnf no nppIIcnfIon procoss
ncfunIIv fnkos ndvnnfngo of.

TLIvd
Tho fInnI fhIng fo nofIco nbouf fho dIngrnm Is fho nrcs fhnf nro nof shown
SpocIfIcnIIv, mosf of fho sfnfos fhnf InvoIvo sondIng n sogmonf fo fho ofhor sIdo
nIso schoduIo n fImoouf fhnf ovonfunIIv cnusos fho sogmonf fo bo rosonf If fho
oxpocfod rosponso doos nof hnppon.
Thoso rofrnnsmIssIons nro nof dopIcfod In fho sfnfo frnnsIfIon dIngrnm. If
nffor sovornI frIos fho oxpocfod rosponso doos nof nrrIvo, TCI gIvos up nnd
rofurns fo fho C!OSI sfnfo.
Pvoess oI tevmInutInu u onnetIon

Tho Imporfnnf fhIng fo koop In mInd Is fhnf fho nppIIcnfIon procoss on bofh sIdos
of fho connocfIon musf IndopondonfIv cIoso Ifs hnIf of fho connocfIon.
If onIv ono sIdo cIosos fho connocfIon, fhon fhIs monns If hns no moro dnfn fo
sond, buf If Is sfIII nvnIInbIo fo rocoIvo dnfn from fho ofhor sIdo.
ThIs compIIcnfos fho sfnfo frnnsIfIon dIngrnm bocnuso If musf nccounf for fho
possIbIIIfv fhnf fho fwo sIdos Invoko fho cloee opornfor nf fho snmo fImo, ns woII
ns fho possIbIIIfv fhnf fIrsf ono sIdo Invokos cIoso nnd fhon, nf somo Infor fImo,
fho ofhor sIdo Invokos cIoso.

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.1?
Thus, on nnv ono sIdo fhoro nro fhroo combInnfIons of frnnsIfIons fhnf gof n connocfIon
from fho ISTAI!ISHI sfnfo fo fho C!OSI sfnfo:

Tho mnIn fhIng fo rocognIzo nbouf connocfIon fonrdown Is fhnf n connocfIon In
fho TIMI WAIT sfnfo cnnnof movo fo fho C!OSI sfnfo unfII If hns wnIfod for
fwo fImos fho mnxImum nmounf of fImo nn II dnfngrnm mIghf IIvo In fho
Infornof (I.o., l20 soconds).
Tho ronson for fhIs Is fhnf whIIo fho IocnI sIdo of fho connocfIon hns sonf nn ACK
In rosponso fo fho ofhor sIdo`s II sogmonf, If doos nof know fhnf fho ACK wns
succossfuIIv doIIvorod.
As n consoquonco, fho ofhor sIdo mIghf rofrnnsmIf Ifs II sogmonf, nnd fhIs
socond II sogmonf mIghf bo doInvod In fho nofwork.
If fho connocfIon woro nIIowod fo movo dIrocfIv fo fho C!OSI sfnfo, fhon
nnofhor pnIr of nppIIcnfIon procossos mIghf como nIong nnd opon fho snmo
connocfIon (I.o., uso fho snmo pnIr of porf numbors), nnd fho doInvod II
sogmonf from fho onrIIor IncnrnnfIon of fho connocfIon wouId ImmodInfoIv
InIfInfo fho formInnfIon of fho Infor IncnrnnfIon of fhnf connocfIon.

A.4 SIIING WINOW RVISIT
Puvose oI TCP's vuvIunt oI tLe sIIdInu wIndow uIuovItLm
(l)If gunrnnfoos fho roIInbIo doIIvorv of dnfn,
(2) If onsuros fhnf dnfn Is doIIvorod In ordor,
(3) If onforcos fIow confroI bofwoon fho sondor nnd fho rocoIvor.
A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.1B
Whoro TCI dIffors from fho onrIIor nIgorIfhm Is fhnf If foIds fho fIow-confroI
funcfIon In ns woII.
In pnrfIcuInr, rnfhor fhnn hnvIng n fIxod-sIzo sIIdIng wIndow, fho rocoIvor
oJterIieee n wIndow sIzo fo fho sondor.
ThIs Is dono usIng fho AdvorfIsodWIndow fIoId In fho TCI hondor.
Tho sondor Is fhon IImIfod fo hnvIng no moro fhnn n vnIuo of AdvorfIsod WIndow
bvfos of unncknowIodgod dnfn nf nnv gIvon fImo.
Tho rocoIvor soIocfs n suIfnbIo vnIuo for AdvorfIsodWIndow bnsod on fho nmounf
of momorv nIIocnfod fo fho connocfIon for fho purposo of bufforIng dnfn.
Tho Idon Is fo koop fho sondor from ovorrunnIng fho rocoIvor`s buffor.

ReIIubIe und Ovdeved eIIvevy
TCI on fho sondIng sIdo mnInfnIns n sond buffor
ThIs buffor Is usod fo sforo dnfn fhnf hns boon sonf buf nof vof ncknowIodgod, ns
woII ns dnfn fhnf hns boon wrIffon bv fho sondIng nppIIcnfIon, buf nof
frnnsmIffod.
On fho rocoIvIng sIdo, TCI mnInfnIns n rocoIvo buffor.
ThIs buffor hoIds dnfn fhnf nrrIvos ouf of ordor, ns woII ns dnfn fhnf Is In fho
corrocf ordor (I.o., fhoro nro no mIssIng bvfos onrIIor In fho sfronm) buf fhnf fho
nppIIcnfIon procoss hns nof vof hnd fho chnnco fo rond.

ReIutIonsLI between TCP send buIIev (u) und veeIve buIIev (b)
To mnko fho foIIowIng dIscussIon sImpIor fo foIIow, wo InIfInIIv Ignoro fho fncf
fhnf bofh fho buffors nnd fho soquonco numbors nro of somo fInIfo sIzo nnd honco
wIII ovonfunIIv wrnp nround.
AIso, wo do nof dIsfInguIsh bofwoon n poInfor Info n buffor whoro n pnrfIcuInr
bvfo of dnfn Is sforod nnd fho soquonco numbor for fhnf bvfo.

SendInu SIde
IoeIBxIeAcleJ,
IoeIBxIeSenI,
IoeIBxIeWriIIen.
IustByteAked < IustByteSent
o SInco fho rocoIvor cnnnof hnvo ncknowIodgod n bvfo fhnf hns nof vof boon
sonf.
IustByteSent < IustByteWvItten
o SInco TCI cnnnof sond n bvfo fhnf fho nppIIcnfIon procoss hns nof vof
wrIffon
ono of fho bvfos fo fho Ioff of !nsfIvfoAckod nood fo bo snvod In fho buffor
bocnuso fhov hnvo nIrondv boon ncknowIodgod.
ono of fho bvfos fo fho rIghf of !nsfIvfoWrIffon nood fo bo bufforod bocnuso
fhov hnvo nof vof boon gonornfod.

ReeIvInu SIde
IoeIBxIeIeoJ,
AexIBxIe1xpecIeJ,
IoeIBxIeIctJ.
IustByteReud < NetByteeted
o If Is fruo bocnuso n bvfo cnnnof bo rond bv fho nppIIcnfIon unfII If Is rocoIvod onJ
nII procodIng bvfos hnvo nIso boon rocoIvod.
o oxfIvfoIxpocfod poInfs fo fho bvfo ImmodInfoIv nffor fho Infosf bvfo fo moof
fhIs crIforIon
NetByteeted < IustByteRvd + 1

SInco, If dnfn hns nrrIvod In ordor, oxfIvfoIxpocfod poInfs fo fho bvfo nffor
!nsfIvfo- !cvd, whorons If dnfn hns nrrIvod ouf of ordor, oxfIvfoIxpocfod
poInfs fo fho sfnrf of fho fIrsf gnp In fho dnfn, ns In IIguro.
ofo fhnf bvfos fo fho Ioff of !nsfIvfo!ond nood nof bo bufforod bocnuso fhov
hnvo nIrondv boon rond bv fho IocnI nppIIcnfIon procoss, nnd bvfos fo fho rIghf of
!nsfIvfo!cvd nood nof bo bufforod bocnuso fhov hnvo nof vof nrrIvod

IIow ContvoI
ConsIdor fwo buffors of somo fInIfo sIzo, donofod ns MnxSondIuffor nnd
Mnx!cvIuffor.

ConornIIv In n sIIdIng wIndow profocoI, fho sIzo of fho wIndow sofs fho nmounf of
dnfn fhnf cnn bo sonf wIfhouf wnIfIng for ncknowIodgmonf from fho rocoIvor
Thus,fho rocoIvor fhroffIos fho sondor bv ndvorfIsIng n wIndow fhnf Is no Inrgor
fhnn fho nmounf of dnfn fhnf If cnn buffor.

TCP on tLe veeIvInu sIde
IustByteRvd - IustByteReud < MuRvBuIIev: ThIs Is dono fo nvoId
ovorfIowIng Ifs buffor
AdvevtIsedWIndow = MuRvBuIIev - ((NetByteeted - 1) -
IustByteReud) : SIzo of fho ndvorfIsod wIndow , whIch roprosonfs fho nmounf
of froo spnco romnInIng In Ifs buffor.

As dnfn nrrIvos,fho rocoIvor ncknowIodgos If ns Iong ns nII fho procodIng bvfos
hnvo nIso nrrIvod
In nddIfIon, IoeIBxIeIctJ movos fo fho rIghf (Is Incromonfod), monnIng fhnf fho
ndvorfIsod wIndow pofonfInIIv shrInks.

Whofhor or nof If shrInks doponds on how fnsf fho IocnI nppIIcnfIon procoss Is
consumIng dnfn
If fho IocnI procoss Is rondIng dnfn jusf ns fnsf ns If nrrIvos (cnusIng

!nsfIvfo!ond fo bo Incromonfod nf fho snmo rnfo ns !nsfIvfo!cvd), fhon fho
ndvorfIsod wIndow sfnvs opon. (I.o. AdvorfIsodWIndow = Mnx!cvIuffor).
If, howovor, fho rocoIvIng procoss fnIIs bohInd, porhnps bocnuso If porforms n
vorv oxponsIvo opornfIon on onch bvfo of dnfn fhnf If ronds, fhon fho ndvorfIsod
wIndow grows smnIIor wIfh ovorv sogmonf fhnf nrrIvos, unfII If ovonfunIIv goos
fo 0.
TCP on tLe sendInu sIde

TCI on fho sond sIdo musf fhon ndhoro fo fho ndvorfIsod wIndow If gofs from fho
rocoIvor.
IustByteSent - IustByteAked < AdvevtIsedWIndow

Tho sondor compufos nn effecIite wIndow fhnf IImIfs how much dnfn If cnn sond
IIetIveWIndow = AdvevtIsedWIndow - (IustByteSent IustByteAked)

IffocfIvoWIndow musf bo gronfor fhnn 0 boforo fho sourco cnn sond moro dnfn.
CIonrIv, IffocfIvoWIndow musf bo gronfor fhnn 0 boforo fho sourco cnn sond
moro dnfn.
If Is possIbIo, fhoroforo, fhnf n sogmonf nrrIvos ncknowIodgIng x bvfos, fhorobv
nIIowIng fho sondor fo Incromonf !nsfIvfoAckod bv x,
Iuf bocnuso fho rocoIvIng procoss wns nof rondIng nnv dnfn, fho ndvorfIsod
wIndow Is now x bvfos smnIIor fhnn fho fImo boforo.
In such n sIfunfIon, fho sondor wouId bo nbIo fo froo buffor spnco, buf nof fo sond
nnv moro dnfn.

Tho sond sIdo musf nIso mnko suro fhnf fho IocnI nppIIcnfIon procoss doos nof
ovorfIow fho sond buffor, fhnf Is,
IustByteWvItten - IustByteAked < MuSendBuIIev

If fho sondIng procoss frIos fo wrIfo v bvfos fo TCI, buf

(IustByteWvItten - IustByteAked) + y > MuSendBuIIev
fhon TCI bIocks fho sondIng procoss nnd doos nof nIIow If fo gonornfo moro dnfn.
How u sIow veeIvInu voess uItImuteIy stos u Iust sendInu voess

IIrsf, fho rocoIvo buffor fIIIs up, whIch monns fho ndvorfIsod wIndow shrInks fo
0.
An ndvorfIsod wIndow of 0 monns fhnf fho sondIng sIdo cnnnof frnnsmIf nnv
dnfn, ovon fhough dnfn If hns provIousIv sonf hns boon succossfuIIv
ncknowIodgod.

IInnIIv, nof boIng nbIo fo frnnsmIf nnv dnfn monns fhnf fho sond buffor fIIIs up,
whIch uIfImnfoIv cnusos TCI fo bIock fho sondIng procoss.
As soon ns fho rocoIvIng procoss sfnrfs fo rond dnfn ngnIn, fho rocoIvo-sIdo TCI
Is nbIo fo opon Ifs wIndow bnck up, whIch nIIows fho sond-sIdo TCI fo frnnsmIf
dnfn ouf of Ifs buffor.
Whon fhIs dnfn Is ovonfunIIv ncknowIodgod, !nsfIvfoAckod Is Incromonfod, fho
buffor spnco hoIdIng fhIs ncknowIodgod dnfn bocomos froo, nnd fho sondIng
procoss Is unbIockod nnd nIIowod fo procood.

How does tLe sendInu sIde know tLut tLe udvevtIsed wIndow Is no Ionuev 0?
TCI oluoxesonds n sogmonf In rosponso fo n rocoIvod dnfn sogmonf, nnd fhIs
rosponso confnIns fho Infosf vnIuos for fho AcknowIodgo nnd AdvorfIsodWIndow
fIoIds, ovon If fhoso vnIuos hnvo nof chnngod sInco fho Insf fImo fhov woro sonf.

TLe vobIem Is.
Onco fho rocoIvo sIdo hns ndvorfIsod n wIndow sIzo of 0, fho sondor Is nof
pormIffod fo sond nnv moro dnfn, whIch monns If hns no wnv fo dIscovor fhnf fho
ndvorfIsod wIndow Is no Iongor 0 nf somo fImo In fho fufuro.
TCI on fho rocoIvo sIdo doos nof sponfnnoousIv sond nondnfn sogmonfs; If onIv
sonds fhom In rosponso fo nn nrrIvIng dnfn sogmonf.
TCP deuIs wItL tLIs sItuutIon us IoIIows...

Whonovor fho ofhor sIdo ndvorfIsos n wIndow sIzo of 0, fho sondIng sIdo porsIsfs
In sondIng n sogmonf wIfh l bvfo of dnfn ovorv so offon.
If knows fhnf fhIs dnfn wIII probnbIv nof bo nccopfod, buf If frIos nnvwnv,
bocnuso onch of fhoso l-bvfo sogmonfs frIggors n rosponso fhnf confnIns fho
curronf ndvorfIsod wIndow.
IvonfunIIv, ono of fhoso l-bvfo probos frIggors n rosponso fhnf roporfs n nonzoro
ndvorfIsod wIndow.

Smuvt sendev/dumb veeIvev vuIe
Tho sondIng sIdo porIodIcnIIv sonds fhIs probo sogmonf Is fhnf TCI Is dosIgnod
fo mnko fho rocoIvo sIdo ns sImpIo ns possIbIoIf sImpIv rosponds fo sogmonfs
from fho sondor, nnd If novor InIfInfos nnv ncfIvIfv on Ifs own.
ThIs Is nn oxnmpIo of n woII-rocognIzod (nIfhough nof unIvorsnIIv nppIIod)
profocoI dosIgn ruIo, whIch, for Inck of n boffor nnmo, wo cnII fho enorI
eenJer/JunI receiter ruIo.

PvotetInu uuuInst Wvuuvound
ThIs consIdors nbouf fho sIzo of fho Soquoncoum nnd AdvorfIsodWIndow fIoIds
nnd fho ImpIIcnfIons of fhoIr sIzos on TCI`s corrocfnoss nnd porformnnco.

TCI`s Soquoncoum fIoId Is 32 bIfs Iong, nnd Ifs AdvorfIsodWIndow fIoId Is l6
bIfs Iong, monnIng fhnf TCI hns onsIIv snfIsfIod fho roquIromonf of fho sIIdIng
wIndow nIgorIfhm fhnf fho soquonco numbor spnco bo fwIco ns bIg ns fho
wIndow sIzo: 2
32
>> 22
16
.

Tho roIovnnco of fho 32-bIf soquonco numbor spnco Is fhnf fho soquonco numbor
usod on n gIvon connocfIon mIghf wrnp nround.
A bvfo wIfh soquonco numbor x couId bo sonf nf ono fImo, nnd fhon nf n Infor
fImo n socond bvfo wIfh fho snmo soquonco numbor x mIghf bo sonf.


Onco ngnIn, wo nssumo fhnf pnckofs cnnnof survIvo In fho Infornof for Iongor
fhnn fho rocommondod MS!.
Thus, wo curronfIv nood fo mnko suro fhnf fho soquonco numbor doos nof wrnp
nround wIfhIn n l20-socond porIod of fImo.

Whofhor or nof fhIs hnppons doponds on how fnsf dnfn cnn bo frnnsmIffod ovor
fho Infornof, fhnf Is, how fnsf fho 32-bIf soquonco numbor spnco cnn bo
consumod.
Tho TnbIo shows how Iong If fnkos for fho soquonco numbor fo wrnp nround on
nofworks wIfh vnrIous bnndwIdfhs.

TIme untII 32-bIt sequene numbev sue wvus uvound

KeeInu tLe PIe IuII
Tho roIovnnco of fho l6-bIf AdvorfIsodWIndow fIoId Is fhnf If musf bo bIg onough
fo nIIow fho sondor fo koop fho pIpo fuII.

CIonrIv, fho rocoIvor Is froo nof fo opon fho wIndow ns Inrgo ns fho AdvorfIsod
WIndow fIoId nIIows.
Wo nro Inforosfod In fho sIfunfIon In whIch fho rocoIvor hns onough buffor spnco
fo hnndIo ns much dnfn ns fho Inrgosf possIbIo AdvorfIsodWIndow nIIows.


RequIved wIndow sIze Iov 100-ms RTT

In fhIs cnso, If Is nof jusf fho nofwork bnndwIdfh buf fho deIuy bundwIdtL
producf fhnf dIcfnfos how bIg fho AdvorfIsodWIndow fIoId noods fo bo fho
wIndow noods fo bo oponod fnr onough fo nIIow n IuII deIuy bundwIdtL
producf`s worfh of dnfn fo bo frnnsmIffod.
AssumIng nn !TT of l00ms (n fvpIcnI numbor for n cross counfrv connocfIon In
fho !.S), TnbIo gIvos fho deIuy bundwIdtL producf for sovornI nofwork
fochnoIogIos.

As vou cnn soo, TCI`s AdvorfIsodWIndow fIoId Is In ovon worso shnpo fhnn Ifs
Soquoncoum fIoIdIf Is nof bIg onough fo hnndIo ovon n T3 connocfIon ncross
fho confInonfnI !nIfod Sfnfos, sInco n l6-bIf fIoId nIIows us fo ndvorfIso n
wIndow of onIv64 KI.

A.5 TRIGGRING TRANSMISSION

Issue
How TCI docIdos fo frnnsmIf n sogmonf`
As doscrIbod onrIIor, TCI supporfs n bvfo-sfronm nbsfrncfIon, fhnf Is, nppIIcnfIon
progrnms wrIfo bvfos Info fho sfronm, nnd If Is up fo TCI fo docIdo fhnf If hns
onough bvfos fo sond n sogmonf.
TCI hns fhroo mochnnIsms fo frIggor fho frnnsmIssIon of n sogmonf.
IIvst
TCI mnInfnIns n vnrInbIo, fvpIcnIIv cnIIod fho mnxImum sogmonf sIzo (MSS),
nnd If sonds n sogmonf ns soon ns If hns coIIocfod MSS bvfos from fho sondIng
procoss.
MSS Is usunIIv sof fo fho sIzo of fho Inrgosf sogmonf TCI cnn sond wIfhouf
cnusIng fho IocnI II fo frngmonf.
Thnf Is, MSS Is sof fo fho MT! of fho dIrocfIv connocfod nofwork, mInus fho sIzo
of fho TCI nnd II hondors.

Seond
TCI supporfs n pueI opornfIon, nnd fho sondIng procoss Invokos fhIs opornfIon
fo offocfIvoIv fIush fho buffor of unsonf bvfos.

TLIvd
Tho fInnI frIggor for frnnsmIffIng n sogmonf Is fhnf n fImor fIros; fho rosuIfIng
sogmonf confnIns ns mnnv bvfos ns nro curronfIv bufforod for frnnsmIssIon.

SIIIy WIndow Syndvome
If fho sondor hns MSS bvfos of dnfn fo sond nnd fho wIndow Is opon nf Ionsf fhnf
much, fhon fho sondor frnnsmIfs n fuII sogmonf.
Supposo, howovor, fhnf fho sondor Is nccumuInfIng bvfos fo sond, buf fho
wIndow Is curronfIv cIosod.
ow supposo nn ACK nrrIvos fhnf offocfIvoIv opons fho wIndow onough for fho
sondor fo frnnsmIf, snv, MSS/2 bvfos.

SLouId tLe sendev tvunsmIt u LuII-IuII seument ov wuIt Iov tLe wIndow to oen
to u IuII MSS?
InrIv ImpIomonfnfIons of TCI docIdod fo go nhond nnd frnnsmIf n hnIf-fuII
sogmonf.

Affor nII, fhoro Is no foIIIng how Iong If wIII bo boforo fho wIndow opons furfhor.
If furns ouf fhnf fho sfrnfogv of nggrossIvoIv fnkIng ndvnnfngo of nnv nvnIInbIo
wIndow Ionds fo n sIfunfIon now known ns fho oillx uinJou oxnJrome.
If vou fhInk of n TCI sfronm ns n convovor boIf wIfh fuII confnInors (dnfn
sogmonfs) goIng In ono dIrocfIon nnd ompfv confnInors (ACKs) goIng In fho
rovorso dIrocfIon.
Thon MSS-sIzod sogmonfs corrospond fo Inrgo confnInors nnd l-bvfo sogmonfs
corrospond fo vorv smnII confnInors.
If fho sondor nggrossIvoIv fIIIs nn ompfv confnInor ns soon ns If nrrIvos, fhon nnv
smnII confnInor Infroducod Info fho svsfom romnIns In fho svsfom IndofInIfoIv.
Thnf Is, If Is ImmodInfoIv fIIIod nnd ompfIod nf onch ond, nnd novor como
fogofhor wIfh ndjnconf confnInors fo cronfo Inrgor confnInors.

SIIIy wIndow syndvome

Tho sIIIv wIndow svndromo Is onIv n probIom whon oIfhor fho sondor frnnsmIfs n
smnII sogmonf or fho rocoIvor opons fho wIndow n smnII nmounf.
If noIfhor of fhoso hnppons, fhon fho smnII confnInor Is novor Infroducod Info fho
sfronm. If`s nof possIbIo fo oxcIudo sondIng smnII sogmonfs.
If Is possIbIo, howovor, fo koop fho rocoIvor from InfroducIng n smnII confnInor
(I.o., n smnII opon wIndow).

Tho ruIo Is fhnf nffor ndvorfIzIng n zoro wIndow, fho rocoIvor musf wnIf for spnco
oqunI fo nn MSS boforo If ndvorfIsos nn opon wIndow.
SInco wo cnn`f oIImInnfo fho possIbIIIfv of n smnII confnInor boIng Infroducod Info
fho sfronm, wo nIso nood mochnnIsms fo mnko fhom fogofhor.
Tho rocoIvor cnn do fhIs bv doInvIng ACKssondIng ono combInod ACK rnfhor
fhnn muIfIpIo smnIIor onos
Iuf fhIs Is onIv n pnrfInI soIufIon bocnuso fho rocoIvor hns no wnv of knowIng
how Iong If Is snfo fo doInv wnIfIng oIfhor for nnofhor sogmonf fo nrrIvo or for fho
nppIIcnfIon fo rond moro dnfn (fhus oponIng fho wIndow).

NuuIe's AIuovItLm
!ofurnIng fo fho TCI sondor, If fhoro Is dnfn fo sond buf fho wIndow Is opon Ioss
fhnn MSS, nnd fhon wo mnv wnnf fo wnIf somo nmounf of fImo boforo sondIng
fho nvnIInbIo dnfn, buf fho quosfIon Is, Low Ionu?
If wo wnIf foo Iong, fhon wo hurf InforncfIvo nppIIcnfIons IIko ToInof.
If wo don`f wnIf Iong onough, fhon wo rIsk sondIng n bunch of fInv pnckofs nnd
fnIIIng Info fho sIIIv wIndow svndromo.
Tho nnswor Is fo Infroduco n fImor nnd fo frnnsmIf whon fho fImor oxpIros.
WhIIo wo couId uso n cIock-bnsod fImorfor oxnmpIo, ono fhnf fIros ovorv l00
msngIo Infroducod nn oIognnf eelf-clocling soIufIon.

Ideu oI tLe oel]-clockin soIutIon
As Iong ns TCI hns nnv dnfn In fIIghf, fho sondor wIII ovonfunIIv rocoIvo nn
ACK.
ThIs ACK cnn bo fronfod IIko n fImor fIrIng, frIggorIng fho frnnsmIssIon of moro
dnfn.
ngIo`s nIgorIfhm provIdos n sImpIo, unIfIod ruIo for docIdIng whon fo frnnsmIf:

In ofhor words, If`s nIwnvs OK fo sond n fuII sogmonf If fho wIndow nIIows.
If`s nIso OK fo ImmodInfoIv sond n smnII nmounf of dnfn If fhoro nro curronfIv no
sogmonfs In frnnsIf
Iuf If fhoro Is nnvfhIng In fIIghf, fho sondor musf wnIf for nn ACK boforo
frnnsmIffIng fho noxf sogmonf.

Thus, nn InforncfIvo nppIIcnfIon IIko ToInof fhnf confInunIIv wrIfos ono bvfo nf n
fImo wIII sond dnfn nf n rnfo of ono sogmonf por !TT.
Somo sogmonfs wIII confnIn n sIngIo bvfo, whIIo ofhors wIII confnIn ns mnnv
bvfos ns fho usor wns nbIo fo fvpo In ono round-frIp fImo.
Iocnuso somo nppIIcnfIons cnnnof nfford such n doInv for onch wrIfo fhov do fo n
TCI connocfIon, fho sockof Inforfnco nIIows nppIIcnfIons fo furn off ngIo`s
nIgorIfhm bv soffIng fho TCI OI!AY opfIon.
SoffIng fhIs opfIon monns fhnf dnfn Is frnnsmIffod ns soon ns possIbIo.

A.6 AAPTIV RTRANSMISSION
Need to uo Iov AdutIve RetvunsmIssIon
Iocnuso TCI gunrnnfoos fho roIInbIo doIIvorv of dnfn, If rofrnnsmIfs onch
sogmonf If nn ACK Is nof rocoIvod In n corfnIn porIod of fImo.
TCI sofs fhIs fImoouf ns n funcfIon of fho !TT If oxpocfs bofwoon fho fwo onds of
fho connocfIon.
!nforfunnfoIv, gIvon fho rnngo of possIbIo !TTs bofwoon nnv pnIr of hosfs In fho
Infornof, ns woII ns fho vnrInfIon In !TT bofwoon fho snmo fwo hosfs ovor fImo,
choosIng nn npproprInfo fImoouf vnIuo Is nof fhnf onsv.
To nddross fhIs probIom, TCI usos nn ndnpfIvo rofrnnsmIssIon mochnnIsm.

OvIuInuI AIuovItLm
Tho Idon of fhIs Is fo koop n runnIng nvorngo of fho !TT nnd fhon fo compufo fho
fImoouf ns n funcfIon of fhIs !TT.
SpocIfIcnIIv, ovorv fImo TCI sonds n dnfn sogmonf, If rocords fho fImo.
Whon nn ACK for fhnf sogmonf nrrIvos, TCI ronds fho fImo ngnIn nnd fhonfnkos
fho dIfforonco bofwoon fhoso fwo fImos ns n SnmpIo !TT.
TCI fhon compufos nn IsfImnfod !TT ns n woIghfod nvorngo bofwoon fho
provIous osfImnfo nnd fhIs now snmpIo.
Thnf Is,
stImutedRTT = stImutedRTT + (1 - ) SumIeRTT
Tho pnrnmofor Is soIocfod fo enooII fho IsfImnfod!TT.

A smnII frncks chnngos In fho !TT buf Is porhnps foo honvIIv InfIuoncod bv
fompornrv fIucfunfIons.
On fho ofhor hnnd, n Inrgo Is moro sfnbIo buf porhnps nof quIck onough fo
ndnpf fo ronI chnngos.

Tho orIgInnI TCI spocIfIcnfIon rocommondod n soffIng of bofwoon 0.8 nnd 0.9.
TCI fhon usos IsfImnfod !TT fo compufo fho fImoouf In n rnfhor consorvnfIvo
wnv:
TImeOut = 2 stImuted RTT

Kuvn/PuvtvIdue AIuovItLm
Affor sovornI vonrs of uso on fho Infornof, n rnfhor obvIous fInw wns dIscovorod
In fhIs sImpIo nIgorIfhm.
Tho probIom wns fhnf nn ACK doos nof ronIIv ncknowIodgo n frnnsmIssIon; If
ncfunIIv ncknowIodgos fho rocoIpf of dnfn.
In ofhor words, whonovor n sogmonf Is rofrnnsmIffod nnd fhon nn ACK nrrIvos
nf fho sondor, If Is ImpossIbIo fo doformIno If fhIs ACK shouId bo nssocInfod wIfh
fho fIrsf or fho socond frnnsmIssIon of fho sogmonf for fho purposo of monsurIng
fho snmpIo !TT.
If Is nocossnrv fo know whIch frnnsmIssIon fo nssocInfo If wIfh so ns fo compufo
nn nccurnfo SnmpIo!TT.

As IIIusfrnfod In fIguro,
If vou nssumo fhnf fho ACK Is for fho orIgInnI frnnsmIssIon buf If wns ronIIv for
fho socond, fhon fho SnmpIo!TT Is foo Inrgo (n),

AssoIutInu tLe ACK wItL ovIuInuI tvunsmIssIon

If vou nssumo fhnf fho ACK Is for fho socond frnnsmIssIon buf If wns ncfunIIv for
fho fIrsf, fhon fho SnmpIo!TT Is foo smnII (b).

AssoIutInu tLe ACK wItL vetvunsmIssIon

SoIutIon
Whonovor TCI rofrnnsmIfs n sogmonf, If sfops fnkIng snmpIos of fho !TT; If
onIv monsuros SnmpIo!TT for sogmonfs fhnf hnvo boon sonf onIv onco.
ThIs soIufIon Is known ns fho Korn/PorIriJge olgoriIIn, nffor Ifs Invonfors.

ThoIr proposod fIx nIso IncIudos n socond smnII chnngo fo TCI`s fImoouf
mochnnIsm.
Inch fImo TCI rofrnnsmIfs, If sofs fho noxf fImoouf fo bo fwIco fho Insf fImoouf,
rnfhor fhnn bnsIng If on fho Insf IsfImnfod!TT.
Thnf Is, Knrn nnd InrfrIdgo proposod fhnf TCI uso oxpononfInI bnckoff, sImIInr
fo whnf fho Ifhornof doos.

Tho mofIvnfIon for usIng oxpononfInI bnckoff Is sImpIo: CongosfIon Is fho mosf
IIkoIv cnuso of Iosf sogmonfs, monnIng fhnf fho TCI sourco shouId nof roncf foo
nggrossIvoIv fo n fImoouf.
In fncf, fho moro fImos fho connocfIon fImos ouf, fho moro cnufIous fho sourco
shouId bocomo.

Juobson/KuveIs AIuovItLm
Jncobson nnd KnroIsproposod n moro drnsfIc chnngo fo TCI fo bnffIo
congosfIon.
As nn nsIdo, If shouId bo cIonr how fho fImoouf mochnnIsm Is roInfod fo
congosfIonIf vou fImo ouf foo soon, vou mnv unnocossnrIIv rofrnnsmIf n
sogmonf, whIch onIv ndds fo fho Iond on fho nofwork.
Tho mnIn probIom wIfh fho orIgInnI compufnfIon Is fhnf If doos nof fnko fho
vnrInnco of fho snmpIo !TTs Info nccounf.
InfuIfIvoIv, If fho vnrInfIon nmong snmpIos Is .
enoll, fhon fho IsfImnfod!TT cnn bo boffor frusfod nnd fhoro Is no ronson
for muIfIpIvIng fhIs osfImnfo bv 2 fo compufo fho fImoouf.
lorge fhon If suggosfs fhnf fho fImoouf vnIuo shouId nof bo foo fIghfIv coupIod
fo fho IsfImnfod!TT.
In fho now nppronch, fho sondor monsuros n now SnmpIo!TT ns boforo. If fhon
foIds fhIs now snmpIo Info fho fImoouf cnIcuInfIon ns foIIows:
IIIevene = SumIeRTT stImutedRTT
stImutedRTT = stImutedRTT + ( IIIevene)
evIutIon = evIutIon + (|IIIevene| - evIutIon)
Whoro, Is n frncfIon bofwoon 0 nnd l.
Thnf Is, wo cnIcuInfo bofh fho monn !TT nnd fho vnrInfIon In fhnf monn.
TCI fhon compufos fho fImoouf vnIuo ns n funcfIon of bofh IsfImnfod!TT nnd
ovInfIon ns foIIows:
TImeOut = stImutedRTT + evIutIon
Whoro bnsod on oxporIonco, Is fvpIcnIIv sof fo l nnd Is sof fo 4.

Thus,
Whon fho vnrInnco Is smnII, TImoOuf Is cIoso fo IsfImnfod!TT;
A Inrgo vnrInnco cnusos fho ovInfIon form fo domInnfo fho cnIcuInfIon.

ImIementutIon
Thoro nro fwo Ifoms of nofo rognrdIng fho ImpIomonfnfIon of fImooufs In TCI.
Tho fIrsf Is fhnf If Is possIbIo fo ImpIomonf fho cnIcuInfIon for IsfImnfod!TT nnd
ovInfIon wIfhouf usIng fIonfIng-poInf nrIfhmofIc.

Insfond, fho whoIo cnIcuInfIon Is scnIod bv 2n, wIfh soIocfod fo bo l/2n.
ThIs nIIows us fo do Infogor nrIfhmofIc, ImpIomonfIng muIfIpIIcnfIon nnd
dIvIsIon usIng shIffs, fhorobv nchIovIng hIghor porformnnco.
Tho rosuIfIng cnIcuInfIon Is gIvon bv fho foIIowIng codo frngmonf, whoro n = 3
(I.o., =l/8).

ofo fhnf IsfImnfod!TT nnd ovInfIon nro sforod In fhoIr scnIod-up forms,
whIIo fho vnIuo of SnmpIo!TT nf fho sfnrf of fho codo nnd of TImoOuf nf fho ond
nro ronI, unscnIod vnIuos.
If vou fInd fho codo hnrd fo foIIow, vou mIghf wnnf fo frv pIuggIng somo ronI
numbors Info If nnd vorIfvIng fhnf If gIvos fho snmo rosuIfs ns fho oqunfIons
nbovo.

Tho socond poInf of nofo Is fhnf fho Jncobson/KnroIs nIgorIfhm Is onIv ns good ns
fho cIock usod fo rond fho curronf fImo.

On n fvpIcnI !nIx ImpIomonfnfIon, fho cIock grnnuInrIfv Is ns Inrgo ns 500 ms,
whIch Is sIgnIfIcnnfIv Inrgor fhnn fho nvorngo cross-counfrv !TT of somowhoro
bofwoon l00 nnd 200 ms.

To mnko mnffors worso, fho !nIx ImpIomonfnfIon of TCI onIv chocks fo soo If n
fImoouf shouId hnppon ovorv fImo fhIs 500-ms cIock fIcks, nnd If onIv fnkos n
snmpIo of fho round-frIp fImo onco por !TT.

Tho combInnfIon of fhoso fwo fncfors quIfo offon monns fhnf n fImoouf hnppons l
socond nffor fho sogmonf wns frnnsmIffod.
Onco ngnIn, fho oxfonsIons fo TCI IncIudo n mochnnIsm fhnf mnkos fhIs !TT
cnIcuInfIon n bIf moro procIso.

A.? RCOR BOUNARIS
SInco TCI Is n bvfo-sfronm profocoI, fho numbors of bvfos wrIffon bv fho sondor
nro nof nocossnrIIv fho snmo ns fho numbor of bvfos rond bv fho rocoIvor.
Ivon fhough TCI Is n bvfo-sfronm profocoI, If hns fwo dIfforonf fonfuros fhnf cnn
bo usod bv fho sondor fo Insorf rocord boundnrIos Info fhIs bvfo sfronm, fhorobv
InformIng fho rocoIvor how fo bronk fho sfronm of bvfos Info rocords.
Iofh of fhoso fonfuros woro orIgInnIIv IncIudod In TCI for compIofoIv dIfforonf
ronsons; fhov hnvo onIv como fo bo usod for fhIs purposo ovor fImo.

umIe
Tho nppIIcnfIon mIghf wrIfo 8 bvfos, fhon 2 bvfos, fhon 20 bvfos fo n TCI
connocfIon, whIIo on fho rocoIvIng sIdo, fho nppIIcnfIon ronds 5 bvfos nf n fImo InsIdo n
Ioop fhnf Ifornfos 6 fImos.
TCI doos nof Inforjocf rocord boundnrIos bofwoon fho 8fh nnd 9
fh
bvfos, nor
bofwoon fho l0fh nnd llfh bvfos. ThIs Is In confrnsf fo n mossngo-orIonfod profocoI,
such ns !I, In whIch fho mossngo fhnf Is sonf Is oxncfIv fho snmo Iongfh ns fho
mossngo fhnf Is rocoIvod.

Tho IIvst meLunIsm Is fho urgonf dnfn fonfuro, ns ImpIomonfod bv fho !!C
fIng nnd fho !rgIfr fIoId In fho TCI hondor.
OrIgInnIIv, fho urgonf dnfn mochnnIsm wns dosIgnod fo nIIow fho sondIng
nppIIcnfIon fo sond ouI-of-IonJ dnfn fo Ifs poor. Iv ouf of bnnd wo monn dnfn
fhnf Is sopnrnfo from fho normnI fIow of dnfn (o.g., n commnnd fo Inforrupf nn
opornfIon nIrondv undor wnv).
ThIs ouf-of-bnnd dnfn wns IdonfIfIod In fho sogmonf usIng fho !rgIfr fIoId nnd
wns fo bo doIIvorod fo fho rocoIvIng procoss ns soon ns If nrrIvod, ovon If fhnf
monnf doIIvorIng If boforo dnfn wIfh nn onrIIor soquonco numbor.

Ovor fImo, howovor, fhIs fonfuro hns nof boon usod, so Insfond of sIgnIfvIng
urgonf dnfn, If hns como fo bo usod fo sIgnIfv spocInI dnfn, such ns n rocord
mnrkor.
ThIs uso hns dovoIopod bocnuso, ns wIfh fho push opornfIon, TCI on fho
rocoIvIng sIdo musf Inform fho nppIIcnfIon fhnf urgonf dnfn hns nrrIvod.

Thnf Is, fho urgonf dnfn In IfsoIf Is nof Imporfnnf.

If Is fho fncf fhnf fho sondIng procoss cnn offocfIvoIv sond n sIgnnI fo fho rocoIvor
fhnf Is Imporfnnf.

Tho seond meLunIsm for InsorfIng ond-of-rocord mnrkors Info n bvfo Is fho
pueI opornfIon.
OrIgInnIIv, fhIs mochnnIsm wns dosIgnod fo nIIow fho sondIng procoss fo foII
TCI fhnf If shouId sond (fIush) whnfovor bvfos If hnd coIIocfod fo Ifs poor.
Tho push opornfIon cnn bo usod fo ImpIomonf rocord boundnrIos bocnuso fho
spocIfIcnfIon snvs fhnf TCI musf sond whnfovor dnfn If hns bufforod nf fho
sourco whon fho nppIIcnfIon snvs push, nnd opfIonnIIv, TCI nf fho dosfInnfIon
nofIfIos fho nppIIcnfIon whonovor nn IncomIng sogmonf hns fho I!SH fIng sof.
If fho rocoIvIng sIdo supporfs fhIs opfIon (fho sockof Inforfnco doos nof), fhon fho
push opornfIon cnn bo usod fo bronk fho TCI sfronm Info rocords.
Of courso, fho nppIIcnfIon progrnm Is nIwnvs froo fo Insorf rocord boundnrIos
wIfhouf nnv nssIsfnnco from TCI. Ior oxnmpIo, If cnn sond n fIoId fhnf IndIcnfos
fho Iongfh of n rocord fhnf Is fo foIIow, or If cnn Insorf Ifs own rocord boundnrv
mnrkors Info fho dnfn sfronm.

A.B TCP XTNSIONS
Wo hnvo monfIonod nf fhroo dIfforonf poInfs In fhIs socfIon fhnf fhoro nro now
oxfonsIons fo TCI fhnf hoIp fo mIfIgnfo somo probIom fhnf TCI Is fncIng ns fho
undorIvIng nofwork gofs fnsfor.
Thoso oxfonsIons nro dosIgnod fo hnvo ns smnII nn Impncf on TCI ns possIbIo.
In pnrfIcuInr, fhov nro ronIIzod ns opfIons fhnf cnn bo nddod fo fho TCI hondor
Tho sIgnIfIcnnco of nddIng fhoso oxfonsIons ns opfIons rnfhor fhnn chnngIng fho
coro of fho TCI hondor Is fhnf hosfs cnn sfIII communIcnfo usIng TCI ovon If
fhov do nof ImpIomonf fho opfIons.
Hosfs fhnf do ImpIomonf fho opfIonnI oxfonsIons, howovor, cnn fnko ndvnnfngo
of fhom.
Tho fwo sIdos ngroo fhnf fhov wIII uso fho opfIons durIng TCI`s connocfIon
osfnbIIshmonf phnso.

TLe IIvst etensIon
If hoIps fo Improvo hoIps fo Improvo TCI`s fImoouf mochnnIsm. Insfond of
monsurIng fho !TT usIng n conrso-grnInod ovonf, TCI cnn rond fho ncfunI
svsfom cIock whon If Is nbouf fo sond n sogmonf, nnd puf fhIs fImofhInk of If
ns n 32-bIf Iine- eIonpIn fho sogmonf`s hondor.
Tho rocoIvor fhon ochoos fhIs fImosfnmp bnck fo fho sondor In Ifs
ncknowIodgmonf, nnd fho sondor subfrncfs fhIs fImosfnmp from fho curronf fImo
fo monsuro fho !TT.
In ossonco, fho fImosfnmp opfIon provIdos n convonIonf pInco for TCI fo sforo
fho rocord of whon n sogmonf wns frnnsmIffod; If sforos fho fImo In fho sogmonf
IfsoIf.
ofo fhnf fho ondpoInfs In fho connocfIon do nof nood svnchronIzod cIocks, sInco
fho fImosfnmp Is wrIffon nnd rond nf fho snmo ond of fho connocfIon.

TLe seond etensIon
If nddrossos fho probIom of TCI`s 32-bIf Soquoncoum fIoId wrnppIng nround
foo soon on n hIgh-spood nofwork.
!nfhor fhnn dofIno n now 64-bIf soquonco numbor fIoId, TCI usos fho 32-bIf
fImosfnmp jusf doscrIbod fo offocfIvoIv oxfond fho soquonco numbor spnco.
In ofhor words, TCI docIdos whofhor fo nccopf or rojocf n sogmonf bnsod on n 64-
bIf IdonfIfIor fhnf hns fho Soquoncoum fIoId In fho Iow-ordor 32 bIfs nnd fho
fImosfnmp In fho hIgh-ordor 32 bIfs. SInco fho fImosfnmp Is nIwnvs IncronsIng,
If sorvos fo dIsfInguIsh bofwoon fwo dIfforonf IncnrnnfIons of fho snmo soquonco
numbor.
ofo fhnf fho fImosfnmp Is boIng usod In fhIs soffIng onIv fo profocf ngnInsf
wrnpnround; If Is nof fronfod ns pnrf of fho soquonco numbor for fho purposo of
ordorIng or ncknowIodgIng dnfn.

TLe tLIvd etensIon

If nIIows TCI fo ndvorfIso n Inrgor wIndow, fhorobv nIIowIng If fo fIII Inrgor
doInv bnndwIdfh pIpos fhnf nro mndo possIbIo bv hIgh-spood nofworks.
ThIs oxfonsIon InvoIvos nn opfIon fhnf dofInos n ecoling focIor for fho ndvorfIsod
wIndow.
Thnf Is, rnfhor fhnn InforprofIng fho numbor fhnf npponrs In fho AdvorfIsod
WIndow fIoId ns IndIcnfIng how mnnv bvfos fho sondor Is nIIowod fo hnvo
unncknowIodgod, fhIs opfIon nIIows fho fwo sIdos of TCI fo ngroo fhnf fho
AdvorfIsod- WIndow fIoId counfs Inrgor chunks (o.g., how mnnv l6-bvfo unIfs of
dnfn fho sondor cnn hnvo unncknowIodgod).
In ofhor words, fho wIndow scnIIng opfIon spocIfIos how mnnv bIfs onch sIdo
shouId Ioff-shIff fho AdvorfIsodWIndow fIoId boforo usIng Ifs confonfs fo compufo
nn offocfIvo wIndow.

A.9 AITRNATIV SIGN CHOICS
AIfhough TCI hns provon fo bo n robusf profocoI fhnf snfIsfIos fho noods of n
wIdo rnngo of nppIIcnfIons, fho dosIgn spnco for frnnsporf profocoIs Is quIfo Inrgo.
TCI Is, bv no monns, fho onIv vnIId poInf In fhnf dosIgn spnco.
Wo concIudo our dIscussIon of TCI bv consIdorIng nIfornnfIvo dosIgn choIcos.
.
IIvst
Wo hnvo suggosfod fhnf fhoro nro nf Ionsf fwo InforosfIng cInssos of frnnsporf
profocoIs: sfronm-orIonfod profocoIs IIko TCI nnd roquosf/ropIv profocoIs IIko
!IC.

Wo couId furfhor dIvIdo fho sfronm-orIonfod profocoIs Info fwo groupsroIInbIo
nnd unroIInbIowIfh fho formor confnInIng TCI nnd fho Inffor boIng moro
suIfnbIo for InforncfIvo vIdoo nppIIcnfIons fhnf wouId rnfhor drop n frnmo fhnn fo
ncquIro fho doInv nssocInfod wIfh n rofrnnsmIssIon.
ConsIdor fho suIfnbIIIfv of TCI ns n frnnsporf profocoI for roquosf/ropIv

nppIIcnfIons, for exonple. TCI Is n fuII-dupIox profocoI, so If wouId bo onsv fo
opon n TCI connocfIon bofwoon fho cIIonf nnd sorvor, sond fho roquosf mossngo
In ono dIrocfIon, nnd sond fho ropIv mossngo In fho ofhor dIrocfIon.

Thoro nro tuo complicutiono

Tho fIrsf Is fhnf TCI Is n IxIe-orIonfod profocoI rnfhor fhnn n neeeoge-orIonfod
profocoI, nnd roquosf/ropIv nppIIcnfIons nIwnvs donI wIfh mossngos.

Tho socond compIIcnfIon Is fhnf In fhoso sIfunfIons whoro bofh fho roquosf
mossngo nnd fho ropIv mossngo fIf In n sIngIo nofwork pnckof, n woII-dosIgnod
roquosf/ropIv profocoI noods onIv fwo pnckofs fo ImpIomonf fho oxchnngo,
whorons TCI wouId nood nf Ionsf nIno:

IIree Io eeIoIlieI IIe connecIion
Iuo for IIe neeeoge excIonge
four Io Ieor Joun IIe connecIion.

Of courso, If fho roquosf or ropIv mossngos nro Inrgo onough fo roquIro muIfIpIo
nofwork pnckofs (o.g., If mIghf fnko l00 pnckofs fo sond n l00,000- bvfo ropIv
mossngo), fhon fho ovorhond of soffIng up nnd fonrIng down fho connocfIon Is
InconsoquonfInI.

Seond
Thoro mIghf bo n quosfIon whv TCI choso fo provIdo n roIInbIo IxIe-sfronm
sorvIco rnfhor fhnn n roIInbIo neeeoge-sfronm sorvIco; mossngos wouId bo fho
nnfurnI choIco for n dnfnbnso nppIIcnfIon fhnf wnnfs fo oxchnngo rocords.

Thoro nro fwo nnswors fo fhIs quosfIon.
TIe fireI Is fhnf n mossngo-orIonfod profocoI musf, bv dofInIfIon, osfnbIIsh nn

uppor bound on mossngo sIzos. Affor nII, nn InfInIfoIv Iong mossngo Is n bvfo
sfronm. Ior nnv mossngo sIzo fhnf n profocoI soIocfs, fhoro wIII bo nppIIcnfIons
fhnf wnnf fo sond Inrgor mossngos, rondorIng fho frnnsporf profocoI usoIoss nnd
forcIng fho nppIIcnfIon fo ImpIomonf Ifs own frnnsporfIIko sorvIcos.
TIe eeconJ ronson Is fhnf whIIo mossngo-orIonfod profocoIs nro dofInIfoIv moro
npproprInfo for nppIIcnfIons fhnf wnnf fo sond rocords fo onch ofhor, vou cnn
onsIIv Insorf rocord boundnrIos Info n bvfo sfronm fo ImpIomonf fhIs
funcfIonnIIfv

TLIvd
TCI choso fo ImpIomonf oxpIIcIf sofup/fonrdown phnsos, buf fhIs Is nof roquIrod.
In fho cnso of connocfIon sofup, If wouId corfnInIv bo possIbIo fo sond nII
nocossnrv connocfIon pnrnmofors nIong wIfh fho fIrsf dnfn mossngo.
TCI oIocfod fo fnko n moro consorvnfIvo nppronch fhnf gIvos fho rocoIvor fho
opporfunIfv fo rojocf fho connocfIon boforo nnv dnfn nrrIvos.
In fho cnso of fonrdown, wo couId quIofIv cIoso n connocfIon fhnf hns boon
InncfIvo for n Iong porIod of fImo, buf fhIs wouId compIIcnfo nppIIcnfIons IIko
ToInof fhnf wnnf fo koop n connocfIon nIIvo for wooks nf n fImo; such
nppIIcnfIons wouId bo forcod fo sond ouf-of-bnnd koopnIIvo mossngos fo koop
fho connocfIon sfnfo nf fho ofhor ond from dIsnpponrIng.

IouvtL
TCI Is n wIndow-bnsod profocoI, buf fhIs Is nof fho onIv possIbIIIfv.
Tho nIfornnfIvo Is n roIe-IoeeJ dosIgn, In whIch fho rocoIvor foIIs fho sondor fho
rnfooxprossod In oIfhor bvfos or pnckofs por socondnf whIch If Is wIIIIng fo
nccopf IncomIng dnfn.
Ior exonple, fho rocoIvor mIghf Inform fho sondor fhnf If cnn nccommodnfo l00
pnckofs n socond.
Thoro Is nn InforosfIng dunIIfv bofwoon wIndows nnd rnfo, sInco fho numbor of
pnckofs (bvfos) In fho wIndow, dIvIdod bv fho !TT, Is oxncfIv fho rnfo.
Ior exonple, n wIndow sIzo of l0 pnckofs nnd n l00-ms !TT ImpIIos fhnf fho
sondor Is nIIowod fo frnnsmIf nf n rnfo of l00 pnckofs n socond. If Is bv
IncronsIng or docronsIng fho ndvorfIsod wIndow sIzo fhnf fho rocoIvor Is
offocfIvoIv rnIsIng or IoworIng fho rnfo nf whIch fho sondor cnn frnnsmIf.
In TCI, fhIs InformnfIon Is fod bnck fo fho sondor In fho AdvorfIsod WIndow fIoId
of fho ACK for ovorv sogmonf.
Ono of fho kov Issuos In n rnfo-bnsod profocoI Is how offon fho dosIrod rnfo
whIch mnv chnngo ovor fImoIs roInvod bnck fo fho sourco.

3.3 RMOT PROCUR CAII
Bull Tronefer (BIAST)
IeoueeI/Ieplx (CHAA)
DiepoIcIer (S1I1CT)
PuIIing 1I All TogeIIer (SunIPC, DC1)
WLut Is Remote Pvoeduve CuII (RPC)
!IC Is ncfunIIv moro fhnn jusf n profocoIIf Is n popuInr mochnnIsm for
sfrucfurIng dIsfrIbufod svsfoms.
!IC Is popuInr bocnuso If Is bnsod on fho somnnfIcs of n IocnI procoduro cnII
fho nppIIcnfIon progrnm mnkos n cnII Info n procoduro wIfhouf rognrd for
whofhor If Is IocnI or romofo nnd bIocks unfII fho cnII rofurns.
If cIosoIv mnfchos fho noods of nn nppIIcnfIon InvoIvod In n roquosf/ropIv
mossngo oxchnngo.

TImeIIne Iov RPC
TLeve uve two muIn vobIems tLut muke RPC move omIIuted tLun IouI
voeduve uIIs
l. Tho nofwork bofwoon fho colling proceee nnd fho colleJ proceee hns much moro
compIox proporfIos fhnn fho bnckpInno of n compufor. Ior exonple, If Is IIkoIv fo
IImIf mossngo sIzos nnd hns n fondoncv fo Ioso nnd roordor mossngos.
2. Tho compufors on whIch fho colling nnd colleJ procossos run mnv hnvo
sIgnIfIcnnfIv dIfforonf nrchIfocfuros nnd dnfn roprosonfnfIon formnfs.

A omIete RPC meLunIsm utuuIIy InvoIves two mujov omonents
l. A profocoI fhnf mnnngos fho mossngos sonf bofwoon fho cIIonf nnd fho sorvor
procossos nnd fhnf donIs wIfh fho pofonfInIIv undosIrnbIo proporfIos of fho
undorIvIng nofwork.
2. IrogrnmmIng Inngungo nnd compIIor supporf fo pnckngo fho nrgumonfs Info n
roquosf mossngo on fho cIIonf mnchIno nnd fhon fo frnnsInfo fhIs mossngo bnck
Info fho nrgumonfs on fho sorvor mnchIno, nnd IIkowIso wIfh fho rofurn vnIuo
(fhIs pIoco of fho !IC mochnnIsm Is usunIIv cnIIod n eIuI conpiler).

ComIete RPC MeLunIsm
IIrsf, fho cIIonf cnIIs n IocnI sfub for fho procoduro, pnssIng If fho nrgumonfs
roquIrod bv fho procoduro.
ThIs sfub hIdos fho fncf fhnf fho procoduro Is romofo bv frnnsInfIng fho
nrgumonfs Info n roquosf mossngo nnd fhon InvokIng nn !IC profocoI fo sond
fho roquosf mossngo fo fho sorvor mnchIno.

Af fho sorvor, fho !IC profocoI doIIvors fho roquosf mossngo fo fho sorvor sfub,
whIch frnnsInfos If Info fho nrgumonfs fo fho procoduro nnd fhon cnIIs fho IocnI
procoduro.
Affor fho sorvor procoduro compIofos, If rofurns fho nnswor fo fho sorvor sfub,
whIch pnckngos fhIs rofurn vnIuo In n ropIv mossngo fhnf If hnnds off fo fho !IC
profocoI for frnnsmIssIon bnck fo fho cIIonf.

Tho !IC profocoI on fho cIIonf pnssos fhIs mossngo up fo fho cIIonf sfub, whIch
frnnsInfos If Info n rofurn vnIuo fhnf If rofurns fo fho cIIonf progrnm.
ConsIdor !IC ns n sfnck of fhroo smnIIor profocoIs:

I. BIAST
II. CHAN
III. SICT

Inch of fhoso smnIIor profocoIs, whIch wo somofImos cnIIod ns nicroproIocol.

BIAST: frngmonfs nnd ronssombIos Inrgo mossngos.
CHAN: svnchronIzos roquosf nnd ropIv mossngos.
SICT: dIspnfchos roquosf mossngos fo fho corrocf procoss.

I!AST, CHA, nnd SI!ICT nro nof sfnndnrd profocoIs In fho sonso fhnf TCI,
!I, nnd II nro.
Thov nro sImpIv profocoIs of our own InvonfIon, buf onos fhnf domonsfrnfo fho
nIgorIfhms noodod fo ImpIomonf !IC.
B.1 BUIK TRANSIR (BIAST)

Tho fIrsf probIom wo nro goIng fo fnckIo Is how fo furn nn undorIvIng nofwork
fhnf doIIvors mossngos of somo smnII sIzo (snv, l KI) Info n sorvIco fhnf doIIvors
mossngos of n much Inrgor sIzo (snv, 32 KI).
WhIIo 32 KI doos nof qunIIfv ns nrbIfrnrIIv Inrgo, If Is Inrgo onough fo bo of
prncfIcnI uso for mnnv nppIIcnfIons, IncIudIng mosf dIsfrIbufod fIIo svsfoms.

!IfImnfoIv, n sfronm-bnsod profocoI IIko TCI wIII bo noodod fo supporf nn
nrbIfrnrIIv Inrgo mossngo, sInco nnv mossngo-orIonfod profocoI wIII nocossnrIIv
hnvo somo uppor IImIf fo fho sIzo of fho mossngo If cnn hnndIo, nnd vou cnn
nIwnvs ImngIno noodIng fo frnnsmIf n mossngo fhnf Is Inrgor fhnn fhIs IImIf.

Ono of fho unIquo proporfIos of I!AST Is how hnrd If frIos fo doIIvor nII fho
frngmonfs of n mossngo.
!nIIko fho AA! sogmonfnfIon/ronssombIv mochnnIsm or fho II
frngmonfnfIon/ronssombIv mochnnIsm, I!AST nffompfs fo rocovor from droppod
frngmonfs bv rofrnnsmIffIng fhom. Howovor, I!AST doos nof go so fnr ns fo
guoronIee mossngo doIIvorv.

BIAST AIuovItLm
BusI Ideu oI BIAST Is for fho sondor fo bronk n Inrgo mossngo pnssod fo If bv
somo hIgh-IovoI profocoI Info n sof of smnIIor frngmonfs, nnd fhon for If fo
frnnsmIf fhoso frngmonfs bnck-fo-bnck ovor fho nofwork.
Honco If Is nnmod ns I!AST.

Tho profocoI doos nof wnIf for nnv of fho frngmonfs fo bo ncknowIodgod boforo
sondIng fho noxf.
Tho rocoIvor fhon sonds n eelecIite reIronenieeion reoueeI (S!!) bnck fo fho
sondor, IndIcnfIng whIch frngmonfs nrrIvod nnd whIch dId nof.
(Tho S!! mossngo Is somofImos cnIIod n porIiol or eelecIite ncknowIodgmonf.)
IInnIIv, fho sondor rofrnnsmIfs fho mIssIng frngmonfs.

In fho cnso In whIch nII fho frngmonfs hnvo nrrIvod, fho S!! sorvos fo fuIIv
ncknowIodgo fho mossngo.

RevesentutIve TImeIIne Iov BIAST

SNING SI
On fho sondIng sIdo, nffor frngmonfIng fho mossngo nnd frnnsmIffIng onch of fho
frngmonfs, fho sondor sofs n fImor cnIIod OI.
Whonovor nn S!! nrrIvos, fho sondor rofrnnsmIfs fho roquosfod frngmonfs nnd
rosofs fImor OI.
ShouId fho S!! IndIcnfo fhnf nII fho frngmonfs hnvo nrrIvod, fho sondor froos Ifs
copv of fho mossngo nnd cnncoIs fImor OI.
If fImor OI ovor oxpIros, fho sondor froos Ifs copv of fho mossngo; fhnf Is, If
gIvos up.

RCIVING SI
On fho rocoIvIng sIdo, whonovor fho fIrsf frngmonf of n mossngo nrrIvos, fho
rocoIvor InIfInIIzos n dnfn sfrucfuro fo hoId fho IndIvIdunI frngmonfs ns fhov
nrrIvo nnd sofs n fImor !AST I!AC.
ThIs fImor counfs fho fImo fhnf hns oInpsod sInco fho Insf frngmonf nrrIvod.
Inch fImo n frngmonf for fhnf mossngo nrrIvos, fho rocoIvor ndds If fo fhIs dnfn
sfrucfuro, nnd shouId nII fho frngmonfs fhon bo prosonf, If ronssombIos fhom
Info n compIofo mossngo nnd pnssos fhIs mossngo up fo fho hIghor-IovoI profocoI.

Iouv eetIonuI ondItIons, Lowevev, tLut tLe veeIvev wutLes Iov
l. If fho Insf frngmonf nrrIvos (fho Insf frngmonf Is spocInIIv mnrkod) buf fho
mossngo Is nof compIofo, fhon fho rocoIvor doformInos whIch frngmonfs
nro mIssIng nnd sonds nn S!! fo fho sondor. If nIso sofs n fImor cnIIod
!IT!Y.
2. If fImor !AST I!AC oxpIros, fhon fho rocoIvor doformInos whIch
frngmonfs nro mIssIng nnd sonds nn S!! fo fho sondor. If nIso sofs fImor
!IT!Y.
3. If fImor !IT!Y oxpIros for fho fIrsf or socond fImo, fhon fho rocoIvor
doformInos whIch frngmonfs nro sfIII mIssIng nnd rofrnnsmIfs nn S!!
mossngo.
4. If fImor !IT!Y oxpIros for fho fhIrd fImo, fhon fho rocoIvor froos fho
frngmonfs fhnf hnvo nrrIvod nnd cnncoIs fImor !AST I!AC; fhnf Is, If
gIvos up.

TLeve uve tLvee usets oI BIAST wovtL to be noted
IIvst
Two dIfforonf ovonfs frIggor fho InIfInI frnnsmIssIon of nn S!!:
I. fho nrrIvnI of fho Insf frngmonf T
II. Tho fIrIng of fho !AST I!AC fImor.
In fho cnso of (I), bocnuso fho nofwork mnv roordor pnckofs fho nrrIvnI of fho Insf
frngmonf doos nof nocossnrIIv ImpIv fhnf nn onrIIor frngmonf Is mIssIng (If mnv
jusf bo Info In nrrIvIng), buf sInco fhIs Is fho mosf IIkoIv oxpInnnfIon, I!AST
nggrossIvoIv sonds nn S!! mossngo.
In cnso of (II), wo doduco fhnf fho Insf frngmonf wns oIfhor Iosf or sorIousIv
doInvod.
Seond
Tho porformnnco of I!AST doos nof crIfIcnIIv dopond on how cnrofuIIv fho
fImors nro sof.
TImor OI Is usod onIv fo docIdo fhnf If Is fImo fo gIvo up nnd doIofo fho
mossngo fhnf Is curronfIv boIng workod on.
ThIs fImor cnn bo sof fo n fnIrIv Inrgo vnIuo sInco Ifs onIv purposo Is fo rocInIm
sforngo.

TImor !IT!Y Is onIv usod fo rofrnnsmIf nn S!! mossngo.
Anv fImo fho sIfunfIon Is so bnd fhnf n profocoI Is ro oxocufIng n fnIIuro rocovorv
procoss, porformnnco Is fho Insf fhIng on Ifs mInd.
IInnIIv, fImor !AST I!AC hns fho pofonfInI fo InfIuonco porformnncoIf
somofImos frIggors fho sondIng bv fho rocoIvor of nn S!! mossngobuf fhIs Is
nn unIIkoIv ovonf:
If onIv hnppons whon fho Insf frngmonf of fho mossngo hnppons fo gof droppod
In fho nofwork.

TLIvd
WhIIo I!AST Is porsIsfonf In nskIng for nnd rofrnnsmIffIng mIssIng frngmonfs,
If doos nof gunrnnfoo fhnf fho compIofo mossngo wIII bo doIIvorod.
To undorsfnnd fhIs, supposo fhnf n mossngo consIsfs of onIv ono or fwo
frngmonfs nnd fhnf fhoso frngmonfs nro Iosf.
Tho rocoIvor wIII novor sond nn S!!, nnd fho sondor`s OI fImor wIII
ovonfunIIv oxpIro, cnusIng fho sondor fo roIonso fho mossngo.

To gunrnnfoo doIIvorv, I!AST wouId nood for fho sondor fo fImo ouf If If doos
nof rocoIvo nn S!! nnd fhon rofrnnsmIf fho Insf sof of frngmonfs If hnd
frnnsmIffod.
WhIIo I!AST corfnInIv couId hnvo boon dosIgnod fo do fhIs, wo choso nof fo
bocnuso fho purposo of I!AST Is fo doIIvor Inrgo mossngos, nof fo gunrnnfoo
mossngo doIIvorv.
Ofhor profocoIs cnn bo confIgurod on fop of I!AST fo gunrnnfoo mossngo

doIIvorv. You mIghf wondor whv wo puf nnv rofrnnsmIssIon cnpnbIIIfv nf nII Info
I!AST If wo nood fo puf n gunrnnfood doIIvorv mochnnIsm nbovo If nnvwnv.
Tho ronson Is fhnf wo`d profor fo rofrnnsmIf onIv fhoso frngmonfs fhnf woro Iosf
rnfhor fhnn hnvIng fo rofrnnsmIf fho onfIro Inrgor mossngo whonovor ono
frngmonf Is Iosf.
So wo gof fho gunrnnfoos from fho hIghor-IovoI profocoI buf somo Improvod
offIcIoncv bv rofrnnsmIffIng frngmonfs In I!AST.

BIAST Messuue Iovmut

Iovmut Iov BIAST messuue Leudev

IIrsf, If musf confnIn somo sorf of mossngo IdonfIfIor so fhnf nII fho frngmonfs
fhnf boIong fo fho snmo mossngo cnn bo IdonfIfIod.
Socond, fhoro musf bo n wnv fo IdonfIfv whoro In fho orIgInnI mossngo fho
IndIvIdunI frngmonfs fIf, nnd IIkowIso, nn S!! musf bo nbIo fo IndIcnfo whIch
frngmonfs hnvo nrrIvod nnd whIch nro mIssIng.
ThIrd, fhoro musf bo n wnv fo dIsfInguIsh fho Insf frngmonf, so fhnf fho rocoIvor
knows whon If Is fImo fo chock fo soo If nII fho frngmonfs hnvo nrrIvod.
IInnIIv, If musf bo possIbIo fo dIsfInguIsh n dnfn mossngo from nn S!! mossngo.
TLe MI IIeId
If unIquoIv IdonfIfIos fhIs mossngo.
AII frngmonfs fhnf boIong fo fho snmo mossngo hnvo fho snmo vnIuo In fhoIr
MI fIoId.
Tho onIv quosfIon Is how mnnv bIfs nro noodod for fhIs fIoId. ThIs Is sImIInr fo
fho quosfIon of how mnnv bIfs nro noodod In fho Soquoncoum fIoId for TCI.

Tho confrnI Issuo In docIdIng how mnnv bIfs fo uso In fho MI fIoId hns fo do
wIfh how Iong If wIII fnko boforo fhIs fIoId wrnps nround nnd fho profocoI sfnrfs
usIng mossngo Ids ovor ngnIn.
If fhIs hnppons foo soonfhnf Is, fho MI fIoId Is onIv n fow bIfs Iongfhon If Is
possIbIo for fho profocoI fo bocomo confusod bv n mossngo fhnf wns doInvod In
fho nofwork, so fhnf nn oId IncnrnnfIon of somo mossngo Id Is mIsfnkon for n now
IncnrnnfIon of fhnf snmo Id.

So, how mnnv bIfs nro onough fo onsuro fhnf fho nmounf of fImo If fnkos for fho
MI fIoId fo wrnp nround Is Iongor fhnn fho nmounf of fImo n mossngo cnn
pofonfInIIv bo doInvod In fho nofwork`
In fho worsf-cnso sconnrIo, onch I!AST mossngo confnIns n sIngIo frngmonf fhnf
Is l bvfo Iong, whIch monns fhnf I!AST mIghf nood fo gonornfo n now MI for
ovorv bvfo If sonds.

On n l0-Mbps Ifhornof, fhIs wouId monn gonornfIng n now MI roughIv onco
ovorv mIcrosocond, whIIo on n l.2-Cbps STS-24 IInk, n now MI wouId bo
roquIrod onco ovorv ? nnnosoconds.
Of courso, fhIs Is n rIdIcuIousIv consorvnfIvo cnIcuInfIon fho ovorhond InvoIvod
In propnrIng n mossngo Is goIng fo bo moro fhnn n mIcrosocond.
Thus, supposo n now MI Is pofonfInIIv noodod onco ovorv mIcrosocond, nnd n
mossngo mnv bo doInvod In fho nofwork for up fo 60 soconds (our sfnndnrd
worsf-cnso nssumpfIon for fho Infornof); fhon wo nood fo onsuro fhnf fhoro nro
moro fhnn 60 mIIIIon MI vnIuos.
TLe Tye IIeId

If IndIcnfos whofhor fhIs Is n ATA mossngo or nn S!! mossngo.
ofIco fhnf whIIo wo corfnInIv don`f nood l6 bIfs fo roprosonf fhoso fwo fvpos, ns
n gonornI ruIo wo IIko fo koop fho hondor fIoIds nIIgnod on 32-bIf (word)
boundnrIos, so ns fo Improvo procossIng offIcIoncv.
TLe PvotNum IIeId
If IdonfIfIos fho hIgh-IovoI profocoI fhnf Is confIgurod on fop of I!AST;
IncomIng mossngos nro domuIfIpIoxod fo fhIs profocoI

TLe IenutL IIeId
If IndIcnfos how mnnv bvfos of dnfn nro In IIie frngmonf; If hns nofhIng fo do
wIfh fho Iongfh of fho onfIro mossngo.

TLe NumIvuus IIeId
If IndIcnfos how mnnv frngmonfs nro In fhIs mossngo.
ThIs fIoId Is usod fo doformIno whon fho Insf frngmonf hns boon rocoIvod.
An nIfornnfIvo Is fo IncIudo n fIng fhnf Is onIv sof for fho Insf frngmonf.

TLe IvuuMusk IIeId
If Is usod fo dIsfInguIsh nmong frngmonfs.
If Is n 32-bIf fIoId fhnf Is usod ns n bIf mnsk.
Ior mossngos of Tvpo = ATA, fho ifh bIf Is l (nII ofhors nro 0) fo IndIcnfo fhnf
fhIs mossngo cnrrIos fho ifh frngmonf. Ior mossngos of Tvpo = S!!, fho ifh bIf Is
sof fo l fo IndIcnfo fhnf fho ifh frngmonf hns nrrIvod, nnd If Is sof fo 0 fo IndIcnfo
fhnf fho ifh frngmonf Is mIssIng.

B.2 ROUST/RPIY (CHAN)
CHA, ImpIomonfs fho roquosf/ropIv nIgorIfhm fhnf Is nf fho coro of !IC
CHA gunrnnfoos mossngo doIIvorv, onsuros fhnf onIv ono copv of onch mossngo
Is doIIvorod, nnd nIIows fho communIcnfIng procossos fo svnchronIzo wIfh onch
ofhor.
At-Most-One SemuntIs
Tho nnmo CHA comos from fho fncf fhnf fho profocoI ImpIomonfs n IogIcnI
roquosf/ropIv cIonnel bofwoon n pnIr of pnrfIcIpnnfs.
Af nnv gIvon fImo, fhoro cnn bo onIv ono mossngo frnnsncfIon ncfIvo on n gIvon
chnnnoI.
Tho nppIIcnfIon progrnms hnvo fo opon muIfIpIo chnnnoIs If fhov wnnf fo hnvo
moro fhnn ono roquosf/ropIv frnnsncfIon bofwoon fhom nf fho snmo fImo.

Tho mosf Imporfnnf proporfv of onch chnnnoI Is fhnf If prosorvos n somnnfIcs
known ns ut-moot-once.
ThIs monns fhnf for ovorv roquosf mossngo fhnf fho cIIonf sonds, nf mosf ono
copv of fhnf mossngo Is doIIvorod fo fho sorvor.
Sfnfod In forms of fho !IC mochnnIsm fhnf CHA Is dosIgnod fo supporf, for
onch fImo fho cIIonf cnIIs n romofo procoduro, fhnf procoduro Is Invokod nf mosf
ono fImo on fho sorvor mnchIno.
Wo snv nf-mosf-onco rnfhor fhnn oxncfIv onco bocnuso If Is nIwnvs possIbIo
fhnf oIfhor fho nofwork or fho sorvor mnchIno hns fnIIod, mnkIng If ImpossIbIo fo
doIIvor ovon ono copv of fho roquosf mossngo.
As obvIous ns nf-mosf-onco sounds, nof nII !IC profocoIs supporf fhIs bohnvIor.

Somo supporf n somnnfIcs fhnf Is fncofIousIv cnIIod xero-or-more semuntIs,
fhnf Is, onch InvocnfIon on n cIIonf rosuIfs In fho romofo procoduro boIng Invokod
zoro or moro fImos.
If Is nof hnrd fo undorsfnnd how fhIs wouId cnuso probIoms for n romofo
procoduro fhnf chnngod somo IocnI sfnfo vnrInbIo (o.g., Incromonfod n counfor) or
fhnf hnd somo oxfornnIIv vIsIbIo sIdo offocf (o.g., Inunchod n mIssIIo) onch fImo If
wns Invokod.
On fho ofhor hnnd, If fho romofo procoduro boIng Invokod Is iJenpoIenI
muIfIpIo InvocnfIons hnvo fho snmo offocf ns jusf onofhon fho !IC mochnnIsm
nood nof supporf nf-mosf-onco somnnfIcs; n sImpIor (possIbIv fnsfor)
ImpIomonfnfIon wIII suffIco.
CHAN AIuovItLm

(u)

(b)

(IIguro n)Tho cIIonf sonds n roquosf mossngo nnd fho sorvor ncknowIodgos If.
Thon nffor oxocufIng fho procoduro, fho sorvor sonds n ropIv mossngo nnd fho
cIIonf ncknowIodgos fho ropIv.
Iocnuso fho ropIv mossngo offon comos bnck wIfh vorv IIffIo doInv, nnd If Is
somofImos fho cnso fhnf fho cIIonf furns nround nnd mnkos n socond roquosf on
fho snmo chnnnoI ImmodInfoIv nffor rocoIvIng fho fIrsf ropIv, fhIs bnsIc sconnrIo
cnn bo opfImIzod bv usIng n fochnIquo cnIIod inpliciI oclnouleJgnenIe.
As IIIusfrnfod In IIguro (b) fho ropIv mossngo sorvos fo ncknowIodgo fho roquosf
mossngo, nnd n subsoquonf roquosf ncknowIodgos fho procodIng ropIv.

Two Iutovs tLut omIIutes tLe dIsussIon
TIe ]irot Is fhnf oIfhor n mossngo cnrrvIng dnfn (n roquosf mossngo or n ropIv
mossngo) or fho ACK sonf fo ncknowIodgo fhnf mossngo mnv bo Iosf In fho
nofwork.
To nccounf for fhIs possIbIIIfv, bofh cIIonf nnd sorvor snvo n copv of onch mossngo
fhov sond unfII nn ACK for If hns nrrIvod.
Inch sIdo nIso sofs n !IT!ASMIT fImor nnd rosonds fho mossngo shouId fhIs
fImor oxpIro.
Iofh sIdos rosof fhIs fImor nnd frv ngnIn somo ngrood-upon numbor of fImos
boforo gIvIng up nnd frooIng fho mossngo.
ThIs ncknowIodgmonf/fImoouf sfrnfogv monns fhnf If Is possIbIo for dupIIcnfo
copIos of n mossngo fo nrrIvofho orIgInnI mossngo nrrIvos, fho ACK Is Iosf, nnd
fhon fho rofrnnsmIssIon nrrIvos.

Thus, fho rocoIvor musf romombor whnf mossngos If hns soon nnd dIscnrd nnv
dupIIcnfos.
ThIs Is dono fhrough fho uso of n MI fIoId In fho hondor.
Anv mossngo whoso MI fIoId doos nof mnfch fho noxf oxpocfod MI Is
dIscnrdod Insfond of boIng pnssod up fo fho hIgh-IovoI profocoI confIgurod on fop
of CHA.

TIe oeconJ compIIcnfIon Is fhnf fho sorvor mnv fnko nn nrbIfrnrIIv Iong fImo fo
produco fho rosuIf, nnd worso vof, If mnv crnsh (oIfhor fho procoss or fho onfIro
mnchIno) boforo gonornfIng fho ropIv.
To hoIp fho cIIonf dIsfInguIsh bofwoon n sIow sorvor nnd n dond sorvor, CHA`s
cIIonf sIdo porIodIcnIIv sonds nn Aro vou nIIvo` mossngo fo fho sorvor, nnd
CHA`s sorvor sIdo rosponds wIfh nn ACK.
AIfornnfIvoIv, fho sorvor couId sond I nm sfIII nIIvo mossngos fo fho cIIonf
wIfhouf fho cIIonf hnvIng fIrsf soIIcIfod fhom, buf wo profor fho cIIonf-InIfInfod
nppronch bocnuso If koops fho sorvor ns sImpIo ns possIbIo (I.o., If hns ono Ioss
fImor fo mnnngo).

CHAN Messuue Iovmut

Tho CHA mossngo formnf Is gIvon In IIguro.

TLe Tye IIeId
Tho Tvpo fIoId spocIfIos fho fvpo of fho mossngo; In fhIs cnso, fho possIbIo fvpos
nro !IQ, !II, ACK, nnd I!OII.
(I!OII Is fho Aro vou nIIvo` mossngo dIscussod nbovo.)

TLe PvotNum IIeId
Tho Irofum fIoId IdonfIfIos fho hIgh-IovoI profocoI fhnf doponds on CHA.

TLe CI IIeId
Tho CI fIoId unIquoIv IdonfIfIos fho IogIcnI chnnnoI fo whIch fhIs mossngo
boIongs.
ThIs Is n l6-bIf fIoId, monnIng fhnf CHA supporfs up fo 64K concurronf
roquosf/ropIv frnnsncfIons bofwoon nnv pnIr of hosfs.
Of courso, n gIvon hosf cnn bo pnrfIcIpnfIng In chnnnoIs wIfh mnnv ofhor hosfs nf
fho snmo fImo.

TLe MI IIeId
Tho MI fIoId unIquoIv IdonfIfIos onch roquosf/ropIv pnIr; fho ropIv mossngo hns
fho snmo MI ns fho roquosf.
ofo fhnf bocnuso CHA pormIfs onIv ono mossngo frnnsncfIon nf n fImo on n
gIvon chnnnoI CHA usos n 32-bIf MI fIoId.

TLe BI IIeId
Tho II fIoId gIvos fho IooI iJ for fho hosf.

A mnchIno`s boof Id Is n numbor fhnf Is Incromonfod onch fImo fho mnchIno
roboofs; fhIs numbor Is rond from dIsk, Incromonfod, nnd wrIffon bnck fo dIsk
durIng fho mnchIno`s sfnrfup procoduro.

ThIs numbor Is fhon puf In ovorv mossngo sonf bv fhnf hosf.
Tho roIo pInvod bv fho II fIoId Is much fho snmo ns fho roIo pInvod bv fho Inrgo
MI fIoIdIf profocfs ngnInsf oId mossngos suddonIv npponrIng nf fho
dosfInnfIonnIfhough In fhIs cnso, fho oId mossngo Is duo nof fo nn nrbIfrnrv
doInv In fho nofwork buf rnfhor fo n mnchIno fhnf hns crnshod nnd roboofod.

To undevstund tLe use oI tLe boot Id, onsIdev tLe IoIIowInu utLoIouIuI
sItuutIon.
A cIIonf mnchIno sonds n roquosf mossngo wIfh MI = 0, fhon crnshos nnd
roboofs, nnd fhon sonds nn unroInfod roquosf mossngo, nIso wIfh MI = 0.
Tho sorvor mnv nof hnvo boon nwnro fhnf fho cIIonf crnshod nnd roboofod, nnd
upon sooIng n roquosf mossngo wIfh MI = 0, ncknowIodgos If nnd dIscnrds If ns
n dupIIcnfo.
To profocf ngnInsf fhIs possIbIIIfv, onch sIdo of CHA mnkos suro fhnf fho _II,
MI_ pnIr, nof jusf fho MI, mnfchos whnf If Is oxpocfIng. II Is nIso n 32-bIf
fIoId, whIch monns fhnf If wo nssumo fhnf If fnkos nf Ionsf l0 mInufos fo roboof n
mnchIno, If wIII wrnp nround onco ovorv 40 bIIIIon mInufos (npproxImnfoIv
80,000 vonrs).
In offocf, fho II nnd MI combIno fo form n unIquo 64-bIf Id for onch
frnnsncfIon; fho Iow-ordor 32 bIfs nro Incromonfod for onch frnnsncfIon buf rosof
fo 0 whon fho mnchIno roboofs, nnd fho hIgh-ordor 32 bIfs nro Incromonfod onch
fImo fho mnchIno roboofs.
TImeouts
CHAN InvoIves tLvee dIIIevent tImevs
Thoro Is n !IT!ASMIT fImor on bofh fho cIIonf nnd sorvor, nnd fho cIIonf nIso
mnnngos n I!OII fImor.
Tho I!OII fImor Is nof crIfIcnI fo porformnnco nnd fhus cnn bo sof fo n
consorvnfIvoIv Inrgo vnIuoon fho ordor of sovornI soconds.
Tho !IT!ASMIT fImor, howovor, doos InfIuonco fho porformnnco of CHA.
If If Is sof foo Inrgo, fhon CHA mIghf wnIf nn unnocossnrIIv Iong fImo boforo
rofrnnsmIffIng n mossngo fhnf wns Iosf bv fho nofwork.
ThIs cIonrIv hurfs porformnnco.

If fho !IT!ASMIT fImor Is sof foo smnII, howovor, fhon CHA mnv Iond fho
nofwork wIfh unnocossnrv frnffIc.

If CHA Is dosIgnod fo run on n IocnI nron nofwork onIv, or ovon ovor n cnmpus
sIzo oxfondod !A, fhon !IT!ASMIT cnn bo sof fo n fIxod vnIuo.

SomofhIng on fho ordor of 20 mIIIIsoconds wouId bo ronsonnbIo.
ThIs Is bocnuso fho !TT of n !A Is nof fhnf vnrInbIo. If CHA Is oxpocfod fo
run ovor fho Infornof, howovor, fhon soIocfIng n suIfnbIo vnIuo for
!IT!ASMIT Is sImIInr fo fho probIom fncod bv TCI.

Thus, CHA wouId cnIcuInfo fho !IT!ASMIT fImoouf usIng n mochnnIsm
sImIInr fo fho ono doscrIbod In AdnpfIvo rofrnnsmIssIon of TCI.

Tho onIv dIfforonco Is fhnf CHA hns fo fnko Info nccounf fho fncf fhnf fho
mossngo If Is sondIng rnngos In sIzo from l bvfo fo 32 KI, whorons TCI Is
nIwnvs frnnsmIffIng sogmonfs of npproxImnfoIv fho snmo sIzo.

SynLvonous vevsus AsynLvonous PvotooIs:
Ono wnv fo chnrncforIzo n profocoI Is bv whofhor If Is exncIronoue or
oexncIronoue.
Af fho oexncIronoue ond of fho spocfrum, fho nppIIcnfIon knows nbsoIufoIv
nofhIng whon sond rofurns.
If nof onIv doosn`f know If fho mossngo wns rocoIvod bv Ifs poor, buf If doosn`f
ovon know for suro fhnf fho mossngo hns succossfuIIv Ioff fho IocnI mnchIno.

Af fho exncIronoue ond of fho spocfrum, fho sond opornfIon fvpIcnIIv rofurns n
ropIv mossngo.
Thnf Is, fho nppIIcnfIon nof onIv knows fhnf fho mossngo If sonf wns rocoIvod bv
Ifs poor, buf If knows fhnf fho poor hns rofurnod nn nnswor.
Thus, svnchronous profocoIs ImpIomonf fho roquosf/ropIv nbsfrncfIon, whIIo

nsvnchronous profocoIs nro usod If fho sondor wnnfs fo bo nbIo fo frnnsmIf mnnv
mossngos wIfhouf hnvIng fo wnIf for n rosponso.
!sIng fhIs dofInIfIon, CHA Is obvIousIv n svnchronous profocoI

A veIIubIe dutuuvum votooI
Tho frnnsporf profocoI mIghf ImpIomonf sond so fhnf If bIocks (doos nof rofurn)
unfII fho mossngo hns boon succossfuIIv rocoIvod nf fho romofo mnchIno, buf
rofurns boforo fho sondor`s poor on fhnf mnchIno hns ncfunIIv procossod nnd
rospondod fo If. ThIs Is somofImos cnIIod n relioIle JoIogron proIocol.

ImIementutIon oI CHAN
CHA`s hns fwo kov dnfn sfrucfuros:
ChnnHdr nnd ChnnSfnfo

IuntIon tLut sends vequest messuues

SInco CHAoxporfs n svnchronous Inforfnco fo hIghor-IovoI profocoIsfho cnIIor
bIocks unfII n ropIv cnn bo rofurnodfho sond opornfIon wo hnvo boon nssumIng
Is nof goIng fo work.
Thoroforo, wo Infroduco n now Inforfnco opornfIon, whIch wo gIvo fho gonorIc
nnmo cnII, fhnf bIocks unfII n ropIv mossngo Is nvnIInbIo, nnd rofurns fhnf ropIv
mossngo fo fho cnIIor.

Tho fIrsf nrgumonf IdonfIfIos fho chnnnoI boIng usod; If offocfIvoIv oncnpsuInfos
nII fho InformnfIon noodod fo sond fho mossngo fo fho corrocf dosfInnfIon.
Tho socond nnd fhIrd nrgumonfs corrospond fo fho nbsfrncf dnfn fvpo (AT) for
mossngos, nnd roprosonf fho roquosf nnd ropIv mossngos, rospocfIvoIv.
Wo nssumo fhIs AT supporfs fho obvIous opornfIons (o.g., msgSnvoCopv nnd
msg!ongfh).


TIe fireI IIing fo nofIco Is fhnf fho ChnnSfnfo pnssod ns nn nrgumonf fo cnII
CHA IncIudos n fIoId nnmod sfnfus fhnf IndIcnfos whofhor or nof fhIs chnnnoI
Is boIng usod.
If fho chnnnoI Is curronfIv In uso, fhon cnIICHA rofurns fnIIuro.

An nIfornnfIvo dosIgn wouId bo fo bIock fho cnIIIng fhrond unfII fho chnnnoI
bocomos IdIo.
Wo hnvo oIocfod fo push rosponsIbIIIfv for bIockIng fhronds fhnf wnnf fo uso busv
chnnnoIs onfo fho hIghor-IovoI profocoI, In our cnso, SI!ICT.

TIe nexI IIing fo nofIco nbouf cnII Is fhnf nffor fIIIIng ouf fho mossngo hondor
nnd frnnsmIffIng fho roquosf mossngo vIn I!AST, fho cnIIIng procoss Is bIockod
on n somnphoro (ropIv som).

Whon fho ropIv mossngo ovonfunIIv nrrIvos, If Is procossod bv CHA`s
doIIvorCHA roufIno (soo boIow), whIch copIos fho ropIv mossngo Info sfnfo
vnrInbIo ropIv nnd sIgnnIs fhIs bIockod procoss.
Tho procoss fhon rofurns.
ShouId fho ropIv mossngo nof nrrIvo, fhon fImoouf roufIno rofrnnsmIf Is cnIIod
(soo boIow).
ThIs ovonf Is schoduIod In fho bodv of cnIICHA.

Tho noxf roufIno, rofrnnsmIf, Is cnIIod whonovor fho rofrnnsmIf fImor fIros.
If Is schoduIod for fho fIrsf fImo In cnIICHA, buf onch fImo If Is cnIIod, If
roschoduIos IfsoIf.
Onco fho roquosf mossngo hns boon rofrnnsmIffod four fImos,CHAgIvos up:
If sofs fho rofurn vnIuo fo IAI!!!I nnd wnkos up fho bIockod cIIonf procoss

Iinollx, onch fImo rofrnnsmIf oxocufos nnd sonds nnofhor copv of fho roquosf
mossngo, If noods fo rosnvo fho mossngo In sfnfo vnrInbIo roquosf.
ThIs Is bocnuso wo nssumo fhnf onch fImo n profocoI sonds n mossngo fo fho
Iowor-IovoI profocoI, If Iosos Ifs roforonco fo fho mossngo.

CHAN's deIIvev voutIne
TIe fireI IIing wo obsorvo Is fhnf CHA Is nn nsvmmofrIc profocoI: Tho codo
fhnf ImpIomonfs CHA on fho cIIonf mnchIno Is compIofoIv dIsfIncf from fho
codo fhnf ImpIomonfs CHA on fho sorvor mnchIno.
ThIs fncf Is sforod In fho CHA sfnfo vnrInbIo (fvpo).

Thus, fho fIrsf fhIng CHA`s doIIvor roufIno doos Is chock fo soo whofhor If Is
runnIng on n sorvor (I.o., If oxpocfs !IQ mossngos) or on n cIIonf (I.o., If oxpocfs
!II mossngos), nnd fhon If cnIIs fho npproprInfo cIIonf- or sorvor-spocIfIc
roufIno.
In fhIs cnso, wo show fho cIIonf-spocIfIc roufIno, doIIvorCIIonf.

!oufIno doIIvorCIIonf fIrsf chocks fo soo If If hns rocoIvod fho oxpocfod
mossngo,for oxnmpIo, fhnf If hns fho rIghf MI, fho rIghf II, nnd fhnf fho
mossngo Is of fvpo !II or ACK.
ThIs chock Is mndo In subroufIno cInf msg ok (nof shown).
If If Is n vnIId ncknowIodgmonf mossngo, fhon doIIvorCIIonf cnncoIs fho
!IT!ASMIT fImor nnd schoduIos fho I!OII fImor.
Tho I!OII fImor Is nof shown, buf wouId bo sImIInr fo fho !IT!ASMIT
fImor gIvon nbovo.
If fho mossngo Is n vnIId ropIv, fhon doIIvorCIIonf cnncoIs fho !IT!ASMIT
fImor, snvos n copv of fho ropIv mossngo In sfnfo vnrInbIo ropIv, nnd wnkos up
fho bIockod cIIonf procoss.
If Is fhIs cIIonf procoss fhnf ncfunIIv rofurns fho ropIv mossngo fo fho hIgh-IovoI
profocoI; fho procoss fhnf cnIIod doIIvorCIIonf sImpIv rofurns bnck down fho
profocoI sfnck.

B.3 ISPATCHR (SICT)
Tho fInnI mIcroprofocoI, cnIIod SI!ICT, dIspnfchos roquosf mossngos fo fho
npproprInfo procoduro.
If Is fho !IC profocoI sfnck`s vorsIon of n domuIfIpIoxIng profocoI IIko !I; fho
mnIn dIfforonco Is fhnf If Is n svnchronous profocoI rnfhor fhnn nn nsvnchronous
profocoI.

CIINT SI
Whnf fhIs monns Is fhnf on fho cIIonf sIdo, SI!ICT Is gIvon n procoduro numbor
fhnf fho cIIonf wnnfs fo Invoko, If pufs fhIs numbor In Ifs hondor, nnd fhon If
Invokos fho cnII opornfIon on n Iowor-IovoI roquosf/ropIv profocoI IIko CHA.
Whon fhIs InvocnfIon rofurns, SI!ICT moroIv Iofs fho rofurn pnss fhrough fo
fho cIIonf; If hns no ronI domuIfIpIoxIng work fo do.

SRVR SI:
On fho sorvor sIdo, SI!ICT usos fho procoduro numbor If fInds In Ifs hondor fo
soIocf fho rIghf IocnI procoduro fo Invoko.
Whon fhIs procoduro rofurns, SI!ICT sImpIv rofurns fo fho Iow-IovoI profocoI
fhnf jusf Invokod If.
If mnv soom fhnf SI!ICT Is so sImpIo fhnf If Is nof worfhv of boIng fronfod ns n
sopnrnfo profocoI.
Affor nII, CHA nIrondv hns Ifs own domuIfIpIoxIng fIoId fhnf couId bo usod fo
dIspnfch IncomIng roquosf mossngos fo fho npproprInfo procoduro.

TLeve uve two veusons wLy we eIeted to seuvute SICT Into u seII-
ontuIned votooI.

The ]irot reuoon Is fhnf doIng so mnkos If possIbIo fo chnngo fho nddross spnco
wIfh whIch procoduros nro IdonfIfIod sImpIv bv confIgurIng n dIfforonf vorsIon of
SI!ICT Info fho profocoI grnph.
In somo soffIngs, If Is suffIcIonf fo dofIno n floI nddross spnco for procoduros.
Ior oxnmpIo, n l6-bIf soIocfor fIoId nIIows vou fo IdonfIfv 64K dIfforonf
procoduros.
In ofhor soffIngs, howovor, n fInf nddross spnco Is hnrd fo mnnngowho docIdos
whIch procoduro gofs whIch procoduro numbor` In fhIs cnso, If mIghf bo boffor fo
hnvo n hIornrchIcnI nddross spnco, fhnf Is, n fwo-pnrf procoduro numbor.
IIrsf, onch progrnm couId bo gIvon n progrnm numbor, whoro n progrnm
corrosponds fo somofhIng IIko n fIIo sorvor or n nnmo sorvor.
oxf, onch progrnm couId bo gIvon fho rosponsIbIIIfv fo nssIgn unIquo procoduro
numbors fo Ifs own procoduros.
For erumple,
WIfhIn fho file eerter progrnm, rond mIghf bo procoduro l, wrIfo mIghf bo
procoduro 2, sook mIghf bo procoduro 3, nnd so on,
Whorons wIfhIn fho none eerter progrnm, Insorf mIghf bo procoduro l nnd
Iookup mIghf bo procoduro 2.

The oeconJ reuoon wo ImpIomonf SI!ICT ns Ifs own profocoI Is fhnf If
provIdos n good pInco fo mnnngo concurroncv. !ocnII fhnf CHA supporfs nf-
mosf-onco chnnnoIs.
Supposo wo wnnf fo nIIow nppIIcnfIons runnIng on fhIs hosf fo mnko muIfIpIo
oufsfnndIng cnIIs fo fho snmo romofo procoduro.
SInco CHA nIIows onIv ono oufsfnndIng cnII nf n fImo, fho onIv wnv fo do fhIs Is
fo opon muIfIpIo chnnnoIs fo fho snmo sorvor.
Inch fImo n cnIIIng procoss Invokos SI!ICT, If sonds fho procoss ouf on nn IdIo
chnnnoI.
If nII fho chnnnoIs nro curronfIv ncfIvo, fhon SI!ICT bIocks fho cnIIIng procoss
unfII n chnnnoI bocomos IdIo.

B.4 PUTTING IT AII TOGTHR (SUNRPC, C)
Af fho boffom nro fho profocoIs fhnf ImpIomonf fho undorIvIng nofwork.
AIfhough fhIs sfnck couId confnIn profocoIs corrospondIng fo nnv of fho
nofworkIng fochnoIogIos wo uso II runnIng on fop of nn Ifhornof for IIIusfrnfIvo
purposos.

On fop of II Is I!AST, whIch furns fho smnII mossngo sIzo of fho undorIvIng
nofwork Info n communIcnfIon sorvIco fhnf supporfs mossngos of up fo 32 KI In
Iongfh.
ofIco fhnf If Is nof sfrIcfIv fruo fhnf fho undorIvIng nofwork provIdos for onIv
smnII mossngos; II cnn hnndIo mossngos of up fo 64 KI.

Howovor, bocnuso hns fo frngmonf such Inrgo mossngos boforo sondIng fhom ouf
ovor fho Ifhornof, nnd I!AST`s frngmonfnfIon/ ronssombIv nIgorIfhm Is suporIor
fo II`s (bocnuso If Is nbIo fo soIocfIvoIv rofrnnsmIf mIssIng frngmonfs), wo profor
fo fronf II ns fhough If supporfs oxncfIv fho snmo MT! ns fho undorIvIng
phvsIcnI nofwork.
ThIs pufs fho frngmonfnfIon/ronssombIv burdon on I!AST, unIoss II hns fo
porform frngmonfnfIon ouf In fho mIddIo of fho nofwork somowhoro.

AexI, CHA ImpIomonfs fho roquosf/ropIv nIgorIfhm.
In fhIs cnso, CHA`s fImoouf nnd ncknowIodgmonf mochnnIsm mnkos suro
mossngos nro roIInbIv doIIvorod.
Ofhor profocoIs mIghf uso dIfforonf fochnIquos fo gunrnnfoo doIIvorv or, for fhnf
mnffor, mIghf chooso nof fo ImpIomonf roIInbIo doIIvorv nf nII.

ThIs Is nn oxnmpIo of fho ond-fo-ond nrgumonf nf workdo nof do nf Iow IovoIs
of fho svsfom (o.g., I!AST) whnf hns fo bo dono nf hIghor IovoIs (o.g., CHA)
nnvwnv.

Iinollx, SI!ICT dofInos nn nddross spnco for IdonfIfvIng romofo procoduros.

Ifforonf vorsIons of SI!ICT, onch dofInIng n dIfforonf mofhod for IdonfIfvIng
procoduros, couId bo confIgurod on fop of CHA.

In fncf, If wouId ovon bo possIbIo fo wrIfo n vorsIon of SI!ICT fhnf mImIcs somo
oxIsfIng !IC pnckngo`s nddross spnco for procoduros (such ns Sun!IC`s), nnd
fhon fo uso CHA nnd I!AST undornonfh fhIs now SI!ICT fo ImpIomonf fho
rosf of fho !IC sfnck.

ThIs now sfnck wouId nof Inforopornfo wIfh fho orIgInnI profocoI, buf If wouId
nIIow vou fo sIIdo n now !IC svsfom undornonfh nn oxIsfIng coIIocfIon of romofo
procoduros wIfhouf hnvIng fo chnngo fho Inforfnco.
SI!ICT nIso mnnngos concurroncv

SunRPC

PvotooI GvuL Iov SunRPC

IIrsf, Sun!IC ImpIomonfs fho coro roquosf/ropIv nIgorIfhm; If Is CHA`s
counforpnrf.
Socond, fho roIo of SI!ICT Is spIIf bofwoon !I nnd Sun!IC!I
dIspnfchos fo fho corrocf progrnm, nnd Sun!IC dIspnfchos fo fho corrocf
procoduro wIfhIn fho progrnm.
IInnIIv, fho nbIIIfv fo sond roquosf nnd ropIv mossngos fhnf nro Inrgor fhnn fho
nofwork MT!, corrospondIng fo fho funcfIonnIIfv ImpIomonfod In I!AST, Is
hnndIod bv II.

Howovor, II Is nof ns porsIsfonf ns I!AST Is In ImpIomonfIng frngmonfnfIon;
I!AST usos soIocfIvo rofrnnsmIssIon, whorons II doos nof.
Sun!IC usos fwo-fIor nddrossos fo IdonfIfv romofo procoduros: n 32-bIf progrnm
numbor nnd n 32-bIf procoduro numbor.

Ior exonple, fho IS sorvor hns boon nssIgnod progrnm numbor x00l00003,
nnd wIfhIn fhIs progrnm, gofnffr Is procoduro l, sofnffr Is procoduro 2, rond Is
procoduro 6, wrIfo Is procoduro 8, nnd so on.

Inch progrnm Is ronchnbIo bv sondIng n mossngo fo somo !I porf.
Whon n roquosf mossngo nrrIvos nf fhIs porf, Sun!IC pIcks If up nnd cnIIs fho
npproprInfo procoduro.

To doformIno whIch porf corrosponds fo n pnrfIcuInr Sun!IC progrnm numbor,
fhoro Is n sopnrnfo Sun!IC progrnm, cnIIod fho Iorf Mnppor fhnf mnps progrnm
numbors fo porf numbors.
Tho Iorf Mnppor IfsoIf nIso hns n progrnm numbor (x00l00000) fhnf musf bo
frnnsInfod Info somo !I porf.

IorfunnfoIv, fho Iorf Mnppor Is nIwnvs prosonf nf n woII-known !I porf
(lll).
Tho Iorf Mnppor progrnm supporfs sovornI procoduros, ono of whIch (procoduro
numbor 3) Is fho ono fhnf porforms fho progrnmfo- porf numbor mnppIng.

Thus, fo sond n roquosf mossngo fo IS`s rond procoduro, n cIIonf fIrsf sonds n
roquosf mossngo fo fho Iorf Mnppor nf woII-known !I porf lll, nskIng fhnf
procoduro 3 bo Invokod fo mnp progrnm numbor x00l00003 fo fho !I porf
whoro fho IS progrnm curronfIv rosIdos.

Tho cIIonf fhon sonds n Sun!IC roquosf mossngo wIfh procoduro numbor 6 fo
fhIs !I porf, nnd fho Sun!IC moduIo IIsfonIng nf fhnf porf cnIIs fho IS rond
procoduro.
Tho cIIonf nIso cnchos fho progrnm-fo-porf numbor mnppIng so fhnf If nood nof
go bnck fo fho Iorf Mnppor onch fImo If wnnfs fo fnIk fo fho IS progrnm.

SunRPC Leudev Iovmuts u) vequest: b) veIy:

SunRPC Leudev
Sun!IC hondor Is dofInod bv n compIox nosfIng of dnfn sfrucfuros.
XI Is n unIquo frnnsncfIon Id, much IIko CHA`s MI fIoId.
Tho ronson fhnf Sun!IC cnnnof gunrnnfoo nf-mosf-onco somnnfIcs Is fhnf on fho
sorvor sIdo, Sun!IC doos nof romombor fhnf If hns nIrondv soon n pnrfIcuInr
XI onco If hns succossfuIIv compIofod fho frnnsncfIon.

ThIs Is onIv n probIom If fho cIIonf rofrnnsmIfs n roquosf mossngo ns n rosuIf of n
fImoouf nnd fhnf roquosf mossngo Is In frnnsIf nf oxncfIv fho snmo fImo ns fho
ropIv fo fho orIgInnI roquosf Is on Ifs wnv from fho sorvor bnck fo fho cIIonf.
Whon fho rofrnnsmIffod roquosf nrrIvos nf fho sorvor, If Iooks IIko n now
frnnsncfIon, sInco fho sorvor fhInks If hns nIrondv compIofod fho frnnsncfIon
wIfh fhIs XI.
CIonrIv, If fho ropIv nrrIvos nf fho clienI Iefore IIe IineouI, fhon fho reoueeI uill
noI Ie reIroneniIIeJ.

!IkowIso, If fho rofrnnsmIffod roquosf orritee oI IIe eerter Iefore IIe replx Ioe
Ieen generoIeJ, fhon fho sorvor wIII rocognIzo fhnf frnnsncfIon XI Is nIrondv In
progross, nnd If wIII dIscnrd fho dupIIcnfo roquosf mossngo.

So If Is ronIIv quIfo unIIkoIv fhnf fhIs orronoous bohnvIor wIII occur. ofo fhnf
fho sorvor`s shorf-form momorv nbouf XIs nIso monns fhnf If cnnnof profocf
IfsoIf ngnInsf mossngos fhnf hnvo boon doInvod for n Iong fImo In fho nofwork.
ThIs hns nof boon n sorIous probIom wIfh Sun!IC, howovor, bocnuso If wns
orIgInnIIv dosIgnod for uso on n !A.

!ofurnIng fo fho Sun!IC hondor formnf, fho roquosf mossngo confnIns
vuvIubIeIenutL CvedentIuIs nnd VevIIIev IIeIds, bofh of whIch nro usod bv
fho clienI Io ouIIenIicoIe iIeelf Io IIe eerter.

C
Tho IsfrIbufod CompufIng InvIronmonf (CI) dofInos nnofhor wIdoIv usod
!IC profocoI, whIch wo cnII CI-!IC.

CI Is n sof of sfnndnrds nnd soffwnro for buIIdIng dIsfrIbufod svsfoms.
If wns dofInod bv fho Opon Soffwnro IoundnfIon (OSI), n consorfIum of
compufor compnnIos fhnf orIgInnIIv IncIudod IIM, IgIfnI, nnd HowIoff-Incknrd;
fodnv OSI goos bv fho nnmo Opon Croup.

CI-!IC Is fho !ICprofocoI nf fho coro of fho CI svsfom.
If cnn bo usod wIfh fho ofwork nfn !oprosonfnfIon (!) sfub compIIor, buf
If nIso sorvos ns fho undorIvIng !IC profocoI for fho Common Objocf !oquosf
Irokor ArchIfocfuro (CO!IA), whIch Is nn IndusfrvwIdo sfnndnrd for buIIdIng
dIsfrIbufod, objocf-orIonfod svsfoms.
A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.?0
CI-!IC Is dosIgnod fo run on fop of !I.

If Is sImIInr fo Sun!IC In fhnf If dofInos n fwo-IovoI nddrossIng schomo:
!I domuIfIpIoxos fo fho corrocf sorvor,
CI!IC dIspnfchos fo n pnrfIcuInr procoduro oxporfod bv fhnf sorvor, nnd
cIIonfs consuIf nn ondpoInf mnppIng sorvIco fo Ionrn how fo ronch n pnrfIcuInr
sorvor.

!nIIko Sun!IC, howovor, CI-!IC ImpIomonfs nf-mosf-onco cnII somnnfIcs.
If doos fhIs In n sIngIo profocoI fhnf ossonfInIIv combInos fho nIgorIfhms In
I!AST nnd CHA. Wo focus our dIscussIon on fhIs nspocf of CI-!IC.

TyIuI C-RPC messuue eLunue

Tho cIIonf sonds n !oquosf mossngo, fho sorvor ovonfunIIv ropIIos wIfh n
!osponso mossngo, nnd fho cIIonf ncknowIodgos (Ack) fho rosponso.
Insfond of fho sorvor ncknowIodgIng fho roquosf mossngos, howovor, fho cIIonf
porIodIcnIIv sonds n IIng mossngo fo fho sorvor, whIch rosponds wIfh n WorkIng
mossngo fo IndIcnfo fhnf fho romofo procoduro Is sfIII In progross.
Ior exonple, fho cIIonf cnn sond n QuIf mossngo fo fho sorvor, nskIng If fo nborf
nn onrIIor cnII fhnf Is sfIII In progross; fho sorvor rosponds wIfh n Qunck (quIf
ncknowIodgmonf) mossngo.
AIso, fho sorvor cnn rospond fo n !oquosf mossngo wIfh n !ojocf mossngo
(IndIcnfIng fhnf n cnII hns boon rojocfod), nnd If cnn rospond fo n IIng mossngo
wIfh n ocnII mossngo (IndIcnfIng fhnf fho sorvor hns novor honrd of fho cnIIor).
In nddIfIon fo fho mossngo fvpo, roquosf nnd ropIv mossngos IncIudo four kov
fIoIds fhnf nro usod fo ImpIomonf bofh fho frngmonfnfIon/ronssombIv nspocfs of
I!AST nnd fho mossngo frnnsncfIon nspocfs of CHA.

Thoso IncIudo SorvorIoof, AcfIvIfvId, Soquoncoum, nnd Irngmonfum.

Tho SerterBoot fIoId sorvos fho snmo purposo ns CHA`s II (boof Id) fIoId:
Tho sorvor rocords Ifs boof fImo In n gIobnI vnrInbIo onch fImo If sfnrfs up, nnd If
IncIudos fhIs vnrInbIo In onch cnII If sorvIcos.
Tho Actititx1J fIoId Is sImIInr fo CHA`s CI (chnnnoI Id) fIoId: If IdonfIfIos n
IogIcnI connocfIon bofwoon fho cIIonf nnd sorvor on whIch n soquonco of cnIIs cnn
bo mndo.
Tho Sequenceum fIoId fhon dIsfInguIshos bofwoon cnIIs mndo ns pnrf of fho
snmo ncfIvIfv; If sorvos fho snmo purposo ns CHA`s MI (mossngo Id) nnd
Sun!IC`s xId (frnnsncfIon Id) fIoIds.

!Iko CHA (nnd unIIko Sun!IC), CI-!IC koops frnck of fho Insf soquonco
numbor usod ns pnrf of n pnrfIcuInr ncfIvIfv, so ns fo onsuro nf-mosf-onco
somnnfIcs.
Iocnuso bofh roquosf nnd rosponso mossngos mnv bo Inrgor fhnn fho undorIvIng
nofwork pnckof sIzo, fhov mnv bo frngmonfod Info muIfIpIo pnckofs.
Tho Irngmonfum fIoId unIquoIv IdonfIfIos onch frngmonf fhnf mnkos up n
gIvon roquosf or ropIv mossngo.
!nIIko I!AST, whIch usos n bIf-vocfor fo IdonfIfv frngmonfs, onch CI-!IC
frngmonf Is nssIgnod n unIquo frngmonf numbor (o.g., 0, l, 2, 3, nnd so on).
Iofh fho cIIonf nnd sorvor ImpIomonf n soIocfIvo ncknowIodgmonf mochnnIsm,

whIch works ns foIIows.

IIvst, onch frngmonf fhnf mnkos up fho roquosf mossngo confnIns bofh n unIquo
Irngmonfum nnd n fIng IndIcnfIng whofhor fhIs pnckof Is n frngmonf of n cnII
(frng) or fho Insf frngmonf of n cnII (Insf frng); roquosf mossngos fhnf fIf In n
sIngIo pnckof cnrrv n no frng fIng.

Tho sorvor knows If hns rocoIvod fho compIofo roquosf mossngo whon If hns fho
Insf frng pnckof nnd fhoro nro no gnps In fho frngmonf numbors.

Seond, In rosponso fo onch nrrIvIng frngmonf, fho sorvor sonds n Inck
(frngmonf ncknowIodgmonf) mossngo fo fho cIIonf.
ThIs ncknowIodgmonf IdonfIfIos fho hIghosf frngmonf numbor fhnf fho sorvor
hns succossfuIIv rocoIvod.

In nddIfIon, howovor, fho sorvor soIocfIvoIvncknowIodgos nnv hIghor frngmonf
numbors If hns rocoIvod ouf of ordor.
If doos so wIfh n bIf-vocfor fhnf IdonfIfIos fhoso ouf-of-ordor frngmonfs roInfIvo fo
fho hIghosf In-ordor frngmonf If hns rocoIvod.

IInuIIy, fho cIIonf rosponds bv rofrnnsmIffIng fho mIssIng frngmonfs.
Supposo fho sorvor hns succossfuIIv rocoIvod frngmonfs up fhrough numbor 20,
pIus frngmonfs 23, 25, nnd 26.

Tho sorvor rosponds wIfh n Inck fhnf IdonfIfIos frngmonf 20 ns fho hIghosf In-
ordor frngmonf,pIus n bIf-vocfor (SoIAck) wIfh fho fhIrd (23 = 20 + 3), fIffh (25 =
20 + 5), nnd sIxfh (26 = 20 + 6) bIfs furnod on.
So ns fo supporf nn (nImosf) nrbIfrnrIIv Iong bIf-vocfor, fho sIzo of fho vocfor
(monsurod In 32-bIf words) Is gIvon In fho SoIAck!on fIoId.

CIvon CI-!IC`s supporf for vorv Inrgo mossngosfho Irngmonfum fIoId Is

l6 bIfs Iong, monnIng If cnn supporf 64K frngmonfsIf Is nof npproprInfo for fho
profocoI fo bInsf nII fho frngmonfs fhnf mnko up n mossngo ns fnsf ns If cnn, ns
I!AST doos, sInco doIng so mIghf ovorrun fho rocoIvor. Insfond, CI-!IC
ImpIomonfs n fIow-confroI nIgorIfhm fhnf Is vorv sImIInr fo TCI`s.

SpocIfIcnIIv, onch Inck mossngo nof onIv ncknowIodgos rocoIvod frngmonfs, buf
nIso Informs fho sondor of how mnnv frngmonfs If mnv now sond. ThIs Is fho
purposo of fho WIndowSIzo fIoId In IIguro, whIch sorvos oxncfIv fho snmo
purposo ns TCI`s AdvorfIsod- WIndow fIoId oxcopf If counfs frngmonfs rnfhor
fhnn bvfos.
CI-!IC nIso ImpIomonfs n congosfIon-confroI mochnnIsm fhnf Is sImIInr fo
TCI`s.
3.4 PRIORMANC

Meusuved system: Two PentIum wovkstutIons vunnInu IInu onneted by u
100-Mbs tLevnet

A pnIr of ?33-MHz IonfIum worksfnfIons connocfod bv nn IsoInfod l00-Mbps
Ifhornof.
Tho Ifhornof spnnnod n sIngIo mnchIno room so propngnfIon Is nof nn Issuo,
mnkIng fhIs n monsuro of procossor/soffwnro ovorhonds.
Inch worksfnfIon wns runnIng fho !Inux opornfIng svsfom (2.4 kornoI). A fosf
progrnm runnIng on fop of fho sockof Inforfnco pIng-pongs (rofIocfs) mossngos
bofwoon fho fwo mnchInos.

Inch oxporImonf InvoIvod runnIng fhroo IdonfIcnI Insfnncos of fho snmo fosf.
Inch fosf, In furn, InvoIvod sondIng n mossngo of somo spocIfIod sIzo bnck nnd
forfh bofwoon fho fwo mnchInos l0,000 fImos.

Tho svsfom`s cIock wns rond nf fho bogInnIng nnd ond of onch fosf, nnd fho
dIfforonco bofwoon fhoso fwo fImos wns dIvIdod bv l0,000 fo doformIno fho fImo
fnkon for onch round-frIp.
Tho nvorngo of fhoso fhroo fImos (fho fhroo runs of fho fosf) Is roporfod for onch
oxporImonf boIow.

Inch oxporImonf InvoIvod n dIfforonf-sIzod mossngo. Tho Infoncv numbors woro

for mossngo sIzos of l bvfo, l00 bvfos, 200 bvfos, . . . , l000 bvfos.
Tho fhroughpuf rosuIfs woro for mossngo sIzos of l KI, 2 KI, 4 KI, 8 KI, . . . ,
32 KI.

TLe vesuIts oI tLe Iuteny test

Meusuved vound-tvI IutenIes (s) Iov vuvIous messuue sIzes und votooIs

As vou wouId oxpocf, Infoncv Incronsos wIfh mossngo sIzo. AIfhough fhoro nro
somofImos spocInI cnsos whoro vou mIghf bo Inforosfod In fho Infoncv of, snv, n
200-bvfo mossngo, fvpIcnIIv fho mosf Imporfnnf Infoncv numbor Is fho l-bvfo
cnso.
ThIs Is bocnuso fho l-bvfo cnso roprosonfs fho ovorhond InvoIvod In procossIng
onch mossngo fhnf doos nof dopond on fho nmounf of dnfn confnInod In fho
mossngo.
If Is fvpIcnIIv fho Iowor bound on Infoncv, roprosonfIng fncfors IIko fho spood-of-
IIghf doInv nnd fho fImo fnkon fo procoss hondors.
ofo fhnf fhoro Is n smnII dIfforonco bofwoon fho Infoncv oxporIoncod bv fho fwo
dIfforonf profocoI sfncks, wIfh !I round-frIp fImos n bIf Ioss fhnn for TCI.
ThIs Is fo bo oxpocfod sInco TCI provIdos moro funcfIonnIIfv.

ResuIt usInu GvuL

Meusuved tLvouuLut usInu UP, Iov vuvIous messuue sIzes

Tho kov fhIng fo nofIco In fhIs grnph Is fhnf fhroughpuf Improvos ns fho
mossngos gof Inrgor.
ThIs mnkos sonsoonch mossngo InvoIvos n corfnIn nmounf of ovorhond, so n
Inrgor mossngo monns fhnf fhIs ovorhond Is nmorfIzod ovor moro bvfos.
Tho fhroughpuf curvo fInffons off nbovo l6 KI, nf whIch poInf fho por-mossngo
ovorhond bocomos InsIgnIfIcnnf whon compnrod fo fho Inrgo numbor of bvfos fhnf
fho profocoI sfnck hns fo procoss.
A socond fhIng fo nofIco Is fhnf fho fhroughpuf curvo fops ouf boforo ronchIng
l00 Mbps.
AIfhough If cnn`f bo doducod from fhoso monsuromonfs, If furns ouf fhnf fho
fncfor provonfIng our svsfom from runnIng nf fho fuII Ifhornof spood Is n
IImIfnfIon of fho nofwork ndnpfor rnfhor fhnn fho soffwnro.
A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.??
3.5 CONGSTION CONTROI AN RSOURC AIIOCATION

Tho rosourcos boIng shnrod IncIudo fho bnndwIdfh of fho IInks nnd fho buffors on
fho roufors or swIfchos whoro pnckofs nro quouod nwnIfIng frnnsmIssIon. Inckofs
conIenJ nf n roufor for fho uso of n IInk, wIfh onch confondIng pnckof pIncod In n quouo
wnIfIng Ifs furn fo bo frnnsmIffod ovor fho IInk.

Whon foo mnnv pnckofs nro confondIng for fho snmo IInk, fho quouo ovorfIows
nnd pnckofs hnvo fo bo droppod. Whon such drops bocomo common ovonfs, fho nofwork
Is snId fo bo congeeIeJ. Mosf nofworks provIdo n congeeIion-conIrol mochnnIsm fo donI
wIfh jusf such n sIfunfIon.

CongosfIon confroI nnd rosourco nIIocnfIon nro fwo sIdos of fho snmo coIn.
CongosfIon confroI nnd rosourco nIIocnfIon InvoIvo bofh hosfs nnd nofwork oIomonfs
such ns roufors. In nofwork oIomonfs, vnrIous quouIng dIscIpIInos cnn bo usod fo confroI
fho ordor In whIch pnckofs gof frnnsmIffod nnd whIch pnckofs gof droppod.

Tho quouIng dIscIpIIno cnn nIso sogrognfo frnffIc, fhnf Is, fo koop ono usor`s
pnckofs from unduIv nffocfIng nnofhor usor`s pnckofs. Af fho ond hosfs, fho congosfIon-
confroI mochnnIsm pncos how fnsf sourcos nro nIIowod fo sond pnckofs. ThIs Is dono In
nn offorf fo koop congosfIon from occurrIng In fho fIrsf pInco, nnd shouId If occur, fo
hoIp oIImInnfo fho congosfIon.

C.1 ISSUS IN RSOURC AIIOCATION
!osourco nIIocnfIon nnd congosfIon confroI nro compIox Issuos nnd hnvo boon fho
subjocf of much sfudv ovor sInco fho fIrsf nofwork wns dosIgnod. Thov nro sfIII ncfIvo
nrons of rosonrch. Ono fncfor fhnf mnkos fhoso Issuos compIox Is fhnf fhov nro nof
IsoInfod fo ono sIngIo IovoI of n profocoI hIornrchv.
!osourco nIIocnfIon Is pnrfInIIv ImpIomonfod In fho roufors or swIfchos InsIdo fho
nofwork nnd pnrfInIIv In fho frnnsporf profocoI runnIng on fho ond hosfs. Ind svsfoms
uso sIgnnIIIng profocoIs fo convov fhoIr rosourco roquIromonfs fo nofwork nodos, whIch
rospond wIfh InformnfIon nbouf rosourco nvnIInbIIIfv.
A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.?B
Ono of fho mnIn gonIs of fhIs chnpfor Is fo dofIno n frnmowork In whIch fhoso
mochnnIsms cnn bo undorsfood, ns woII ns fo gIvo fho roIovnnf dofnIIs nbouf n
roprosonfnfIvo snmpIo of mochnnIsms.

Iv rosourco nIIocnfIon, wo monn fho procoss bv whIch nofwork oIomonfs frv fo
moof fho compofIng domnnds fhnf nppIIcnfIons hnvo for nofwork rosourcosprImnrIIv
IInk bnndwIdfh nnd buffor spnco In roufors or swIfchos. Of courso, If wIII offon nof bo
possIbIo fo moof nII fho domnnds, monnIng fhnf somo usors or nppIIcnfIons mnv rocoIvo
fowor nofwork rosourcos fhnn fhov wnnf. Inrf of fho rosourco nIIocnfIon probIom Is
docIdIng whon fo snv no, nnd fo whom.

Wo uso fho form congosfIon confroI fo doscrIbo fho offorfs mndo bv nofwork
nodos fo provonf or rospond fo ovorIond condIfIons. SInco congosfIon Is gonornIIv bnd for
ovorvono, fho fIrsf ordor of busInoss Is mnkIng congosfIon subsIdo, or provonfIng If In
fho fIrsf pInco. ThIs mIghf bo nchIovod sImpIv bv porsundIng n fow hosfs fo sfop
sondIng, fhus ImprovIng fho sIfunfIon for ovorvono oIso.

C.1.1 NTWORK MOI
Puket-SwItLed Netwovk
Wo consIdor rosourco nIIocnfIon In n pnckof-swIfchod nofwork (or Infornof)
consIsfIng of muIfIpIo IInks nnd swIfchos (or roufors). SInco mosf of fho mochnnIsms
doscrIbod In fhIs chnpfor woro dosIgnod for uso on fho Infornof, nnd fhoroforo woro
orIgInnIIv dofInod In forms of roufors rnfhor fhnn swIfchos, wo uso fho form roufor
fhroughouf our dIscussIon. Tho probIom Is ossonfInIIv fho snmo, whofhor on n nofwork
or nn Infornofwork.

In such nn onvIronmonf, n gIvon sourco mnv hnvo moro fhnn onough cnpncIfv on
fho ImmodInfo oufgoIng IInk fo sond n pnckof, buf somowhoro In fho mIddIo of n
nofwork, Ifs pnckofs oncounfor n IInk fhnf Is boIng usod bv mnnv dIfforonf frnffIc
sourcos. IIguro IIIusfrnfos fhIs sIfunfIonfwo hIgh-spood IInks nro foodIng n Iowspood
IInk.

ThIs Is In confrnsf fo shnrod-nccoss nofworks IIko Ifhornof nnd fokon rIngs,
whoro fho sourco cnn dIrocfIv obsorvo fho frnffIc on fho nofwork nnd docIdo nccordIngIv
whofhor or nof fo sond n pnckof.

ofo fhnf congosfIon confroI Is nof fho snmo ns roufIng. WhIIo If Is fruo fhnf n
congosfod IInk couId bo nssIgnod n Inrgo odgo woIghf bv fho roufo propngnfIon profocoI,
nnd ns n consoquonco, roufors wouId roufo nround If, roufIng nround n congosfod IInk
doos nof soIvo fho congosfIon probIom.

AIfhough fhIs Is nn oxfromo oxnmpIo, If Is common fo hnvo n corfnIn roufor fhnf
If Is nof possIbIo fo roufo nround. ThIs roufor cnn bocomo congosfod, nnd fhoro Is
nofhIng fho roufIng mochnnIsm cnn do nbouf If. ThIs congosfod roufor Is somofImos
cnIIod fho IoIIlenecl roufor.

ConnetIonIess IIows
Wo nssumo fhnf fho nofwork Is ossonfInIIv connocfIonIoss, wIfh nnv connocfIon-
orIonfod sorvIco ImpIomonfod In fho frnnsporf profocoI fhnf Is runnIng on fho ond hosfs.
ThIs Is procIsoIv fho modoI of fho Infornof, whoro II provIdos n connocfIonIoss
dnfngrnm doIIvorv sorvIco nnd TCI ImpIomonfs nn ond-fo-ond connocfIon nbsfrncfIon.

ofo fhnf fhIs nssumpfIon oxcIudos onrIv nofworks IIko X.25, In whIch n vIrfunI
cIrcuIf nbsfrncfIon Is mnInfnInod ncross n sof of roufors.

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.B0

In such nofworks, n connocfIon sofup mossngo frnvorsos fho nofwork whon n
cIrcuIf Is osfnbIIshod. ThIs sofup mossngo rosorvos n sof of buffors for fho connocfIon nf
onch roufor, fhorobv provIdIng n form of congosfIon confroIn connocfIon Is osfnbIIshod
onIv If onough buffors cnn bo nIIocnfod fo If nf onch roufor.

Tho mnjor shorfcomIng of fhIs nppronch Is fhnf If Ionds fo nn undorufIIIznfIon of
rosourcosbuffors rosorvod for n pnrfIcuInr cIrcuIf nro nof nvnIInbIo for uso bv ofhor
frnffIc ovon If fhov woro nof curronfIv boIng usod bv fhnf cIrcuIf.

Tho focus of fhIs chnpfor Is on rosourco nIIocnfIon nppronchos fhnf nppIv In nn
Infornofwork, nnd fhus wo focus mnInIv on connocfIonIoss nofworks. Tho ono oxcopfIon
fo fhIs Is our dIscussIon of ATM qunIIfv of sorvIco, whIch provIdos nn InforosfIng
confrnsf fo fho Infornof modoI.

Wo nood fo qunIIfv fho form connocfIonIoss bocnuso our cInssIfIcnfIon of
nofworks ns boIng oIfhor connocfIonIoss or connocfIon orIonfod Is n bIf foo rosfrIcfIvo;
fhoro Is n grnv nron In bofwoon. In pnrfIcuInr, fho ImpIIcnfIon of n connocfIonIoss
nofwork In whIch nII dnfngrnms nro compIofoIv Indopondonf Is foo sfrong.

Tho dnfngrnms nro corfnInIv swIfchod IndopondonfIv, buf If Is usunIIv fho cnso
fhnf n sfronm of dnfngrnms bofwoon n pnrfIcuInr pnIr of hosfs fIows fhrough n
pnrfIcuInr sof of roufors. ThIs Idon of n floun soquonco of pnckofs sonf bofwoon n
sourco/dosfInnfIon pnIr nnd foIIowIng fho snmo roufo fhrough fho nofworkIs nn
Imporfnnf nbsfrncfIon In fho confoxf of rosourco nIIocnfIon.

Ono of fho powors of fho fIow nbsfrncfIon Is fhnf fIows cnn bo dofInod nf dIfforonf
grnnuInrIfIos. Ior oxnmpIo, n fIow cnn bo hosf-fo-hosf (I.o., hnvo fho snmo
sourco/dosfInnfIon hosf nddrossos) or procoss-fo-procoss (I.o., hnvo fho snmo sourco/
dosfInnfIon hosf/porf pnIrs).


In fho Inffor cnso, n fIow Is ossonfInIIv fho snmo ns n chnnnoI, ns wo hnvo boon
usIng fhnf form fhroughouf fhIs book. Tho ronson wo Infroduco n now form Is fhnf n
fIow Is vIsIbIo fo fho roufors InsIdo fho nofwork, whorons n chnnnoI Is nn ond-fo-ond
nbsfrncfIon. IIguro IIIusfrnfos sovornI fIows pnssIng fhrough n sorIos of roufors.

MuItIIe IIows ussInu tLvouuL u set oI voutevs

Iocnuso muIfIpIo roInfod pnckofs fIow fhrough onch roufor, If somofImos mnkos
sonso fo mnInfnIn somo sfnfo InformnfIon for onch fIow, InformnfIon fhnf cnn bo usod fo
mnko rosourco nIIocnfIon docIsIons nbouf fho pnckofs fhnf boIong fo fho fIow. ThIs sfnfo
Is somofImos cnIIod eofI eIoIe, fho mnIn dIfforonco bofwoon soff sfnfo nnd hnrd sfnfo Is
fhnf soff sfnfo nood nof nIwnvs bo oxpIIcIfIv cronfod nnd romovod bv sIgnnIIIng.

Soff sfnfo roprosonfs n mIddIo ground bofwoon n puroIv connocfIonIoss nofwork
fhnf mnInfnIns no sfnfo nf fho roufors nnd n puroIv connocfIon-orIonfod nofwork fhnf
mnInfnIns hnrd sfnfo nf fho roufors.


In gonornI, fho corrocf opornfIon of fho nofwork doos nof dopond on soff sfnfo
boIng prosonf (onch pnckof Is sfIII roufod corrocfIv wIfhouf rognrd fo fhIs sfnfo), buf
whon n pnckof hnppons fo boIong fo n fIow for whIch fho roufor Is curronfIv mnInfnInIng
soff sfnfo, fhon fho roufor Is boffor nbIo fo hnndIo fho pnckof.

ofo fhnf n fIow cnn bo oIfhor ImpIIcIfIv dofInod or oxpIIcIfIv osfnbIIshod. In fho
formor cnso, onch roufor wnfchos for pnckofs fhnf hnppon fo bo frnvoIIng bofwoon fho
snmo sourco/dosfInnfIon pnIrfho roufor doos fhIs bv InspocfIng fho nddrossos In fho
hondornnd fronfs fhoso pnckofs ns boIongIng fo fho snmo fIow for fho purposo of
congosfIon confroI.

In fho Inffor cnso, fho sourco sonds n fIow sofup mossngo ncross fho nofwork,
docInrIng fhnf n fIow of pnckofs Is nbouf fo sfnrf. WhIIo oxpIIcIf fIows nro nrgunbIv no
dIfforonf fhnn n connocfIon ncross n connocfIon-orIonfod nofwork, wo cnII nffonfIon fo
fhIs cnso bocnuso ovon whon oxpIIcIfIv osfnbIIshod, n fIow doos nof ImpIv nnv ond-fo-ond
somnnfIcs, nnd In pnrfIcuInr, If doos nof ImpIv fho roIInbIo nnd ordorod doIIvorv of n
vIrfunI cIrcuIf. If sImpIv oxIsfs for fho purposo of rosourco nIIocnfIon.

SevvIe ModeI
Wo wIII focus on mochnnIsms fhnf nssumo fho bosf offorf sorvIco modoI of fho
Infornof. WIfh bosf-offorf sorvIco, onch pnckof Is fronfod In oxncfIv fho snmo wnv, wIfh
ond hosfs gIvon no opporfunIfv fo nsk fho nofwork fhnf ono of fhoIr fIows bo gIvon
corfnIn gunrnnfoos.

ofInIng n sorvIco modoI fhnf supporfs somo kInd of gunrnnfoofor oxnmpIo,
gunrnnfooIng fho bnndwIdfh noodod for n vIdoo sfronm. Such n sorvIco modoI Is snId fo
provIdo muIfIpIo ouoliIiee of eertice (QoS).

Thoro Is ncfunIIv n spocfrum of possIbIIIfIos, rnngIng from n puroIv bosf-offorf
sorvIco modoI fo ono In whIch IndIvIdunI fIows rocoIvo qunnfIfnfIvo gunrnnfoos of QoS.
Ono of fho gronfosf chnIIongos Is fo dofIno n sorvIco modoI fhnf moofs fho noods
of n wIdo rnngo of nppIIcnfIons nnd ovon nIIows for fho nppIIcnfIons fhnf wIII bo
Invonfod In fho fufuro.

C.1.2 TAXONOMY
Thoro nro counfIoss wnvs In whIch rosourco nIIocnfIon mochnnIsms dIffor,
mnkIng n fhorough fnxonomv n dIffIcuIf proposIfIon.

Routev-CentvI vevsus Host-CentvI
!osourco nIIocnfIon mochnnIsms cnn bo cInssIfIod Info fwo brond groups: fhoso
fhnf nddross fho probIom from InsIdo fho nofwork (I.o., nf fho roufors or swIfchos) nnd
fhoso fhnf nddross If from fho odgos of fho nofwork (I.o., In fho hosfs, porhnps InsIdo fho
frnnsporf profocoI).

SInco If Is fho cnso fhnf bofh fho roufors InsIdo fho nofwork nnd fho hosfs nf fho
odgos of fho nofwork pnrfIcIpnfo In rosourco nIIocnfIon, fho ronI Issuo Is whoro fho
mnjorIfv of fho burdon fnIIs.

In n roufor-confrIc dosIgn, onch roufor fnkos rosponsIbIIIfv for docIdIng whon
pnckofs nro forwnrdod nnd soIocfIng whIch pnckofs nro droppod, ns woII ns for
InformIng fho hosfs fhnf nro gonornfIng fho nofwork frnffIc how mnnv pnckofs fhov nro
nIIowod fo sond.
In n hosf-confrIc dosIgn, fho ond hosfs obsorvo fho nofwork condIfIons (o.g., how
mnnv pnckofs fhov nro succossfuIIv goffIng fhrough fho nofwork) nnd ndjusf fhoIr
bohnvIor nccordIngIv.

ResevvutIon Bused vevsus Ieedbuk Bused
A socond wnv fhnf rosourco nIIocnfIon mochnnIsms nro somofImos cInssIfIod Is
nccordIng fo whofhor fhov uso reeertoIione or feeJIocl. In n rosorvnfIon-bnsod svsfom,
fho ond hosf nsks fho nofwork for n corfnIn nmounf of cnpncIfv nf fho fImo n fIow Is
osfnbIIshod.
Inch roufor fhon nIIocnfos onough rosourcos (buffors nnd/or porconfngo of fho
IInk`s bnndwIdfh) fo snfIsfv fhIs roquosf. If fho roquosf cnnnof bo snfIsfIod nf somo
roufor, bocnuso doIng so wouId ovorcommIf Ifs rosourcos, fhon fho roufor rojocfs fho
fIow.
In n foodbnck-bnsod nppronch, fho ond hosfs bogIn sondIng dnfn wIfhouf fIrsf
rosorvIng nnv cnpncIfv nnd fhon ndjusf fhoIr sondIng rnfo nccordIng fo fho foodbnck
fhov rocoIvo. ThIs foodbnck cnn bo oIfhor expliciI (I.o., n congosfod roufor sonds n
pIonso sIow down mossngo fo fho hosf) or inpliciI (I.o., fho ond hosf ndjusfs Ifs
sondIng rnfo nccordIng fo fho oxfornnIIv obsorvnbIo bohnvIor of fho nofwork, such ns
pnckof Iossos).

WIndow Bused vevsus Rute Bused
A fhIrd wnv fo chnrncforIzo rosourco nIIocnfIon mochnnIsms Is nccordIng fo
whofhor fhov nro uinJou IoeeJ or roIe IoeeJ. ThIs Is ono of fho nrons, nofod nbovo,
whoro sImIInr mochnnIsms nnd formInoIogv nro usod for bofh fIow confroI nnd
congosfIon confroI.

Iofh fIow-confroI nnd rosourco nIIocnfIon mochnnIsms nood n wnv fo oxpross, fo
fho sondor, how much dnfn If Is nIIowod fo frnnsmIf. Thoro nro fwo gonornI wnvs of
doIng fhIs: wIfh n uinJou or wIfh n roIe.

C.1.3 VAIUATION CRITRIA
Tho fInnI Issuo Is ono of knowIng whofhor n rosourco nIIocnfIon mochnnIsm Is
good or nof.

IIetIve Resouve AIIoutIon
A good sfnrfIng poInf for ovnIunfIng fho offocfIvonoss of n rosourco nIIocnfIon
schomo Is fo consIdor fho fwo prIncIpnI mofrIcs of nofworkIng: fhroughpuf nnd doInv.
CIonrIv, wo wnnf ns much fhroughpuf nnd ns IIffIo doInv ns possIbIo. AIfhough on fho
surfnco If mIghf npponr ns fhough IncronsIng fhroughpuf nIso monns roducIng doInv,
fhIs Is nof fho cnso.
Ono suro wnv for n rosourco nIIocnfIon nIgorIfhm fo Incronso fhroughpuf Is fo

nIIow ns mnnv pnckofs Info fho nofwork ns possIbIo, so ns fo drIvo fho ufIIIznfIon of nII
fho IInks up fo l00.Wo wouId do fhIs fo nvoId fho possIbIIIfv of n IInk bocomIng IdIo
bocnuso nn IdIo IInk nocossnrIIv hurfs fhroughpuf.

Tho probIom wIfh fhIs sfrnfogv Is fhnf IncronsIng fho numbor of pnckofs In fho
nofwork nIso Incronsos fho Iongfh of fho quouos nf onch roufor. !ongor quouos, In furn,
monn pnckofs nro doInvod Iongor In fho nofwork.

To doscrIbo fhIs roInfIonshIp, somo nofwork dosIgnors hnvo proposod usIng fho
rnfIo of fhroughpuf fo doInv ns n mofrIc for ovnIunfIng fho offocfIvonoss of n rosourco
nIIocnfIon schomo. ThIs rnfIo Is somofImos roforrod fo ns fho pouer of fho nofwork:
Powev = TLvouuLut/eIuy

Tho objocfIvo Is fo mnxImIzo fhIs rnfIo, whIch Is n funcfIon of how much Iond vou
pInco on fho nofwork. Tho Iond, In furn, Is sof bv fho rosourco nIIocnfIon mochnnIsm.
IIguro gIvos n roprosonfnfIvo powor curvo, whoro, IdonIIv, fho rosourco nIIocnfIon
mochnnIsm wouId opornfo nf fho ponk of fhIs curvo.

To fho Ioff of fho ponk, fho mochnnIsm Is boIng foo consorvnfIvo; fhnf Is, If Is nof
nIIowIng onough pnckofs fo bo sonf fo koop fho IInks busv. To fho rIghf of fho ponk, so
mnnv pnckofs nro boIng nIIowod Info fho nofwork fhnf Incronsos In doInv duo fo quouIng
nro sfnrfIng fo domInnfo nnv smnII gnIns In fhroughpuf.
InforosfIngIv, fhIs powor curvo Iooks vorv much IIko fho svsfom fhroughpuf
curvo In n muIfIprogrnmmod compufor svsfom. Svsfom fhroughpuf Improvos ns moro
jobs nro ndmIffod Info fho svsfom, unfII If ronchos n poInf whon fhoro nro so mnnv jobs
runnIng fhnf fho svsfom bogIns fo fhrnsh (sponds nII of Ifs fImo swnppIng momorv
pngos) nnd fho fhroughpuf bogIns fo drop.

IuIv Resouve AIIoutIon
Tho offocfIvo ufIIIznfIon of nofwork rosourcos Is nof fho onIv crIforIon for judgIng
n rosourco nIIocnfIon schomo. Wo musf nIso consIdor fho Issuo of fnIrnoss. Howovor, wo
quIckIv gof Info murkv wnfors whon wo frv fo dofIno whnf oxncfIv consfIfufos fnIr
rosourco nIIocnfIon.
In fho nbsonco of oxpIIcIf InformnfIon fo fho confrnrv, whon sovornI fIows shnro n
pnrfIcuInr IInk, wo wouId IIko for onch fIow fo rocoIvo nn oqunI shnro of fho bnndwIdfh.
ThIs dofInIfIon prosumos fhnf n foir shnro of bnndwIdfh monns nn eouol shnro of
bnndwIdfh.

Iuf ovon In fho nbsonco of rosorvnfIons, oqunI shnros mnv nof oqunfo fo fnIr
shnros. ShouId wo nIso consIdor fho Iongfh of fho pnfhs boIng compnrod` Ior oxnmpIo,
ns IIIusfrnfod In IIguro, whnf Is fnIr whon ono four-hop fIow Is compofIng wIfh fhroo
ono-hop fIows`

One Iouv-Lo IIow ometInu wItL tLvee one-Lo IIows
AssumIng fhnf fnIr ImpIIos oqunI nnd fhnf nII pnfhs nro of oqunI Iongfh, !nj JnIn
hns proposod n mofrIc fhnf cnn bo usod fo qunnfIfv fho fnIrnoss of n congosfIon confroI
mochnnIsm. JnIn`s fnIrnoss Indox Is dofInod ns foIIows.
A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.B?
CIvon n sof of fIow fhroughpufs (xl, x2, . . . , xn) (monsurod In consIsfonf unIfs
such ns bIfs/socond), fho foIIowIng funcfIon nssIgns n fnIrnoss Indox fo fho fIows:

Tho fnIrnoss Indox nIwnvs rosuIfs In n numbor bofwoon 0 nnd l, wIfh l
roprosonfIng gronfosf fnIrnoss. To undorsfnnd fho InfuIfIon bohInd fhIs mofrIc, consIdor
fho cnso whoro nII n fIows rocoIvo n fhroughpuf of l unIf of dnfn por socond. Wo cnn soo
fhnf fho fnIrnoss Indox In fhIs cnso Is

ow supposo ono fIow rocoIvos n fhroughpuf of ow fho fnIrnoss Indox Is

ofo fhnf fho donomInnfor oxcoods fho numornfor bv (n l) . Thus whofhor
fho odd fIow ouf wns goffIng moro or Ioss fhnn nII fho ofhor fIows (posIfIvo or
nognfIvo ), fho fnIrnoss Indox hns now droppod boIow ono. Anofhor sImpIo cnso fo
consIdor Is whoro onIv l of fho n fIows rocoIvo oqunI fhroughpuf, nnd fho romnInIng n
l usors rocoIvo zoro fhroughpuf, In whIch cnso fho fnIrnoss Indox drops fo l/n.

C.2 OUUING ISCIPIINS
Tho quouIng nIgorIfhm cnn bo fhoughf of ns nIIocnfIng bofh bnndwIdfh (whIch
pnckofs gof frnnsmIffod) nnd buffor spnco (whIch pnckofs gof dIscnrdod). If nIso dIrocfIv
nffocfs fho Infoncv oxporIoncod bv n pnckof, bv doformInIng how Iong n pnckof wnIfs fo
bo frnnsmIffod.
ThIs socfIon Infroducos fwo common quouIng nIgorIfhmsfIrsf-In-fIrsf-ouf
(IIIO) nnd fnIr quouIng (IQ)nnd IdonfIfIos sovornI vnrInfIons fhnf hnvo boon
proposod.
A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.BB
C.2.1 IIIO
Tho Idon of IIIO quouIng, nIso cnIIod fIrsf-como-fIrsf-sorvod (ICIS) quouIng, Is
sImpIo: Tho fIrsf pnckof fhnf nrrIvos nf n roufor Is fho fIrsf pnckof fo bo frnnsmIffod.
ThIs Is IIIusfrnfod In IIguro (n), whIch shows n IIIO wIfh sIofs fo hoId up fo oIghf
pnckofs.
CIvon fhnf fho nmounf of buffor spnco nf onch roufor Is fInIfo, If n pnckof nrrIvos
nnd fho quouo (buffor spnco) Is fuII, fhon fho roufor dIscnrds fhnf pnckof, ns shown In
IIguro (b). ThIs Is dono wIfhouf rognrd fo whIch fIow fho pnckof boIongs fo or how
Imporfnnf fho pnckof Is. ThIs Is somofImos cnIIod Ioil Jrop, sInco pnckofs fhnf nrrIvo nf
fho fnII ond of fho IIIO nro droppod.

(u) IIIO queuInu: (b) tuII dvo ut u IIIO queue

IIIO Is n ecIeJuling JieciplineIf doformInos fho ordor In whIch pnckofs nro
frnnsmIffod. TnII drop Is n Jrop policxIf doformInos whIch pnckofs gof droppod.
Iocnuso IIIO nnd fnII drop nro fho sImpIosf Insfnncos of schoduIIng dIscIpIIno
nnd drop poIIcv, rospocfIvoIv, fhov nro somofImos vIowod ns n bundIofho vnnIIIn
quouIng ImpIomonfnfIon. !nforfunnfoIv, fho bundIo Is offon roforrod fo sImpIv ns
IIIO quouIng, whon If shouId moro procIsoIv bo cnIIod IIIO wIfh fnII drop.
IIIO wIfh fnII drop, ns fho sImpIosf of nII quouIng nIgorIfhms, Is fho mosf wIdoIv
usod In Infornof roufors nf fho fImo of wrIfIng. ThIs sImpIo nppronch fo quouIng pushos
nII rosponsIbIIIfv for congosfIon confroI nnd rosourco nIIocnfIon ouf fo fho odgos of fho
nofwork.
Thus, fho provnIonf form of congosfIon confroI In fho Infornof curronfIv nssumos
no hoIp from fho roufors: TCI fnkos rosponsIbIIIfv for dofocfIng nnd rospondIng fo
congosfIon.

A sImpIo vnrInfIon on bnsIc IIIO quouIng Is prIorIfv quouIng. Tho Idon Is fo
mnrk onch pnckof wIfh n prIorIfv; fho mnrk couId bo cnrrIod, for oxnmpIo, In fho II
Tvpo of SorvIco (TOS) fIoId.
Tho roufors fhon ImpIomonf muIfIpIo IIIO quouos, ono for onch prIorIfv cInss.
Tho roufor nIwnvs frnnsmIfs pnckofs ouf of fho hIghosf-prIorIfv quouo If fhnf quouo Is
nonompfv boforo movIng on fo fho noxf prIorIfv quouo.

WIfhIn onch prIorIfv, pnckofs nro sfIII mnnngod In n IIIO mnnnor. ThIs Idon Is n
smnII dopnrfuro from fho bosf-offorf doIIvorv modoI, buf If doos nof go so fnr ns fo mnko
gunrnnfoos fo nnv pnrfIcuInr prIorIfv cInss. If jusf nIIows hIgh-prIorIfv pnckofs fo cuf fo
fho fronf of fho IIno.

Tho probIom wIfh prIorIfv quouIng, of courso, Is fhnf fho hIgh-prIorIfv quouo cnn
sfnrvo ouf nII fho ofhor quouos. Thnf Is, ns Iong ns fhoro Is nf Ionsf ono hIgh-prIorIfv
pnckof In fho hIgh-prIorIfv quouo, Iowor-prIorIfv quouos do nof gof sorvod. Ior fhIs fo bo
vInbIo, fhoro nood fo bo hnrd IImIfs on how much hIgh-prIorIfv frnffIc Is Insorfod In fho
quouo.

Ono sIfunfIon In whIch prIorIfv quouIng Is usod In fho Infornof Is fo profocf fho
mosf Imporfnnf pnckofsfvpIcnIIv fho roufIng updnfos fhnf nro nocossnrv fo sfnbIIIzo
fho roufIng fnbIos nffor n fopoIogv chnngo. Offon fhoro Is n spocInI quouo for such
pnckofs, whIch cnn bo IdonfIfIod bv fho TOS fIoId In fho II hondor.

C.2.2 IAIR OUUING

Tho mnIn probIom wIfh IIIO quouIng Is fhnf If doos nof dIscrImInnfo bofwoon
dIfforonf frnffIc sourcos, or In fho Inngungo, If doos nof sopnrnfo pnckofs nccordIng fo
fho fIow fo whIch fhov boIong. ThIs Is n probIom nf fwo dIfforonf IovoIs.

Af ono IovoI, If Is nof cIonr fhnf nnv congosfIon-confroI nIgorIfhm ImpIomonfod
onfIroIv nf fho sourco wIII bo nbIo fo ndoqunfoIv confroI congosfIon wIfh so IIffIo hoIp
from fho roufors. Wo wIII suspond judgmonf on fhIs poInf unfII fho noxf socfIon whon
wo dIscuss TCI congosfIon confroI.

Af nnofhor IovoI, bocnuso fho onfIro congosfIon-confroI mochnnIsm Is
ImpIomonfod nf fho sourcos nnd IIIO quouIng doos nof provIdo n monns fo poIIco how
woII fho sourcos ndhoro fo fhIs mochnnIsm, If Is possIbIo for nn III-bohnvod sourco (fIow)
fo cnpfuro nn nrbIfrnrIIv Inrgo frncfIon of fho nofwork cnpncIfv.

InIr quouIng (IQ) Is nn nIgorIfhm fhnf hns boon proposod fo nddross fhIs
probIom. Tho Idon of IQ Is fo mnInfnIn n sopnrnfo quouo for onch fIow curronfIv boIng
hnndIod bv fho roufor. Tho roufor fhon sorvIcos fhoso quouos In n round-robIn mnnnor,
ns IIIusfrnfod In IIguro.

IuIv queuInu ut u voutev
Whon n fIow sonds pnckofs foo quIckIv, fhon Ifs quouo fIIIs up. Whon n quouo
ronchos n pnrfIcuInr Iongfh, nddIfIonnI pnckofs boIongIng fo fhnf fIow`s quouo nro
dIscnrdod. In fhIs wnv, n gIvon sourco cnnnof nrbIfrnrIIv Incronso Ifs shnro of fho
nofwork`s cnpncIfv nf fho oxponso of ofhor fIows.

ofo fhnf IQ doos nof InvoIvo fho roufor foIIIng fho frnffIc sourcos nnvfhIng
nbouf fho sfnfo of fho roufor or In nnv wnv IImIfIng how quIckIv n gIvon sourco sonds
pnckofs. In ofhor words, IQ Is sfIII dosIgnod fo bo usod In conjuncfIon wIfh nn ond fo-
ond congosfIon-confroI mochnnIsm.
If sImpIv sogrognfos frnffIc so fhnf III-bohnvod frnffIc sourcos do nof Inforforo
wIfh fhoso fhnf nro fnIfhfuIIv ImpIomonfIng fho ond-fo ond nIgorIfhm. IQ nIso onforcos
fnIrnoss nmong n coIIocfIon of fIows mnnngod bv n woII-bohnvod congosfIon-confroI
nIgorIfhm.

Thoro nro fwo fhIngs fo nofIco nbouf fnIr quouIng. IIrsf, fho IInk Is novor Ioff IdIo
ns Iong ns fhoro Is nf Ionsf ono pnckof In fho quouo. Anv quouIng schomo wIfh fhIs
chnrncforIsfIc Is snId fo bo uorl-coneerting.
Ono offocf of boIng work-consorvIng Is fhnf If I nm shnrIng n IInk wIfh n Iof of
fIows fhnf nro nof sondIng nnv dnfn, I cnn uso fho fuII IInk cnpncIfv for mv fIow. As soon
ns fho ofhor fIows sfnrf sondIng, howovor, fhov wIII sfnrf fo uso fhoIr shnro nnd fho
cnpncIfv nvnIInbIo fo mv fIow wIII drop.

Tho socond fhIng fo nofIco Is fhnf If fho IInk Is fuIIv Iondod nnd fhoro nro n fIows
sondIng dnfn, I cnnnof uso moro fhnn l/nfh of fho IInk bnndwIdfh. If I frv fo sond moro
fhnn fhnf, mv pnckofs wIII bo nssIgnod IncronsIngIv Inrgo fImosfnmps, cnusIng fhom fo
sIf In fho quouo Iongor nwnIfIng frnnsmIssIon.
IvonfunIIv, fho quouo wIII ovorfIow nIfhough whofhor If Is mv pnckofs or
somoono oIso`s fhnf nro droppod Is n docIsIon fhnf Is nof doformInod bv fho fncf fhnf wo
nro usIng fnIr quouIng. ThIs Is doformInod bv fho drop poIIcv; IQ Is n schoduIIng
nIgorIfhm, whIch, IIko IIIO, mnv bo combInod wIfh vnrIous drop poIIcIos.

3.6 TCP CONGSTION CONTROI

AJJiIite 1ncreoee/MulIiplicoIite Decreoee
Slou SIorI
IoeI IeIroneniI onJ IoeI Iecoterx

TLe Ideu oI TCP onuestIon ontvoI
Tho Idon of TCI congosfIon confroI Is for onch sourco fo doformIno how much
cnpncIfv Is nvnIInbIo In fho nofwork, so fhnf If knows how mnnv pnckofs If cnn
snfoIv hnvo In frnnsIf.
Onco n gIvon sourco hns fhIs mnnv pnckofs In frnnsIf, If usos fho nrrIvnI of nn
ACK ns n sIgnnI fhnf ono of Ifs pnckofs hns Ioff fho nofwork, nnd fhnf If Is
fhoroforo snfo fo Insorf n now pnckof Info fho nofwork wIfhouf nddIng fo fho IovoI
of congosfIon.
Iv usIng ACKs fo pnco fho frnnsmIssIon of pnckofs, TCI Is snId fo bo eelf-
clocling. Of courso, doformInIng fho nvnIInbIo cnpncIfv In fho fIrsf pInco Is no
onsv fnsk.
To mnko mnffors worso, bocnuso ofhor connocfIons como nnd go, fho nvnIInbIo
bnndwIdfh chnngos ovor fImo, monnIng fhnf nnv gIvon sourco musf bo nbIo fo
ndjusf fho numbor of pnckofs If hns In frnnsIf.

.1 AITIV INCRAS/MUITIPIICATIV CRAS
TCI mnInfnIns n now sfnfo vnrInbIo for onch connocfIon, cnIIod CongosfIon
WIndow, whIch Is usod bv fho sourco fo IImIf how much dnfn If Is nIIowod fo hnvo
In frnnsIf nf n gIvon fImo.
Tho congosfIon wIndow Is congosfIon confroI`s counforpnrf fo fIow confroI`s
ndvorfIsod wIndow.
TCI Is modIfIod such fhnf fho mnxImum numbor of bvfos of unncknowIodgod
dnfn nIIowod Is now fho mInImum of fho congosfIon wIndow nnd fho ndvorfIsod
wIndow.
TCI`s offocfIvo wIndow Is rovIsod ns foIIows:

MuWIndow = MIN(ConuestIonWIndow, AdvevtIsedWIndow)
IIetIveWIndow = MuWIndow - (IustByteSent - IustByteAked).

Thnf Is, MnxWIndow ropIncos AdvorfIsodWIndow In fho cnIcuInfIon of
IffocfIvoWIndow.
Thus, n TCI sourco Is nIIowod fo sond no fnsfor fhnn fho sIowosf compononffho
nofwork or fho dosfInnfIon hosfcnn nccommodnfo.
Tho probIom, of courso, Is how TCI comos fo Ionrn nn npproprInfo vnIuo for
CongosfIonWIndow.

!nIIko fho AdvorfIsodWIndow, whIch Is sonf bv fho rocoIvIng sIdo of fho
connocfIon, fhoro Is no ono fo sond n suIfnbIo CongosfIonWIndow fo fho sondIng
sIdo of TCI.
Tho nnswor Is fhnf fho TCI sourco sofs fho CongosfIonWIndow bnsod on fho
IovoI of congosfIon If porcoIvos fo oxIsf In fho nofwork.
ThIs InvoIvos docronsIng fho congosfIon wIndow whon fho IovoI of congosfIon
goos up nnd IncronsIng fho congosfIon wIndow whon fho IovoI of congosfIon goos
down.

Tnkon fogofhor, fho mochnnIsm Is commonIv cnIIod uJJitite
increuoe/multiplicutite Jecreuoe (AIM); fho ronson for fhIs moufhfuI of n
nnmo wIII bocomo nppnronf boIow.
Tho kov quosfIon, fhon, Is how doos fho sourco doformIno fhnf fho nofwork Is
congosfod nnd fhnf If shouId docronso fho congosfIon wIndow`
Tho nnswor Is bnsod on fho obsorvnfIon fhnf fho mnIn ronson pnckofs nro nof
doIIvorod, nnd n fImoouf rosuIfs, Is fhnf n pnckof wns droppod duo fo congosfIon.
If Is rnro fhnf n pnckof Is droppod bocnuso of nn orror durIng frnnsmIssIon.
Thoroforo, TCI Inforprofs fImooufs ns n sIgn of congosfIon nnd roducos fho rnfo
nf whIch If Is frnnsmIffIng.
SpocIfIcnIIv, onch fImo n fImoouf occurs, fho sourco sofs CongosfIonWIndow fo

hnIf of Ifs provIous vnIuo.
ThIs hnIvIng of fho CongosfIonWIndow for onch fImoouf corrosponds fo fho
"multiplicutite Jecreuoe pnrf of AIM.

AIfhough CongosfIonWIndow Is dofInod In forms of bvfos, If Is onsIosf fo
undorsfnnd muIfIpIIcnfIvo docronso If wo fhInk In forms of whoIo pnckofs.
Ior oxnmpIo, supposo fho CongosfIonWIndow Is curronfIv sof fo l6 pnckofs. If n
Ioss Is dofocfod, CongosfIonWIndow Is sof fo 8.
AddIfIonnI Iossos cnuso CongosfIonWIndow fo bo roducod fo 4, fhon 2, nnd fInnIIv
fo l pnckof. CongosfIonWIndow Is nof nIIowod fo fnII boIow fho sIzo of n sIngIo
pnckof, or In TCI formInoIogv, fho noxinun eegnenI eice (MSS).

Pukets In tvunsIt duvInu uddItIve Inveuse, wItL one uket beInu udded
euL RTT.
A congosfIon-confroI sfrnfogv fhnf onIv docronsos fho wIndow sIzo Is obvIousIv

foo consorvnfIvo.
Wo nIso nood fo bo nbIo fo Incronso fho congosfIon wIndow fo fnko ndvnnfngo of
nowIv nvnIInbIo cnpncIfv In fho nofwork. ThIs Is fho nddIfIvo Incronso pnrf of
AIM, nnd If works ns foIIows.
Ivorv fImo fho sourco succossfuIIv sonds n CongosfIonWIndow`s worfh of
pnckofsfhnf Is, onch pnckof sonf ouf durIng fho Insf !TT hns boon ACKodIf
ndds fho oquIvnIonf of ono pnckof fo CongosfIonWIndow.
ThIs IInonr Incronso Is IIIusfrnfod In IIguro ,In prncfIco, TCI doos nof wnIf for nn
onfIro wIndow`s worfh of ACKs fo ndd ono pnckof`s worfh fo fho congosfIon
wIndow,buf Insfond Incromonfs CongosfIonWIndow bv n IIffIo for onch ACK fhnf
nrrIvos.
SpocIfIcnIIv, fho congosfIon wIndow Is Incromonfod ns foIIows onch fImo nn ACK
nrrIvos:
Invement = MSS (MSS/ConuestIonWIndow)
ConuestIonWIndow + = Invement
Thnf Is, rnfhor fhnn IncromonfIng CongosfIonWIndow bv nn onfIro MSS bvfos
onch !TT, wo Incromonf If bv n frncfIon of MSS ovorv fImo nn ACK Is rocoIvod.
AssumIng fhnf onch ACK ncknowIodgos fho rocoIpf of MSS bvfos, fhon fhnf
frncfIon Is MSS/ CongosfIonWIndow.

TyIuI TCP suwtootL uttevn

ThIs pnfforn of confInunIIv IncronsIng nnd docronsIng fho congosfIon wIndow
confInuos fhroughouf fho IIfofImo of fho connocfIon. In fncf, If vou pIof fho
curronf vnIuo of CongosfIonWIndow ns n funcfIon of fImo, vou gof n snwfoofh
pnfforn, ns IIIusfrnfod In IIguro.

Tho Imporfnnf concopf fo undorsfnnd nbouf AIM Is fhnf fho sourco Is wIIIIng fo
roduco Ifs congosfIon wIndow nf n much fnsfor rnfo fhnn If Is wIIIIng fo Incronso
Ifs congosfIon wIndow.
ThIs Is In confrnsf fo nn nddIfIvo Incronso/nddIfIvo docronso sfrnfogv In whIch fho
wIndow wouId bo Incronsod bv ono pnckof whon nn ACK nrrIvos nnd docronsod
bv ono whon n fImoouf occurs.

Ono InfuIfIvo ronson fo docronso fho wIndow nggrossIvoIv nnd Incronso If
consorvnfIvoIv Is fhnf fho consoquoncos of hnvIng foo Inrgo n wIndow nro much
worso fhnn fhoso of If boIng foo smnII.

Ior oxnmpIo, whon fho wIndow Is foo Inrgo, pnckofs fhnf nro droppod wIII bo
rofrnnsmIffod, mnkIng congosfIon ovon worso; fhus, If Is Imporfnnf fo gof ouf of
fhIs sfnfo quIckIv.

IInnIIv, sInco n fImoouf Is nn IndIcnfIon of congosfIon fhnf frIggors muIfIpIIcnfIvo
docronso, TCI noods fho mosf nccurnfo fImoouf mochnnIsm If cnn nfford.

Tho fwo mnIn fhIngs fo romombor nbouf fhnf mochnnIsm nro fhnf
l. fImooufs nro sof ns n funcfIon of bofh fho nvorngo !TT nnd fho sfnndnrd
dovInfIon In fhnf nvorngo,
2. uo fo fho cosf of monsurIng onch frnnsmIssIon wIfh nn nccurnfo cIock,
TCI onIv snmpIos fho round-frIp fImo onco por !TT (rnfhor fhnn onco por
pnckof) usIng n conrso-grnInod (500-ms) cIock.

.2 SIOW START
Tho nddIfIvo Incronso mochnnIsm jusf doscrIbod Is fho rIghf nppronch fo uso
whon fho sourco Is opornfIng cIoso fo fho nvnIInbIo cnpncIfv of fho nofwork, buf If
fnkos foo Iong fo rnmp up n connocfIon whon If Is sfnrfIng from scrnfch.
TCI fhoroforo provIdos n socond mochnnIsm, IronIcnIIv cnIIod elou eIorI fhnf Is
usod fo Incronso fho congosfIon wIndow rnpIdIv from n coId sfnrf.

Pukets In tvunsIt Iov sIow stuvt

SIow sfnrf offocfIvoIv Incronsos fho congosfIon wIndow oxpononfInIIv, rnfhor fhnn
IInonrIv.
SpocIfIcnIIv, fho sourco sfnrfs ouf bv soffIng CongosfIonWIndow fo ono pnckof.
Whon fho ACK for fhIs pnckof nrrIvos, TCI ndds l fo CongosfIonWIndow nnd
fhon sonds fwo pnckofs.
!pon rocoIvIng fho corrospondIng fwo ACKs, TCI Incromonfs
CongosfIonWIndow bv 2ono for onch ACKnnd noxf sonds four pnckofs.
Tho ond rosuIf Is fhnf TCI offocfIvoIv doubIos fho numbor of pnckofs If hns In
frnnsIf ovorv !TT.

IIguro shows fho growfh In fho numbor of pnckofs In frnnsIf durIng sIow sfnrf.
Compnro fhIs fo fho IInonr growfh of nddIfIvo Incronso IIIusfrnfod In IIguro.
ConsIdor whnf hnppons whon n connocfIon Is osfnbIIshod nnd fho sourco fIrsf
sfnrfs fo sond pnckofs, fhnf Is, whon If curronfIv hns no pnckofs In frnnsIf.
If fho sourco sonds ns mnnv pnckofs ns fho ndvorfIsod wIndow nIIowswhIch Is
oxncfIv whnf TCI dId boforo sIow sfnrf wns dovoIopodfhon ovon If fhoro Is n
fnIrIv Inrgo nmounf of bnndwIdfh nvnIInbIo In fho nofwork, fho roufors mnv nof
bo nbIo fo consumo fhIs bursf of pnckofs.
If nII doponds on how much buffor spnco Is nvnIInbIo nf fho roufors.

SIow sfnrf wns fhoroforo dosIgnod fo spnco pnckofs ouf so fhnf fhIs bursf doos
nof occur. In ofhor words, ovon fhough Ifs oxpononfInI growfh Is fnsfor fhnn
IInonr growfh, sIow sfnrf Is much sIowor fhnn sondIng nn onfIro ndvorfIsod
wIndow`s worfh of dnfn nII nf onco.

TLeve uve utuuIIy two dIIIevent sItuutIons In wLIL sIow stuvt vuns
The ]irot oituution Is nf fho vorv bogInnIng of n connocfIon, nf whIch fImo fho
sourco hns no Idon how mnnv pnckofs If Is goIng fo bo nbIo fo hnvo In frnnsIf nf n
gIvon fImo.
In fhIs sIfunfIon, sIow sfnrf confInuos fo doubIo CongosfIonWIndow onch !TT
unfII fhoro Is n Ioss, nf whIch fImo n fImoouf cnusos muIfIpIIcnfIvo docronso fo
dIvIdo CongosfIonWIndow bv 2.

The oeconJ oituution In whIch sIow sfnrf Is usod Is n bIf moro subfIo; If occurs
whon fho connocfIon goos dond whIIo wnIfIng for n fImoouf fo occur.
!ocnII how TCI`s sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhm workswhon n pnckof Is Iosf, fho
sourco ovonfunIIv ronchos n poInf whoro If hns sonf ns much dnfn ns fho
ndvorfIsod wIndow nIIows, nnd so If bIocks whIIo wnIfIng for nn ACK fhnf wIII
nof nrrIvo.

IvonfunIIv, n fImoouf hnppons, buf bv fhIs fImo fhoro nro no pnckofs In frnnsIf,
monnIng fhnf fho sourco wIII rocoIvo no ACKs fo cIock fho frnnsmIssIon of now
pnckofs.

Tho sourco wIII Insfond rocoIvo n sIngIo cumuInfIvo ACK fhnf roopons fho onfIro
ndvorfIsod wIndow, buf ns oxpInInod nbovo, fho sourco fhon usos sIow sfnrf fo
rosfnrf fho fIow of dnfn rnfhor fhnn dumpIng n whoIo wIndow`s worfh of dnfn on
fho nofwork nII nf onco.

AIfhough fho sourco Is usIng sIow sfnrf ngnIn, If now knows moro InformnfIon
fhnn If dId nf fho bogInnIng of n connocfIon. SpocIfIcnIIv, fho sourco hns n curronf
(nnd usofuI) vnIuo of CongosfIonWIndow; fhIs Is fho vnIuo of CongosfIonWIndow
fhnf oxIsfod prIor fo fho Insf pnckof Ioss, dIvIdod bv 2 ns n rosuIf of fho Ioss.

Wo cnn fhInk of fhIs ns fho fnrgof congosfIon wIndow. SIow sfnrf Is usod fo
rnpIdIv Incronso fho sondIng rnfo up fo fhIs vnIuo, nnd fhon nddIfIvo Incronso Is
usod bovond fhIs poInf.

ofIco fhnf wo hnvo n smnII bookkoopIng probIom fo fnko cnro of, In fhnf wo
wnnf fo romombor fho fnrgof congosfIon wIndow rosuIfIng from muIfIpIIcnfIvo
docronso ns woII ns fho ncfunI congosfIon wIndow boIng usod bv sIow sfnrf.

To nddross fhIs probIom, TCI Infroducos n fompornrv vnrInbIo fo sforo fho fnrgof
wIndow, fvpIcnIIv cnIIod CongosfIonThroshoId, fhnf Is sof oqunI fo fho
CongosfIonWIndow vnIuo fhnf rosuIfs from muIfIpIIcnfIvo docronso.

Tho vnrInbIo CongosfIonWIndow Is fhon rosof fo ono pnckof, nnd If Is
Incromonfod bv ono pnckof for ovorv ACK fhnf Is rocoIvod unfII If ronchos
CongosfIonThroshoId, nf whIch poInf If Is Incromonfod bv ono pnckof por !TT
BeLuvIov oI TCP onuestIon ontvoI. CoIoved IIne = vuIue oI ConuestIon-

WIndow ovev tIme: soIId buIIets ut to oI uvuL = tImeouts: LusL muvks ut to
oI uvuL = tIme wLen euL uket Is tvunsmItted: vevtIuI buvs = tIme wLen u
uket tLut wus eventuuIIy vetvunsmItted wus IIvst tvunsmItted.

TCP Inveuses tLe onuestIon wIndow us deIIned by tLe IoIIowInu ode
Ivuument

Whoro sfnfo roprosonfs fho stute of n pnrfIcuInr TCI connocfIon nnd TCI
MAXWIN dofInos nn uppor bound on how Inrgo fho congosfIon wIndow Is
nIIowod fo grow.
IIguro frncos how TCI`s CongosfIonWIndow Incronsos nnd docronsos ovorfImo
nnd sorvos fo IIIusfrnfo fho InforpInv of sIow sfnrf nnd nddIfIvo Incronso/
muIfIpIIcnfIvo docronso.
ThIs frnco wns fnkon from nn ncfunI TCI connocfIon nnd shows fho curronf
vnIuo of CongosfIonWIndowfho coIorod IInoovor fImo.
TLeve uve sevevuI tLInus to notIe ubout tLIs tvue

Tho fIrsf Is fho rnpId Incronso In fho congosfIon wIndow nf fho bogInnIng of fho
connocfIon. ThIs corrosponds fo fho InIfInI sIow sfnrf phnso.
Tho sIow sfnrf phnso confInuos unfII sovornI pnckofs nro Iosf nf nbouf 0.4
soconds Info fho connocfIon, nf whIch fImo CongosfIonWIndow fInffons ouf nf
nbouf 34 KI.
Tho ronson fho congosfIon wIndow fInffons Is fhnf fhoro nro no ACKs nrrIvIng,
duo fo fho fncf fhnf sovornI pnckofs woro Iosf.
In fncf, no now pnckofs nro sonf durIng fhIs fImo, ns donofod bv fho Inck of hnsh
mnrks nf fho fop of fho grnph.
A fImoouf ovonfunIIv hnppons nf npproxImnfoIv 2 soconds, nf whIch fImo fho
congosfIon wIndow Is dIvIdod bv 2 (I.o., cuf from npproxImnfoIv 34 KI fo nround
l? KI) nnd CongosfIonThroshoId Is sof fo fhIs vnIuo.
SIow sfnrf fhon cnusos CongosfIonWIndow fo bo rosof fo ono pnckof nnd fo sfnrf
rnmpIng up from fhoro.
Thoro Is nof onough dofnII In fho frnco fo soo oxncfIv whnf hnppons whon ncoupIo
of pnckofs nro Iosf jusf nffor 2 soconds, so wo jump nhond fo fho IInonr Incronso
In fho congosfIon wIndow fhnf occurs bofwoon 2 nnd 4 soconds.
ThIs corrosponds fo nddIfIvo Incronso.
Af nbouf 4 soconds, CongosfIonWIndow fInffons ouf, ngnIn duo fo n Iosf pnckof.
Aou, oI oIouI . eeconJe.
l) A fImoouf hnppons, cnusIng fho congosfIon wIndow fo bo dIvIdod bv 2,
droppIng If from npproxImnfoIv 22 KI fo ll KI, nnd CongosfIonThroshoId
Is sof fo fhIs nmounf.
2) CongosfIonWIndow Is rosof fo ono pnckof, ns fho sondor onfors sIow sfnrf.
3) SIow sfnrf cnusos CongosfIonWIndow fo grow oxpononfInIIv unfII If

ronchos CongosfIonThroshoId.
4) CongosfIonWIndow fhon grows IInonrIv.
Tho snmo pnfforn Is roponfod nf nround 8 soconds whon nnofhor fImoouf occurs.

WLy so muny ukets uve Iost duvInu tLe InItIuI sIow stuvt evIod
Af fhIs poInf, TCI Is nffompfIng fo Ionrn how much bnndwIdfh Is nvnIInbIo on
fho nofwork.
ThIs Is n vorv dIffIcuIf fnsk.
If fho sourco Is nof nggrossIvo nf fhIs sfngofor oxnmpIo, If If onIv Incronsos fho
congosfIon wIndow IInonrIvfhon If fnkos n Iong fImo for If fo dIscovor how
much bnndwIdfh Is nvnIInbIo.
ThIs cnn hnvo n drnmnfIc Impncf on fho fhroughpuf nchIovod for fhIs connocfIon.
On fho ofhor hnnd If fho sourco Is nggrossIvo nf fhIs sfngo, ns TCI Is durIng
oxpononfInI growfh, fhon fho sourco runs fho rIsk of hnvIng hnIf n wIndow`s
worfh of pnckofs droppod bv fho nofwork.
To soo whnf cnn hnppon durIng oxpononfInI growfh, consIdor fho sIfunfIon In
whIch fho sourco wns jusf nbIo fo succossfuIIv sond l6 pnckofs fhrough fho
nofwork, cnusIng If fo doubIo Ifs congosfIon wIndow fo 32.
Supposo, howovor, fhnf fho nofwork hnppons fo hnvo jusf onough cnpncIfv fo
supporf l6 pnckofs from fhIs sourco.
Tho IIkoIv rosuIf Is fhnf l6 of fho 32 pnckofs sonf undor fho now congosfIon
wIndow wIII bo droppod bv fho nofwork; ncfunIIv, fhIs Is fho worsf-cnso oufcomo,
sInco somo of fho pnckofs wIII bo bufforod In somo roufor.
ThIs probIom wIII bocomo IncronsIngIv sovoro ns fho deIuy bundwIdtL
producf of nofworks Incronsos.
Ior oxnmpIo, n deIuy bundwIdtL producf of 500 KI monns fhnf onch

connocfIon hns fho pofonfInI fo Ioso up fo 500 KI of dnfn nf fho bogInnIng of onch
connocfIon.
Of courso, fhIs nssumos fhnf bofh fho sourco nnd fho dosfInnfIon ImpIomonf fho
bIg wIndows oxfonsIon.
Somo nofwork dosIgnors hnvo proposod nIfornnfIvos fo sIow sfnrf, whorobv fho
sourco frIos fo osfImnfo fho nvnIInbIo bnndwIdfh bv moro cIovor monns of
sondIng ouf groups of pnckofs nnd sooIng how mnnv mnko If fhrough.
A fochnIquo cnIIod pnckof- pnIr Is roprosonfnfIvo of fhIs gonornI sfrnfogv. In
sImpIo forms, fho Idon Is fo sond n pnIr of pnckofs wIfh no spncIng bofwoon fhom.
Thon, fho sourco soos how fnr npnrf fho ACKs for fhoso fwo pnckofs nro.
Tho gnp bofwoon fho ACKs Is fnkon ns n monsuro of how much congosfIon fhoro
Is In fho nofwork, nnd fhoroforo of how much Incronso In fho congosfIon wIndow
Is possIbIo.

.3 IAST RTRANSMIT AN IAST RCOVRY
Tho conrso-grnInod ImpIomonfnfIon of TCI fImooufs Iod fo Iong porIods of fImo
durIng whIch fho connocfIon wonf dond whIIo wnIfIng for n fImor fo oxpIro.
Iocnuso of fhIs, n now mochnnIsm cnIIod fnsf ro- frnnsmIf wns nddod fo TCI.
Insf rofrnnsmIf Is n hourIsfIc fhnf somofImos frIggors fho rofrnnsmIssIon of n
droppod pnckof soonor fhnn fho roguInr fImoouf mochnnIsm.
Tho fnsf rofrnnsmIf mochnnIsm doos nof ropInco roguInr fImooufs; If jusf
onhnncos fhnf fncIIIfv.
Tho Idon of fnsf rofrnnsmIf Is sfrnIghfforwnrd. Ivorv fImo n dnfn pnckof nrrIvos
nf fho rocoIvIng sIdo, fho rocoIvor rosponds wIfh nn ncknowIodgmonf, ovon If fhIs
soquonco numbor hns nIrondv boon ncknowIodgod.
Thus, whon n pnckof nrrIvos ouf of ordor fhnf Is, TCI cnnnof vof ncknowIodgo
fho dnfn fho pnckof confnIns bocnuso onrIIor dnfn hns nof vof nrrIvodTCI
rosonds fho snmo ncknowIodgmonf If sonf fho Insf fImo.
ThIs socond frnnsmIssIon of fho snmo ncknowIodgmonf Is cnIIod n dupIIcnfo
ACK.
Whon fho sondIng sIdo soos n dupIIcnfo ACK, If knows fhnf fho ofhor sIdo musf
hnvo rocoIvod n pnckof ouf of ordor, whIch suggosfs fhnf nn onrIIor pnckof mIghf
hnvo boon Iosf.
SInco If Is nIso possIbIo fhnf fho onrIIor pnckof hns onIv boon doInvod rnfhor fhnn
Iosf, fho sondor wnIfs unfII If soos somo numbor of dupIIcnfo ACKs nnd fhon
rofrnnsmIfs fho mIssIng pnckof.
In prncfIco, TCI wnIfs unfII If hns soon fhroo dupIIcnfo ACKs boforo
rofrnnsmIffIng fho pnckof.
IIguro (A) IIIusfrnfos how dupIIcnfo ACKs Iond fo n fnsf rofrnnsmIf.

Iust vetvunsmIt bused on duIIute ACKs

Tvue oI TCP wItL Iust vetvunsmIt. CoIoved IIne = ConuestIonWIndow: soIId
buIIet = tImeout: LusL muvks = tIme wLen euL uket Is tvunsmItted: vevtIuI
buvs = tIme wLen u uket tLut wus eventuuIIy vetvunsmItted wus IIvst
tvunsmItted.

In fhIs oxnmpIo, fho dosfInnfIon rocoIvos pnckofs l nnd 2, buf pnckof 3 Is Iosf In
fho nofwork.
Thus, fho dosfInnfIon wIII sond n dupIIcnfo ACK for pnckof 2 whon pnckof 4
nrrIvos, ngnIn whon pnckof 5 nrrIvos, nnd so on. (To sImpIIfv fhIs oxnmpIo, wo
fhInk In forms of pnckofs l, 2, 3, nnd so on, rnfhor fhnn worrvIng nbouf fho
soquonco numbors for onch bvfo.)
Whon fho sondor soos fho fhIrd dupIIcnfo ACK for pnckof 2fho ono sonf
bocnuso fho rocoIvor hnd goffon pnckof 6If rofrnnsmIfs pnckof 3.
ofo fhnf whon fho rofrnnsmIffod copv of pnckof 3 nrrIvos nf fho dosfInnfIon, fho
rocoIvor fhon sonds cumuInfIvo ACK for ovorvfhIng up fo nnd IncIudIng pnckof 6
bnck fo fho sourco.
IIguro (I) IIIusfrnfos fho bohnvIor of n vorsIon of TCI wIfh fho fnsf rofrnnsmIf
mochnnIsm.
ThIs fochnIquo Is nbIo fo oIImInnfo nbouf hnIf of fho conrso-grnInod fImooufs on n
fvpIcnI TCI connocfIon, rosuIfIng In roughIv n 20 Improvomonf In fho
fhroughpuf ovor whnf couId ofhorwIso hnvo boon nchIovod.


ofIco, howovor, fhnf fho fnsf rofrnnsmIf sfrnfogv doos nof oIImInnfo nII conrso-
grnInod fImooufs.
ThIs Is bocnuso for n smnII wIndow sIzo, fhoro wIII nof bo onough pnckofs In
frnnsIf fo cnuso onough dupIIcnfo ACKs fo bo doIIvorod.

CIvon onough Iosf pnckofsfor oxnmpIo, ns hnppons durIng fho InIfInI sIow sfnrf
phnsofho sIIdIng wIndow nIgorIfhm ovonfunIIv bIocks fho sondor unfII n
fImoouf occurs.

CIvon fho curronf 64-KI mnxImum ndvorfIsod wIndow sIzo, TCI`s fnsf
rofrnnsmIf mochnnIsm Is nbIo fo dofocf up fo fhroo droppod pnckofs por wIndow
In prncfIco.

Iinollx, fhoro Is ono Insf Improvomonf wo cnn mnko.
Whon fho fnsf rofrnnsmIf mochnnIsm sIgnnIs congosfIon, rnfhor fhnn drop fho
congosfIon wIndow nII fho wnv bnck fo ono pnckof nnd run sIow sfnrf, If Is
possIbIo fo uso fho ACKs fhnf nro sfIII In fho pIpo fo cIock fho sondIng of pnckofs.

ThIs mochnnIsm, whIch Is cnIIod foeI recoterx, offocfIvoIv romovos fho sIow sfnrf
phnso fhnf hnppons bofwoon whon fnsf rofrnnsmIf dofocfs n Iosf pnckof nnd
nddIfIvo Incronso bogIns.

Ior oxnmpIo, fnsf rocovorv nvoIds fho sIow sfnrf porIod bofwoon 3.8 nnd 4
soconds In IIguro (I) nnd Insfond sImpIv cufs fho congosfIon wIndow In hnIf
(from 22 KI fo ll KI) nnd rosumos nddIfIvo Incronso.

In ofhor words, sIow sfnrf Is onIv usod nf fho bogInnIng of n connocfIon nnd
whonovor n conrso-grnInod fImoouf occurs. Af nII ofhor fImos, fho congosfIon
wIndow Is foIIowIng n puro nddIfIvo Incronso/muIfIpIIcnfIvo docronso pnfforn.

3.? CONGSTION-AVOIANC MCHANISMS

D1CIiI
IonJon 1orlx DeIecIion (I1D)
Source-BoeeJ CongeeIion AtoiJonce

.1 CbIt

Tho fIrsf mochnnIsm wns dovoIopod for uso on fho IgIfnI ofwork ArchIfocfuro
(A), n connocfIonIoss nofwork wIfh n connocfIon-orIonfod frnnsporf profocoI.
ThIs mochnnIsm couId, fhoroforo, nIso bo nppIIod fo TCI nnd II.

ComutInu uvevuue queue IenutL ut u voutev

Tho Idon horo Is fo moro ovonIv spIIf fho rosponsIbIIIfv for congosfIon confroI
bofwoon fho roufors nnd fho ond nodos.
Inch roufor monIfors fho Iond If Is oxporIoncIng nnd oxpIIcIfIv nofIfIos fho ond
nodos whon congosfIon Is nbouf fo occur.
ThIs nofIfIcnfIon Is ImpIomonfod bv soffIng n bInnrv congosfIon bIf In fho pnckofs
fhnf fIow fhrough fho roufor; honco fho nnmo ICbIf.
Tho dosfInnfIon hosf fhon copIos fhIs congosfIon bIf Info fho ACK If sonds bnck
fo fho sourco.
IInnIIv, fho sourco ndjusfs Ifs sondIng rnfo so ns fo nvoId congosfIon.

Tho foIIowIng dIscussIon doscrIbos fho nIgorIfhm In moro dofnII, sfnrfIng wIfh
whnf hnppons In fho roufor.
A sIngIo congosfIon bIf Is nddod fo fho pnckof hondor.
A roufor sofs fhIs bIf In n pnckof If Ifs nvorngo quouo Iongfh Is gronfor fhnn or
oqunI fo l nf fho fImo fho pnckof nrrIvos.
ThIs nvorngo quouo Iongfh Is monsurod ovor n fImo InforvnI fhnf spnns fho Insf
busv+IdIo cvcIo, pIus fho curronf busv cvcIo. (Tho roufor Is Iuex whon If Is
frnnsmIffIng nnd iJle whon If Is nof.)

IIguro shows fho quouo Iongfh nf n roufor ns n funcfIon of fImo.
IssonfInIIv, fho roufor cnIcuInfos fho nron undor fho curvo nnd dIvIdos fhIs vnIuo
bv fho fImo InforvnI fo compufo fho nvorngo quouo Iongfh.
!sIng n quouo Iongfh of l ns fho frIggor for soffIng fho congosfIon bIf Is n frndo-
off bofwoon sIgnIfIcnnf quouIng (nnd honco hIghor fhroughpuf) nnd Incronsod
IdIo fImo (nnd honco Iowor doInv).

In ofhor words, n quouo Iongfh of l sooms fo opfImIzo fho powor funcfIon.
ow furnIng our nffonfIon fo fho hosf hnIf of fho mochnnIsm, fho sourco rocords
how mnnv of Ifs pnckofs rosuIfod In somo roufor soffIng fho congosfIon bIf.

In pnrfIcuInr, fho sourco mnInfnIns n congosfIon wIndow, jusf ns In TCI, nnd
wnfchos fo soo whnf frncfIon of fho Insf wIndow`s worfh of pnckofs rosuIfod In
fho bIf boIng sof.
If Ioss fhnn 50 of fho pnckofs hnd fho bIf sof, fhon fho sourco Incronsos Ifs
congosfIon wIndow bv ono pnckof.
If 50or moro of fho Insf wIndow`s worfh of pnckofs hnd fho congosfIon bIf sof,
fhon fho sourco docronsos Ifs congosfIon wIndow fo 0.8?5 fImos fho provIous
vnIuo.
Tho vnIuo 50 wns choson ns fho fhroshoId bnsod on nnnIvsIs fhnf showod If fo
corrospond fo fho ponk of fho powor curvo.
Tho Incronso bv l, docronso bv 0.8?5 ruIo wns soIocfod bocnuso nddIfIvo
Incronso/muIfIpIIcnfIvo docronso mnkos fho mochnnIsm sfnbIo.

.2 RANOM ARIY TCTION (R)
A socond mochnnIsm, cnIIod ronJon eorlx JeIecIion (!I), Is sImIInr fo fho
ICbIf schomo In fhnf onch roufor Is progrnmmod fo monIfor Ifs own quouo
Iongfh, nnd whon If dofocfs fhnf congosfIon Is ImmInonf, fo nofIfv fho sourco fo
ndjusf Ifs congosfIon wIndow.
!I, Invonfod bv SnIIv IIovd nnd Vnn Jncobson In fho onrIv l990s.

R IIIevs Ivom tLe CbIt sLeme In two mujov wuys
TIe fireI uox Is fhnf rnfhor fhnn oxpIIcIfIv sondIng n congosfIon nofIfIcnfIon
mossngo fo fho sourco, !I Is mosf commonIv ImpIomonfod such fhnf If
inpliciIlx nofIfIos fho sourco of congosfIon bv droppIng ono of Ifs pnckofs.

Tho sourco Is, fhoroforo, offocfIvoIv nofIfIod bv fho subsoquonf fImoouf or
dupIIcnfo ACK. In cnso vou hnvon`f nIrondv guossod, !I Is dosIgnod fo bo usod
In conjuncfIon wIfh TCI, whIch curronfIv dofocfs congosfIon bv monns of
fImooufs (or somo ofhor monns of dofocfIng pnckof Ioss such ns dupIIcnfo ACKs).

As fho onrIv pnrf of fho !I ncronvm suggosfs, fho gnfownv drops fho pnckof
onrIIor fhnn If wouId hnvo fo, so ns fo nofIfv fho sourco fhnf If shouId docronso
Ifs congosfIon wIndow soonor fhnn If wouId normnIIv hnvo.
In ofhor words, fho roufor drops n fow pnckofs boforo If hns oxhnusfod Ifs buffor
spnco compIofoIv, so ns fo cnuso fho sourco fo sIow down, wIfh fho hopo fhnf fhIs
wIII monn If doos nof hnvo fo drop Iofs of pnckofs Infor on.
ofo fhnf !I couId onsIIv bo ndnpfod fo work wIfh nn oxpIIcIf foodbnck schomo
sImpIv bv norling n pnckof Insfond of Jropping If, ns dIscussod In fho sIdobnr
on oxpIIcf congosfIon nofIfIcnfIon.
TIe eeconJ dIfforonco bofwoon !I nnd ICbIf Is In fho dofnIIs of how !I
docIdos whon fo drop n pnckof nnd whnf pnckof If docIdos fo drop.

To undevstund tLe busI Ideu, onsIdev u sImIe IIIO queue.
!nfhor fhnn wnIf for fho quouo fo bocomo compIofoIv fuII nnd fhon bo forcod fo
drop onch nrrIvIng pnckof , wo couId docIdo fo drop onch nrrIvIng pnckof wIfh somo drop
probnbIIIfv whonovor fho quouo Iongfh oxcoods somo drop IovoI. ThIs Idon Is cnIIod onrIv
rnndom drop. Tho !I nIgorIfhm dofInos fho dofnIIs of how fo monIfor fho quouo
Iongfh nnd whon fo drop n pnckof.

R uIuovItLm voosed by IIoyd und Juobson
IireI, !I compufos nn nvorngo quouo Iongfh usIng n woIghfod runnIng nvorngo
sImIInr fo fho ono usod In fho orIgInnI TCI fImoouf compufnfIon.

Thnf Is, Avg!on Is compufod ns,
AvuIen = (1 -WeIuLt) AvuIen +WeIuLt SumIeIen
Whoro 0 <WoIghf < l nnd SnmpIo!on Is fho Iongfh of fho quouo whon n snmpIo
monsuromonf Is mndo.

In mosf soffwnro ImpIomonfnfIons, fho quouo Iongfh Is monsurod ovorv fImo n
now pnckof nrrIvos nf fho gnfownv.
In hnrdwnro, If mIghf bo cnIcuInfod nf somo fIxod snmpIIng InforvnI.
Tho ronson for usIng nn nvorngo quouo Iongfh rnfhor fhnn nn Insfnnfnnoous ono
Is fhnf If moro nccurnfoIv cnpfuros fho nofIon of congosfIon.
Iocnuso of fho bursfv nnfuro of Infornof frnffIc, quouos cnn bocomo fuII
vorv quIckIv nnd fhon bocomo ompfv ngnIn.

WeIuLted vunnInu uvevuue queue IenutL
If n quouo Is spondIng mosf of Ifs fImo ompfv, fhon If`s probnbIv nof npproprInfo
fo concIudo fhnf fho roufor Is congosfod nnd fo foII fho hosfs fo sIow down.
Thus, fho woIghfod runnIng nvorngo cnIcuInfIon frIos fo dofocf Iong-IIvod
congosfIon, ns IndIcnfod In fho rIghf-hnnd porfIon of IIguro bv fIIforIng ouf
shorf-form chnngos In fho quouo Iongfh.
You cnn fhInk of fho runnIng nvorngo ns n Iow-pnss fIIfor, whoro WoIghf
doformInos fho fImo consfnnf of fho fIIfor.
SeconJ, !I hns fwo quouo Iongfh fhroshoIds fhnf frIggor corfnIn ncfIvIfv:
MInThroshoId nnd MnxThroshoId.
Whon n pnckof nrrIvos nf fho gnfownv, !I compnros fho curronf Avg!on wIfh
fhoso fwo fhroshoIds, nccordIng fo fho foIIowIng ruIos:

Thnf Is, If fho nvorngo quouo Iongfh Is smnIIor fhnn fho Iowor fhroshoId, no
ncfIon Is fnkon, nnd If fho nvorngo quouo Iongfh Is Inrgor fhnn fho uppor
fhroshoId, fhon fho pnckof Is nIwnvs droppod.
If fho nvorngo quouo Iongfh Is bofwoon fho fwo fhroshoIds, fhon fho nowIv
nrrIvIng pnckof Is droppod wIfh somo probnbIIIfv I.

R tLvesLoIds on u IIIO queue

Tho npproxImnfo roInfIonshIp bofwoon I nnd Avg!on Is shown In IIguro boIow

vo vobubIIIty IuntIon Iov R

ofo fhnf fho probnbIIIfv of drop Incronsos sIowIv whon Avg!on Is bofwoon fho
fwo fhroshoIds, ronchIng MnxI nf fho uppor fhroshoId, nf whIch poInf If jumps
fo unIfv.
Tho rnfIonnIo bohInd fhIs Is fhnf If Avg!on ronchos fho uppor fhroshoId, fhon
fho gonfIo nppronch (droppIng n fow pnckofs) Is nof workIng nnd drnsfIc
monsuros nro cnIIod for, fhnf Is, droppIng nII nrrIvIng pnckofs.
Somo rosonrch hns suggosfod fhnf n moro smoofh frnnsIfIon from rnndom
droppIng fo compIofo droppIng, rnfhor fhnn fho dIsconfInous nppronch shown
horo, mnv bo npproprInfo.
AIfhough fho IIguro shows fho probnbIIIfv of drop ns n funcfIon onIv of Avg!on,
fho sIfunfIon Is ncfunIIv n IIffIo moro compIIcnfod. In fncf, I Is n funcfIon of bofh
Avg!on nnd how Iong If hns boon sInco fho Insf pnckof wns droppod.

SpocIfIcnIIv, If Is compufod ns foIIows:

TemP Is fho vnrInbIo fhnf Is pIoffod on fho x-nxIs .
ount koops frnck of how mnnv nowIv nrrIvIng pnckofs hnvo boon quouod (nof
droppod) .
AvuIen hns boon bofwoon fho fwo fhroshoIds.
P Incronsos sIowIv ns counf Incronsos, fhorobv mnkIng n drop IncronsIngIv IIkoIv
ns fho fImo sInco fho Insf drop Incronsos.

ThIs mnkos cIosoIv spncod drops roInfIvoIv Ioss IIkoIv fhnn wIdoIv spncod drops.
ThIs oxfrn sfop In cnIcuInfIng I wns Infroducod bv fho Invonfors of !I whon
fhov obsorvod fhnf, wIfhouf If, fho pnckof drops woro nof woII dIsfrIbufod In
fImo, buf Insfond fondod fo occur In cIusfors.
Iocnuso pnckof nrrIvnIs from n corfnIn connocfIon nro IIkoIv fo nrrIvo In bursfs,
fhIs cIusforIng of drops Is IIkoIv fo cnuso muIfIpIo drops In n sIngIo connocfIon.
ThIs Is nof dosIrnbIo, sInco onIv ono drop por round-frIp fImo Is onough fo cnuso
n connocfIon fo roduco Ifs wIndow sIzo, whorons muIfIpIo drops mIghf sond If
bnck Info sIow sfnrf.

As un eumIe, supposo fhnf wo sof MnxI fo 0.02 nnd counf Is InIfInIIzod fo 0.
If fho nvorngo quouo Iongfh woro hnIfwnv bofwoon fho fwo fhroshoIds, fhon
TompI, nnd fho InIfInI vnIuo of I, wouId bo hnIf of MnxI, or 0.0l.
An nrrIvIng pnckof, of courso, hns n 99 In l00 chnnco of goffIng Info fho quouo nf
fhIs poInf.
WIfh onch succossIvo pnckof fhnf Is nof droppod, I sIowIv Incronsos, nnd bv fho
fImo 50 pnckofs hnvo nrrIvod wIfhouf n drop, I wouId hnvo doubIod fo 0.02. In
fho unIIkoIv ovonf fhnf 99 pnckofs nrrIvod wIfhouf Ioss, I ronchos l,
gunrnnfooIng fhnf fho noxf pnckof Is droppod.

Tho Imporfnnf fhIng nbouf fhIs pnrf of fho nIgorIfhm Is fhnf If onsuros n roughIv
ovon dIsfrIbufIon of drops ovor fImo.
HopofuIIv, If !I drops n smnII porconfngo of pnckofs whon Avg!on oxcoods
MInThroshoId, fho offocf wIII bo fo cnuso n fow TCI connocfIons fo roduco fhoIr
wIndow sIzos, whIch In furn wIII roduco fho rnfo nf whIch pnckofs nrrIvo nf fho
roufor.
AII goIng woII, Avg!on wIII fhon docronso nnd congosfIon Is nvoIdod. Tho quouo
Iongfh cnn bo kopf shorf, whIIo fhroughpuf romnIns hIgh sInco fow pnckofs nro
droppod.

ofo fhnf, bocnuso !I Is opornfIng on n quouo Iongfh nvorngod ovor fImo, If Is
possIbIo for fho Insfnnfnnoous quouo Iongfh fo bo much Iongor fhnn Avg!on.
In fhIs cnso, If n pnckof nrrIvos nnd fhoro Is nowhoro fo puf If, fhon If wIII hnvo
fo bo droppod.
Whon fhIs hnppons, !I Is opornfIng In fnII drop modo. Ono of fho gonIs of !I
Is fo provonf fnII drop bohnvIor If possIbIo.
Tho rnndom nnfuro of !I confors nn InforosfIng proporfv on fho nIgorIfhm.

Iocnuso !I drops pnckofs rnndomIv, fho probnbIIIfv fhnf !I docIdos fo drop
n pnrfIcuInr fIow`s pnckof(s) Is roughIv proporfIonnI fo fho shnro of fho
bnndwIdfh fhnf fIow Is curronfIv goffIng nf fhnf roufor.
ThIs Is bocnuso n fIow fhnf Is sondIng n roInfIvoIv Inrgo numbor of pnckofs Is
provIdIng moro cnndIdnfos for rnndom droppIng.
Thus, fhoro Is somo sonso of fnIr rosourco nIIocnfIon buIIf Info !I, nIfhough If
Is bv no monns procIso.

UnvesonsIve IIow vobIem
!I works bv sondIng sIgnnIs fo TCI fIows fo foII fhom fo sIow down, vou mIghf
wondor whnf wouId hnppon If fhoso sIgnnIs nro Ignorod. ThIs Is offon cnIIod fho
unreeponeite flou probIom.

PuvtIuI ukets dIsuvd (PP)
ConsIdor nn ATM nofwork, for oxnmpIo.
If vou nro sondIng AA!5 pnckofs fhrough n congosfod ATM swIfch, nnd fho
swIfch Is forcod fo drop ono of fho coIIs from fhnf pnckof, fhon fho ofhor coIIs wIII
bo usoIoss fo fho ond hosf; If wIII hnvo fo roquosf fhnf fho onfIro AA!5 pnckof bo
rofrnnsmIffod.
roppIng fhoso ofhor coIIs, ovon fhough fho swIfch hns onough buffor spnco fo
hoId fhom, mnkos n Iof of sonso. ThIs fochnIquo hns In fncf boon proposod nnd Is
cnIIod porIiol pocleI JiecorJ (II).

uvIy uket dIsuvds (P)
A swIfch cnn bo mndo ovon moro nggrossIvo bv combInIng fho Idon of !I wIfh
fho Idon of II.
Thnf Is, whon nn ATM swIfch Is nonrIng congosfIon nnd fho fIrsf coII of n now
AA!5 pnckof nrrIvos, fho swIfch drops fhnf coII nnd nII fho ofhor coIIs fhnf
boIong fo fhnf AA!5 pnckof.
ThIs onnbIos fho whoIo pnckof, nof jusf fho Insf pnrf of If, fo bo droppod nnd Is
cnIIod eorlx pocleI JiecorJ (II).

.3 SOURC-BAS CONGSTION AVOIANC
!nIIko fho fwo provIous congosfIon nvoIdnnco schomos, whIch dopondod on now
mochnnIsms In fho roufors, wo now doscrIbo n sfrnfogv for dofocfIng fho
IncIpIonf sfngos of congosfIonboforo Iossos occur from fho ond hosfs.
Wo fIrsf gIvo n brIof ovorvIow of n coIIocfIon of roInfod mochnnIsms fhnf uso
dIfforonf InformnfIon fo dofocf fho onrIv sfngos of congosfIon, nnd fhon wo
doscrIbo n spocIfIc mochnnIsm In somo dofnII.

TLe uenevuI Ideu
Tho gonornI Idon of fhoso fochnIquos Is fo wnfch for somo sIgn from fho nofwork
fhnf somo roufor`s quouo Is buIIdIng up nnd fhnf congosfIon wIII hnppon soon If
nofhIng Is dono nbouf If.
Ior exonple, fho sourco mIghf nofIco fhnf ns pnckof quouos buIId up In fho
nofwork`s roufors, fhoro Is n monsurnbIo Incronso In fho !TT for onch succossIvo
pnckof If sonds.

One purticulur ulorithm erploito thio oboertution uo ]ollouo
Tho congosfIon wIndow normnIIv Incronsos ns In TCI, buf ovorv fwo round-frIp
doInvs fho nIgorIfhm chocks fo soo If fho curronf !TT Is gronfor fhnn fho
nvorngo of fho mInImum nnd mnxImum !TTs soon so fnr.
If If Is, fhon fho nIgorIfhm docronsos fho congosfIon wIndow bv ono-oIghfh.

A oeconJ ulorithm Joeo oomethin oimilur.
Tho docIsIon ns fo whofhor or nof fo chnngo fho curronf wIndow sIzo Is bnsod on
chnngos fo bofh fho !TT nnd fho wIndow sIzo.
Tho wIndow Is ndjusfod onco ovorv fwo round-frIp doInvs bnsod on fho producf
(CuvventWIndow - OIdWIndow) (CuvventRTT - OIdRTT)
If fho rosuIf Is posIfIvo, fho sourco docronsos fho wIndow sIzo bv ono-oIghfh; If
fho rosuIf Is nognfIvo or zoro, fho sourco Incronsos fho wIndow bv ono mnxImum
pnckof sIzo.
ofo fhnf fho wIndow chnngos durIng ovorv ndjusfmonf; fhnf Is, If oscIIInfos
nround Ifs opfImnI poInf.
Anofhor chnngo soon ns fho nofwork nppronchos congosfIon Is fho fInffonIng of
fho sondIng rnfo.

A thirJ ocheme tukeo uJtuntue o] thio ]uct
Ivorv !TT, If Incronsos fho wIndow sIzo bv ono pnckofnnd compnros fho
fhroughpuf nchIovod fo fho fhroughpuf whon fho wIndow wns ono pnckof
smnIIor.
If fho dIfforonco Is Ioss fhnn ono-hnIf fho fhroughpuf nchIovod whon onIv ono
pnckof wns In frnnsIfns wns fho cnso nf fho bogInnIng of fho connocfIonfho
nIgorIfhm docronsos fho wIndow bv ono pnckof.
ThIs schomo cnIcuInfos fho fhroughpuf bv dIvIdIng fho numbor of bvfos
oufsfnndIng In fho nofwork bv fho !TT.

A ]ourth mechuniom, fho ono wo nro goIng fo doscrIbo In moro dofnII, Is sImIInr fo fhIs
Insf nIgorIfhm In fhnf If Iooks nf chnngos In fho fhroughpuf rnfo, or moro spocIfIcnIIv,
chnngos In fho sondIng rnfo.
Howovor, If dIffors from fho fhIrd nIgorIfhm In fho wnv If cnIcuInfos fhroughpuf,
nnd Insfond of IookIng for n chnngo In fho sIopo of fho fhroughpuf, If compnros
fho monsurod fhroughpuf rnfo wIfh nn oxpocfod fhroughpuf rnfo.
Tho nIgorIfhm, whIch Is cnIIod TCI Vogns, Is nof wIdoIv dopIovod In fho
Infornof, buf fho sfrnfogv If fnkos confInuos fo bo sfudIod.
Tho InfuIfIon bohInd fho Vogns nIgorIfhm cnn bo soon In fho frnco of sfnndnrd
TCI gIvon In IIguro.
Tho fop grnph shown In IIguro frncos fho connocfIon`s congosfIon wIndow; If
shows fho snmo InformnfIon ns fho frncos gIvon onrIIor In fhIs socfIon.
The miJJle unJ bottom rupho Jepict neu in]ormution

Tho mIddIo grnph shows fho nvorngo sondIng rnfo ns monsurod nf fho sourco,
nnd fho boffom grnph shows fho nvorngo quouo Iongfh ns monsurod nf fho
boffIonock roufor.

ConuestIon wIndow vevsus obsevved tLvouuLut vute (tLe tLvee uvuLs uve
synLvonIzed). To, onuestIon wIndow: mIddIe, obsevved tLvouuLut:
bottom, buIIev sue tuken u ut tLe voutev.
CoIoved IIne = ConuestIonWIndow: soIId buIIet = tImeout: LusL muvks = tIme
wLen euL uket Is tvunsmItted: vevtIuI buvs = tIme wLen u uket tLut wus
eventuuIIy vetvunsmItted wus IIvst tvunsmItted.
(colour line io the one preoent in ]irot purt o] the ]iure)

AII fhroo grnphs nro svnchronIzod In fImo.
In fho porIod bofwoon 4.5 nnd 6.0 soconds (shndod rogIon), fho congosfIon
wIndow Incronsos (fop grnph).
Wo oxpocf fho obsorvod fhroughpuf fo nIso Incronso, buf Insfond If sfnvs fInf
(mIddIo grnph).
ThIs Is bocnuso fho fhroughpuf cnnnof Incronso bovond fho nvnIInbIo bnndwIdfh.
Iovond fhIs poInf, nnv Incronso In fho wIndow sIzo onIv rosuIfs In pnckofs fnkIng
up buffor spnco nf fho boffIonock roufor (boffom grnph).

A ueeful neIopIor IIoI JeecriIee IIe pIenonenon illueIroIeJ in Iigure ie Jriting
on ice. TIe epeeJoneIer (congeeIion uinJou) nox eox IIoI xou ore going 30 nilee
on Iour, IuI Ix looling ouI IIe cor uinJou onJ eeeing people poee xou on fooI
(neoeureJ eenJing roIe), xou lnou IIoI xou ore going no nore IIon nilee on
Iour. TIe exIro energx ie Ieing oIeorIeJ Ix IIe corè Iiree (rouIer Iuffere).

TCI Vogns usos fhIs Idon fo monsuro nnd confroI fho nmounf of oxfrn dnfn fhIs
connocfIon hns In frnnsIf, whoro bv oxfrn dnfn wo monn dnfn fhnf fho sourco
wouId nof hnvo frnnsmIffod hnd If boon frvIng fo mnfch oxncfIv fho nvnIInbIo
bnndwIdfh of fho nofwork.

Tho gonI of TCI Vogns Is fo mnInfnIn fho rIghf nmounf of oxfrn dnfn In fho
nofwork.
ObvIousIv, If n sourco Is sondIng foo much oxfrn dnfn, If wIII cnuso Iong doInvs
nnd possIbIv Iond fo congosfIon.
!oss obvIousIv, If n connocfIon Is sondIng foo IIffIo oxfrn dnfn, If cnnnof rospond
rnpIdIv onough fo frnnsIonf Incronsos In fho nvnIInbIo nofwork bnndwIdfh.
TCI Vogns`s congosfIon-nvoIdnnco ncfIons nro bnsod on chnngos In fho osfImnfod
nmounf of oxfrn dnfn In fho nofwork, nof onIv on droppod pnckofs.
etuIIed desvItIon oI tLe AIuovItLm

IIvst, dofIno n gIvon fIow`s Inso!TT fo bo fho !TT of n pnckof whon fho fIow Is
nof congosfod.
In prncfIco, TCI Vogns sofs Inso!TT fo fho mInImum of nII monsurod round-
frIp fImos; If Is commonIv fho !TT of fho fIrsf pnckof sonf bv fho connocfIon,
boforo fho roufor quouos Incronso duo fo frnffIc gonornfod bv fhIs fIow.

If wo nssumo fhnf wo nro nof ovorfIowIng fho connocfIon, fhon fho oxpocfod
fhroughpuf Is gIvon bv

etedRute = ConuestIonWIndow/BuseRTT
Whoro CongosfIonWIndow Is fho TCI congosfIon wIndow, whIch wo nssumo fo bo
oqunI fo fho numbor of bvfos In frnnsIf.

Seond, TCI Vogns cnIcuInfos fho curronf sondIng rnfo, AcfunI!nfo.
ThIs Is dono bv rocordIng fho sondIng fImo for n dIsfInguIshod pnckof, rocordIng
how mnnv bvfos nro frnnsmIffod bofwoon fho fImo fhnf pnckof Is sonf nnd whon
Ifs ncknowIodgmonf Is rocoIvod, compufIng fho snmpIo !TT for fho
dIsfInguIshod pnckof whon Ifs ncknowIodgmonf nrrIvos, nnd dIvIdIng fho
numbor of bvfos frnnsmIffod bv fho snmpIo !TT.
ThIs cnIcuInfIon Is dono onco por round-frIp fImo.

TLIvd, TCI Vogns compnros AcfunI!nfo fo Ixpocfod!nfo nnd ndjusfs fho
wIndow nccordIngIv.
Wo Iof III = etedRute-AtuuIRute.
ofo fhnf Iff Is posIfIvo or 0 bv dofInIfIon, sInco AtuuIRute >etedRute
ImpIIos fhnf wo nood fo chnngo Inso!TT fo fho Infosf snmpIod !TT.
Wo nIso dofIno fwo fhroshoIds, < , roughIv corrospondIng fo hnvIng foo IIffIo
nnd foo much oxfrn dnfn In fho nofwork, rospocfIvoIv.
Whon Iff < , TCI Vogns Incronsos fho congosfIon wIndow IInonrIv durIng fho
noxf !TT, nnd whon Iff > , TCI Vogns docronsos fho congosfIon wIndow
IInonrIv durIng fho noxf !TT.
TCI Vogns Ionvos fho congosfIon wIndow unchnngod whon < Iff < .
InfuIfIvoIv, wo cnn soo fhnf fho fnrfhor nwnv fho ncfunI fhroughpuf gofs from fho
oxpocfod fhroughpuf, fho moro congosfIon fhoro Is In fho nofwork, whIch ImpIIos
fhnf fho sondIng rnfo shouId bo roducod.
Tho fhroshoId frIggors fhIs docronso.
On fho ofhor hnnd, whon fho ncfunI fhroughpuf rnfo gofs foo cIoso fo fho
oxpocfod fhroughpuf, fho connocfIon Is In dnngor of nof ufIIIzIng fho nvnIInbIo
bnndwIdfh.
Tho fhroshoId frIggors fhIs Incronso.
Tho ovornII gonI Is fo koop bofwoon nnd oxfrn bvfos In fho nofwork.
IIguro boIow frncos fho TCI Vogns congosfIon-nvoIdnnco nIgorIfhm.
Tho fop grnph frncos fho congosfIon wIndow, showIng fho snmo InformnfIon ns
fho ofhor frncos.

Tvue oI TCP Veuus onuestIon-uvoIdune meLunIsm. To, onuestIon
wIndow: bottom, eeted (oIoved IIne) und utuuI (bIuk IIne) tLvouuLut.
TLe sLuded uveu Is tLe veuIon between tLe und tLvesLoIds.
Tho boffom grnph frncos fho oxpocfod nnd ncfunI fhroughpuf rnfos fhnf govorn
how fho congosfIon wIndow Is sof.
If Is fhIs boffom grnph fhnf bosf IIIusfrnfos how fho nIgorIfhm works.
Tho coIorod IIno frncks fho Ixpocfod!nfo, whIIo fho bInck IIno frncks fho
AcfunI!nfo.

Tho wIdo shndod sfrIp gIvos fho rogIon bofwoon fho nnd fhroshoIds; fho fop of
fho shndod sfrIp Is KIps nwnv from Ixpocfod!nfo, nnd fho boffom of fho
shndod sfrIp Is KIps nwnv from Ixpocfod!nfo.
Tho gonI Is fo koop fho AcfunI!nfo bofwoon fhoso fwo fhroshoIds, fhnf Is, wIfhIn
fho shndod rogIon.

Whonovor AcfunI!nfo fnIIs boIow fho shndod rogIon (I.o., gofs foo fnr from
Ixpocfod!nfo), TCI Vogns docronsos fho congosfIon wIndow bocnuso If fonrs
fhnf foo mnnv pnckofs nro boIng bufforod In fho nofwork.
!IkowIso, whonovor AcfunI!nfo goos nbovo fho shndod rogIon (I.o., gofs foo cIoso
fo fho Ixpocfod!nfo), TCI Vogns Incronsos fho congosfIon wIndow bocnuso If
fonrs fhnf If Is undorufIIIzIng fho nofwork.
Iocnuso fho nIgorIfhm, ns jusf prosonfod, compnros fho dIfforonco bofwoon fho
ncfunI nnd oxpocfod fhroughpuf rnfos fo fho nnd fhroshoIds, fhoso fwo
fhroshoIds nro dofInod In forms of KIps.

Howovor, If Is porhnps moro nccurnfo fo fhInk In forms of how mnnv oxfrn
Iuffere fho connocfIon Is occupvIng In fho nofwork.
Ior oxnmpIo, on n connocfIon wIfh n Inso!TT of l00 ms nnd n pnckof sIzo of l
KI, If = 30 KIps nnd = 60 KIps, fhon wo cnn fhInk of ns spocIfvIng fhnf
fho connocfIon noods fo bo occupvIng nf Ionsf fhroo oxfrn buffors In fho nofwork
nnd ns spocIfvIng fhnf fho connocfIon shouId occupv no moro fhnn sIx oxfrn
buffors In fho nofwork.
In prncfIco, n soffIng of fo ono buffor nnd fo fhroo buffors works woII.
IInuIIy vou wIII nofIco fhnf TCI Vogns docronsos fho congosfIon wIndow
IInonrIv, soomIngIv In confIIcf wIfh fho ruIo fhnf muIfIpIIcnfIvo docronso Is
noodod fo onsuro sfnbIIIfv.
Tho oxpInnnfIon Is fhnf TCI Vogns doos uso muIfIpIIcnfIvo docronso whon n
fImoouf occurs; fho IInonr docronso jusf doscrIbod Is nn eorlx docronso In fho
congosfIon wIndow fhnf, hopofuIIv, hnppons boforo congosfIon occurs nnd
pnckofs sfnrf boIng droppod.

3.B OUAIITY OI SRVIC
A nofwork fhnf cnn provIdo dIfforonf IovoIs of porformnnco of sorvIco Is offon snId
fo supporf qunIIfv of sorvIco (QoS).

ApplicoIion IeouirenenIe
1nIegroIeJ Serticee (ISVP)
DifferenIioIeJ Serticee (1I, AI)
ATM QuoliIx of Sertice
1ouoIion-BoeeJ CongeeIion ConIrol

I.1 APPIICATION ROUIRMNTS
Wo cnn dIvIdo nppIIcnfIons Info fwo fvpos:
o ronI-fImo
o non-ronI-fImo
Tho non-ronI-fImo nro somofImos cnIIod frndIfIonnI dnfn nppIIcnfIons, sInco
fhov hnvo frndIfIonnIIv boon fho mnjor nppIIcnfIons found on dnfn nofworks.
Thov IncIudo mosf popuInr nppIIcnfIons IIko ToInof, ITI, omnII, Wob browsIng,
nnd so on.
AII of fhoso nppIIcnfIons cnn work wIfhouf gunrnnfoos of fImoIv doIIvorv of dnfn.
Anofhor form for fhIs non-ronI-fImo cInss of nppIIcnfIons Is eloeIic, sInco fhov nro
nbIo fo sfrofch grncofuIIv In fho fnco of Incronsod doInv.
ofo fhnf fhoso nppIIcnfIons cnn bonofIf from shorfor-Iongfh doInvs, buf fhov do
nof bocomo unusnbIo ns doInvs Incronso. AIso nofo fhnf fhoIr doInv roquIromonfs
vnrv from fho InforncfIvo nppIIcnfIons IIko ToInof fo moro nsvnchronous onos IIko
omnII, wIfh InforncfIvo buIk frnnsfors IIko ITI In fho mIddIo.

ReuI-TIme AudIo umIe

An AudIo AIIutIon
nfn Is gonornfod bv coIIocfIng snmpIos from n mIcrophono nnd dIgIfIzIng fhom
usIng nn nnnIog-fo-dIgIfnI (A) convorfor.
Tho dIgIfnI snmpIos nro pIncod In pnckofs, whIch nro frnnsmIffod ncross fho
nofwork nnd rocoIvod nf fho ofhor ond.
Af fho rocoIvIng hosf, fho dnfn musf bo ploxeJ Iocl nf somo npproprInfo rnfo.

Ior exonple, If fho voIco snmpIos woro coIIocfod nf n rnfo of ono por l25 s, fhov
shouId bo pInvod bnck nf fho snmo rnfo.
Thus, wo cnn fhInk of onch snmpIo ns hnvIng n pnrfIcuInr ploxIocl Iine. fho
poInf In fImo nf whIch If Is noodod In fho rocoIvIng hosf.

In fho voIco oxnmpIo, onch snmpIo hns n pInvbnck fImo fhnf Is l25 s Infor fhnn
fho procodIng snmpIo.
If dnfn nrrIvos nffor Ifs npproprInfo pInvbnck fImo, oIfhor bocnuso If wns doInvod
In fho nofwork or bocnuso If wns droppod nnd subsoquonfIv rofrnnsmIffod, If Is
ossonfInIIv usoIoss.
If Is fho compIofo worfhIossnoss of Info dnfn fhnf chnrncforIzos ronI-fImo
nppIIcnfIons. In oInsfIc nppIIcnfIons, If mIghf bo nIco If dnfn furns up on fImo, buf
wo cnn sfIII uso If whon If doos nof.

Ono wnv fo mnko our voIco nppIIcnfIon work wouId bo fo mnko suro fhnf nII
snmpIos fnko oxncfIv fho snmo nmounf of fImo fo frnvorso fho nofwork.
Thon, sInco snmpIos nro Injocfod nf n rnfo of ono por l25 s, fhov wIII npponr nf
fho rocoIvor nf fho snmo rnfo, rondv fo bo pInvod bnck.

Howovor, If Is gonornIIv dIffIcuIf fo gunrnnfoo fhnf nII dnfn frnvorsIng n pnckof-
swIfchod nofwork wIII oxporIonco oxncfIv fho snmo doInv.
Inckofs oncounfor quouos In swIfchos or roufors nnd fho Iongfhs of fhoso quouos
vnrv wIfh fImo, monnIng fhnf fho doInvs fond fo vnrv wIfh fImo nnd, ns n
consoquonco, nro pofonfInIIv dIfforonf for onch pnckof In fho nudIo sfronm.

Tho wnv fo donI wIfh fhIs nf fho rocoIvor ond Is fo buffor up somo nmounf of
dnfn In rosorvo, fhorobv nIwnvs provIdIng n sforo of pnckofs wnIfIng fo bo pInvod
bnck nf fho rIghf fImo.
If n pnckof Is doInvod n shorf fImo, If goos In fho buffor unfII Ifs pInvbnck fImo
nrrIvos.
If If gofs doInvod n Iong fImo, fhon If wIII nof nood fo bo sforod for vorv Iong In
fho rocoIvor`s buffor boforo boIng pInvod bnck.
Thus, wo hnvo offocfIvoIv nddod n consfnnf offsof fo fho pInvbnck fImo of nII
pnckofs ns n form of Insurnnco.
Wo cnII fhIs offsof fho pluxbuck point.

Tho onIv fImo wo run Info froubIo Is If pnckofs gof doInvod In fho nofwork for
such n Iong fImo fhnf fhov nrrIvo nffor fhoIr pInvbnck fImo, cnusIng fho pInvbnck
buffor fo bo drnInod.
Tho opornfIon of n pInvbnck buffor Is IIIusfrnfod In IIguro boIow.
Tho Ioff-hnnd dIngonnI IIno shows pnckofs boIng gonornfod nf n sfondv rnfo. Tho
wnvv IIno shows whon fho pnckofs nrrIvo, somo vnrInbIo nmounf of fImo nffor
fhov woro sonf, dopondIng on whnf fhov oncounforod In fho nofwork

A PIuybuk BuIIev

Tho rIghf-hnnd dIngonnI IIno shows fho pnckofs boIng pInvod bnck nf n sfondv
rnfo, nffor sIffIng In fho pInvbnck buffor for somo porIod of fImo.
As Iong ns fho pInvbnck IIno Is fnr onough fo fho rIghf In fImo, fho vnrInfIon In
nofwork doInv Is novor nofIcod bv fho nppIIcnfIon.

Howovor, If wo movo fho pInvbnck IIno n IIffIo fo fho Ioff, fhon somo pnckofs wIII
bogIn fo nrrIvo foo Info fo bo usofuI.
Ior our nudIo nppIIcnfIon, fhoro nro IImIfs fo how fnr wo cnn doInv pInvIng bnck
dnfn.
If Is hnrd fo cnrrv on n convorsnfIon If fho fImo bofwoon whon vou sponk nnd
whon vour IIsfonor honrs vou Is moro fhnn 300 ms.
Thus, whnf wo wnnf from fho nofwork In fhIs cnso Is n gunrnnfoo fhnf nII our
dnfn wIII nrrIvo wIfhIn 300 ms.

If dnfn nrrIvos onrIv, wo buffor If unfII Ifs corrocf pInvbnck fImo.
If If nrrIvos Info, wo hnvo no uso for If nnd musf dIscnrd If.
To gof n boffor npprocInfIon of how vnrInbIo nofwork doInv cnn bo,Tho boIow
fIguro shows fho ono-wnv doInv monsurod ovor n corfnIn pnfh ncross fho Infornof
ovor fho courso of ono pnrfIcuInr dnv.


umIe dIstvIbutIon oI deIuys Iov un Intevnet ConnetIon
WhIIo fho oxncf numbors wouId vnrv dopondIng on fho pnfh nnd fho dnfo, fho
kov fncfor horo Is fho torioIiliIx of fho doInv, whIch Is consIsfonfIv found on
nImosf nnv pnfh nf nnv fImo.
As donofod bv fho cumuInfIvo porconfngos gIvon ncross fho fop of fho grnph, 9?
of fho pnckofs In fhIs cnso hnd n Infoncv of l00 ms or Ioss.
ThIs monns fhnf If our oxnmpIo nudIo nppIIcnfIon woro fo sof fho pInvbnck poInf
nf l00 ms, fhon on nvorngo, 3 ouf of ovorv l00 pnckofs wouId nrrIvo foo Info fo bo
of nnv uso.
Ono Imporfnnf fhIng fo nofIco nbouf fhIs grnph Is fhnf fho fnII of fho curvohow
fnr If oxfonds fo fho rIghfIs vorv Iong.
Wo wouId hnvo fo sof fho pInvbnck poInf nf ovor 200 ms fo onsuro fhnf nII
pnckofs nrrIvod In fImo.

Tuonomy oI ReuI-TIme AIIutIons

ToIevune oI Ioss oI dutu
Tho fIrsf chnrncforIsfIc bv whIch wo cnn cnfogorIzo nppIIcnfIons Is fhoIr foIornnco
of Ioss of dnfn, whoro Ioss mIghf occur bocnuso n pnckof nrrIvod foo Info fo bo
pInvod bnck ns woII ns nrIsIng from fho usunI cnusos In fho nofwork.
On fho ono hnnd, ono Iosf nudIo snmpIo cnn bo InforpoInfod from fho
surroundIng snmpIos wIfh roInfIvoIv IIffIo offocf on fho porcoIvod nudIo qunIIfv.
If Is onIv ns moro nnd moro snmpIos nro Iosf fhnf qunIIfv docIInos fo fho poInf
fhnf fho spooch bocomos IncomprohonsIbIo.
On fho ofhor hnnd, n robof confroI progrnm Is IIkoIv fo bo nn oxnmpIo of n ronI-

fImo nppIIcnfIon fhnf cnnnof foIornfo IossIosIng fho pnckof fhnf confnIns fho
commnnd InsfrucfIng fho robof nrm fo sfop Is unnccopfnbIo.
Thus, wo cnn cnfogorIzo ronI-fImo nppIIcnfIons ns IoleronI or inIoleronI
dopondIng on whofhor fhov cnn foIornfo occnsIonnI Ioss. (As nn nsIdo, nofo fhnf
mnnv ronI-fImo nppIIcnfIons nro moro foIornnf of occnsIonnI Ioss fhnn non-ronI-
fImo nppIIcnfIons.
Ior oxnmpIo, compnro our nudIo nppIIcnfIon fo ITI, whoro fho uncorrocfod Ioss
of ono bIf mIghf rondor n fIIo compIofoIv usoIoss.)

AdutubIIIty
A socond wnv fo chnrncforIzo ronI-fImo nppIIcnfIons Is bv fhoIr ndnpfnbIIIfv.
Ior oxnmpIo, nn nudIo nppIIcnfIon mIghf bo nbIo fo ndnpf fo fho nmounf of doInv
fhnf pnckofs oxporIonco ns fhov frnvorso fho nofwork.
If wo nofIco fhnf pnckofs nro nImosf nIwnvs nrrIvIng wIfhIn 300 ms of boIng sonf,
fhon wo cnn sof our pInvbnck poInf nccordIngIv, bufforIng nnv pnckofs fhnf nrrIvo
In Ioss fhnn 300 ms.
Supposo fhnf wo subsoquonfIv obsorvo fhnf nII pnckofs nro nrrIvIng wIfhIn l00
ms of boIng sonf.
If wo movod up our pInvbnck poInf fo l00 ms, fhon fho usors of fho nppIIcnfIon
wouId probnbIv porcoIvo nn Improvomonf.
Tho procoss of shIffIng fho pInvbnck poInf wouId ncfunIIv roquIro us fo pInv ouf
snmpIos nf nn Incronsod rnfo for somo porIod of fImo.
WIfh n voIco nppIIcnfIon, fhIs cnn bo dono In n wnv fhnf Is bnroIv porcopfIbIo,
sImpIv bv shorfonIng fho sIIoncos bofwoon words.

Thus, pInvbnck poInf ndjusfmonf Is fnIrIv onsv In fhIs cnso, nnd If hns boon
offocfIvoIv ImpIomonfod for sovornI voIco nppIIcnfIons such ns fho nudIo
foIoconforoncIng progrnm known ns vnf.

ofo fhnf pInvbnck poInf ndjusfmonf cnn hnppon In oIfhor dIrocfIon, buf fhnf
doIng so ncfunIIv InvoIvos dIsforfIng fho pInvod-bnck sIgnnI durIng fho porIod of
ndjusfmonf, nnd fhnf fho offocfs of fhIs dIsforfIon wIII vorv much dopond on how
fho ond usor usos fho dnfn.

Obsorvo fhnf If wo sof our pInvbnck poInf on fho nssumpfIon fhnf nII pnckofs wIII
nrrIvo wIfhIn l00 ms nnd fhon fInd fhnf somo pnckofs nro nrrIvIng sIIghfIv Info,
wo wIII hnvo fo drop fhom, whorons wo wouId nof hnvo hnd fo drop fhom If wo
hnd Ioff fho pInvbnck poInf nf 300 ms.

Thus, wo shouId ndvnnco fho pInvbnck poInf onIv whon If provIdos n porcopfIbIo
ndvnnfngo nnd onIv whon wo hnvo somo ovIdonco fhnf fho numbor of Info
pnckofs wIII bo nccopfnbIv smnII.

Wo mnv do fhIs bocnuso of obsorvod roconf hIsforv or bocnuso of somo nssurnnco
from fho nofwork. Wo cnII nppIIcnfIons fhnf cnn ndjusf fhoIr pInvbnck poInf
Jelox-oJopIite nppIIcnfIons.
Anofhor cInss of ndnpfIvo nppIIcnfIons nro roIe oJopIite.
Ior oxnmpIo, mnnv vIdoo codIng nIgorIfhms cnn frndo off bIf rnfo vorsus qunIIfv.
Thus, If wo fInd fhnf fho nofwork cnn supporf n corfnIn bnndwIdfh, wo cnn sof
our codIng pnrnmofors nccordIngIv.
If moro bnndwIdfh bocomos nvnIInbIo Infor, wo cnn chnngo pnrnmofors fo
Incronso fho qunIIfv.

AvouLes to OoS Suovt

Thoso cnn bo dIvIdod Info fwo brond cnfogorIos:
]ine-ruineJ nppronchos, whIch provIdo QoS fo IndIvIdunI nppIIcnfIons or fIows
couroe-ruineJ nppronchos, whIch provIdo QoS fo Inrgo cInssos of dnfn or
nggrognfod frnffIc

In fho fIrsf cnfogorv wo fInd Infogrnfod SorvIcos, n QoS nrchIfocfuro dovoIopod
In fho IITI nnd offon nssocInfod wIfh !SVI (!osourco !osorvnfIon IrofocoI).
In fho socond cnfogorv IIos IfforonfInfod SorvIcos, whIch Is undorgoIng
sfnndnrdIznfIon In fho IITI nf fho fImo of wrIfIng.
ATM Is woII known for provIdIng n rIch sof of QoS cnpnbIIIfIos nnd Is normnIIv
consIdorod In fho fIno-grnInod cnfogorv, sInco rosourcos nro nssocInfod wIfh
IndIvIdunI vIrfunI cIrcuIfs.

Howovor, n popuInr uso of ATM Is fo Inforconnocf roufors, nnd roufors mnv
chooso fo sond hIghIv nggrognfod frnffIc down n sIngIo VC, so If Is possIbIo fo uso
ATM for conrso-grnInod QoS ns woII.

IInnIIv, nddIng QoS supporf fo fho nofwork Isn`f nocossnrIIv fho onfIro sforv
nbouf supporfIng ronI-fImo nppIIcnfIons.

Wo concIudo our dIscussIon bv rovIsIfIng whnf fho ond hosf mIghf do fo boffor
supporf ronI-fImo sfronms, Indopondonf of how wIdoIv dopIovod QoS
mochnnIsms IIko Infogrnfod or IfforonfInfod SorvIcos bocomo.
I.2 INTGRAT SRVICS (RSVP)

Tho form Infogrnfod SorvIcos (offon cnIIod InfSorv for shorf) rofors fo n bodv of
work fhnf wns producod bv fho IITI nround l9959?.
Tho InfSorv workIng group dovoIopod spocIfIcnfIons of n numbor of eertice
cloeeee dosIgnod fo moof fho noods of somo of fho nppIIcnfIon fvpos doscrIbod
nbovo.
If nIso dofInod how !SVI couId bo usod fo mnko rosorvnfIons usIng fhoso sorvIco
cInssos.

SevvIe CIusses
Ono of fho sorvIco cInssos Is dosIgnod for inIoleronI opplicoIione.
Thoso nppIIcnfIons roquIro fhnf n pnckof novor nrrIvo Info.
Tho nofwork shouId gunrnnfoo fhnf fho mnxImum doInv fhnf nnv pnckof wIII
oxporIonco hns somo spocIfIod vnIuo; fho nppIIcnfIon cnn fhon sof Ifs pInvbnck
poInf so fhnf no pnckof wIII ovor nrrIvo nffor Ifs pInvbnck fImo.
Wo nssumo fhnf onrIv nrrIvnI of pnckofs cnn nIwnvs bo hnndIod bv bufforIng.
ThIs sorvIco Is roforrod fo ns fho guoronIeeJ sorvIco.

In nddIfIon fo fho gunrnnfood sorvIco, fho IITI consIdorod sovornI ofhor
sorvIcos, buf ovonfunIIv soffIod on ono fo moof fho noods of foIornnf, ndnpfIvo
nppIIcnfIons.
Tho sorvIco Is known ns conIrolleJ looJ nnd wns mofIvnfod bv fho obsorvnfIon
fhnf oxIsfIng nppIIcnfIons of fhIs fvpo run quIfo woII on nofworks fhnf nro nof
honvIIv Iondod.
Tho nudIo nppIIcnfIon vnf, for oxnmpIo, ndjusfs Ifs pInvbnck poInf ns nofwork
doInv vnrIos, nnd producos ronsonnbIo nudIo qunIIfv ns Iong ns Ioss rnfos romnIn
on fho ordor of l0 or Ioss.

Tho nIm of fho confroIIod Iond sorvIco Is fo omuInfo n IIghfIv Iondod nofwork for
fhoso nppIIcnfIons fhnf roquosf fho sorvIco, ovon fhough fho nofwork ns n whoIo
mnv In fncf bo honvIIv Iondod.
Tho frIck fo fhIs Is fo uso n quouIng mochnnIsm such ns WIQ fo IsoInfo fho
confroIIod Iond frnffIc from fho ofhor frnffIc nnd somo form of ndmIssIon confroI
fo IImIf fho fofnI nmounf of confroIIod Iond frnffIc on n IInk suchfhnf fho Iond Is
kopf ronsonnbIv Iow.

CIonrIv, fhoso fwo sorvIco cInssos nro n subsof of nII fho cInssos fhnf mIghf bo
provIdod. If romnIns fo bo soon ns Infogrnfod SorvIcos nro dopIovod whofhor
fhoso fwo nro ndoqunfo fo moof fho noods of nII fho nppIIcnfIon fvpos.

OvevvIew oI MeLunIsms
Firot, whorons wIfh n bosf-offorf sorvIco wo cnn jusf foII fho nofwork whoro wo
wnnf our pnckofs fo go nnd Ionvo If nf fhnf, n ronI-fImo sorvIco InvoIvos foIIIng
fho nofwork somofhIng moro nbouf fho fvpo of sorvIco wo roquIro.
Wo mnv gIvo If qunIIfnfIvo InformnfIon such ns uso n confroIIod Iond sorvIco or
qunnfIfnfIvo InformnfIon such ns I nood n mnxImum doInv of l00 ms.

In nddIfIon fo doscrIbIng whnf wo wnnf, wo nood fo foII fho nofwork somofhIng
nbouf whnf wo nro goIng fo Injocf Info If, sInco n Iow-bnndwIdfh nppIIcnfIon Is
goIng fo roquIro fowor nofwork rosourcos fhnn n hIgh-bnndwIdfh nppIIcnfIon.
Tho sof of InformnfIon fhnf wo provIdo fo fho nofwork Is roforrod fo ns n
]louopec.
ThIs nnmo comos from fho Idon fhnf n sof of pnckofs nssocInfod wIfh n sIngIo
nppIIcnfIon nnd fhnf shnro common roquIromonfs Is cnIIod n fIow, consIsfonf

SeconJ, whon wo nsk fho nofwork fo provIdo us wIfh n pnrfIcuInr sorvIco, fho
nofwork noods fo docIdo If If cnn In fncf provIdo fhnf sorvIco.
Ior oxnmpIo, If l0 usors nsk for n sorvIco In whIch onch wIII consIsfonfIv uso 2
Mbps of IInk cnpncIfv, nnd fhov nII shnro n IInk wIfh l0-Mbps cnpncIfv, fho
nofwork wIII hnvo fo snv no fo somo of fhom.
Tho procoss of docIdIng whon fo snv no Is cnIIod oJnieeion conIrol.

ThirJ, wo nood n mochnnIsm bv whIch fho usors of fho nofwork nnd fho
compononfs of fho nofwork IfsoIf oxchnngo InformnfIon such ns roquosfs for
sorvIco, fIowspocs, nnd ndmIssIon confroI docIsIons.
ThIs Is cnIIod oinulin In fho ATM worId, buf sInco fhIs word hns sovornI
monnIngs, wo rofor fo fhIs procoss ns reeource reeertoIion, nnd If Is nchIovod
usIng n !osourco !osorvnfIon IrofocoI.

Finullx, whon fIows nnd fhoIr roquIromonfs hnvo boon doscrIbod, nnd ndmIssIon
confroI docIsIons hnvo boon mndo, fho nofwork swIfchos nnd roufors nood fo
moof fho roquIromonfs of fho fIows.
A kov pnrf of moofIng fhoso roquIromonfs Is mnnngIng fho wnv pnckofs nro
quouod nnd schoduIod for frnnsmIssIon In fho swIfchos nnd roufors.
ThIs Insf mochnnIsm Is pucket ocheJulin.

IIowses
There ure tuo oepuruble purto to the ]louopec
Tho pnrf fhnf doscrIbos fho fIow`s frnffIc chnrncforIsfIcs (cnIIod fho TSpec)
Tho pnrf fhnf doscrIbos fho sorvIco roquosfod from fho nofwork (fho ISpec).
Tho !Spoc Is vorv sorvIco spocIfIc nnd roInfIvoIv onsv fo doscrIbo.
Tho TSpoc Is n IIffIo moro compIIcnfod.
Ior mosf nppIIcnfIons, howovor, fho bnndwIdfh Is nof n sIngIo numbor; If Is
somofhIng fhnf vnrIos consfnnfIv.
A vIdoo nppIIcnfIon, for oxnmpIo, wIII gonornIIv gonornfo moro bIfs por socond
whon fho scono Is chnngIng rnpIdIv fhnn whon If Is sfIII.
Jusf knowIng fho Iong-form nvorngo bnndwIdfh Is nof onough, ns fho foIIowIng
oxnmpIo IIIusfrnfos.
Supposo fhnf wo hnvo l0 fIows fhnf nrrIvo nf n swIfch on sopnrnfo Inpuf porfs
nnd fhnf nII Ionvo on fho snmo l0-Mbps IInk.
Assumo fhnf ovor somo suIfnbIv Iong InforvnI onch fIow cnn bo oxpocfod fo sond
no moro fhnn l Mbps.
You mIghf fhInk fhnf fhIs prosonfs no probIom.

Howovor, If fhoso nro vnrInbIo bIf rnfo nppIIcnfIons, such ns comprossod vIdoo,
fhon fhov wIII occnsIonnIIv sond moro fhnn fhoIr nvorngo rnfos.
If onough sourcos sond nf nbovo fhoIr nvorngo rnfos, fhon fho fofnI rnfo nf whIch
dnfn nrrIvos nf fho swIfch wIII bo gronfor fhnn l0 Mbps.
ThIs oxcoss dnfn wIII bo quouod boforo If cnn bo sonf on fho IInk. Tho Iongor fhIs
condIfIon porsIsfs, fho Iongor fho quouo wIII gof. Inckofs mIghf hnvo fo bo
droppod, nnd ovon If If doosn`f como fo fhnf, dnfn sIffIng In fho quouo Is boIng
doInvod.

If pnckofs nro doInvod Iong onough, fho sorvIco fhnf wns roquosfod wIII nof bo
provIdod.
IxncfIv how wo mnnngo our quouos fo confroI doInv nnd nvoId droppIng pnckofs
Is somofhIng wo dIscuss boIow.

Howovor, nofo horo fhnf wo nood fo know somofhIng nbouf how fho bnndwIdfh of
our sourcos vnrIos wIfh fImo.
Ono wnv fo doscrIbo fho bnndwIdfh chnrncforIsfIcs of sourcos Is cnIIod n token
bucket IIItev.
Such n fIIfor Is doscrIbod bv fwo pnrnmofors: n fokon rnfo r nnd n buckof dopfh
B.

If works ns foIIows.
To bo nbIo fo sond n bvfo, I musf hnvo n fokon.
To sond n pnckof of Iongfh n, I nood n fokons. I sfnrf wIfh no fokons nnd I
nccumuInfo fhom nf n rnfo of r por socond. I cnn nccumuInfo no moro fhnn B
fokons.
Whnf fhIs monns Is fhnf I cnn sond n bursf of ns mnnv ns B bvfos Info fho
nofwork ns fnsf ns I wnnf, buf ovor n suffIcIonfIv Iong InforvnI, I cnn`f sond moro
fhnn r bvfos por socond.
If furns ouf fhnf fhIs InformnfIon Is vorv hoIpfuI fo fho ndmIssIon confroI
nIgorIfhm whon If frIos fo fIguro ouf whofhor If cnn nccommodnfo n now roquosf
for sorvIco.
IIguro IIIusfrnfos how n fokon buckof cnn bo usod fo chnrncforIzo n fIow`s
bnndwIdfh roquIromonfs.

Tuo ]louo uith equul uterue ruteo but Ji]]erent token bucket Jeocriptiono

Ior sImpIIcIfv, nssumo fhnf onch fIow cnn sond dnfn ns IndIvIdunI bvfos, rnfhor
fhnn ns pnckofs.

IIow A gonornfos dnfn nf n sfondv rnfo of l MIps, so If cnn bo doscrIbod bv n
fokon buckof fIIfor wIfh n rnfo r = l MIps nnd n buckof dopfh of l bvfo.
ThIs monns fhnf If rocoIvos fokons nf n rnfo of l MIps buf fhnf If cnnnof sforo
moro fhnn l fokonIf sponds fhom ImmodInfoIv.

IIow I nIso sonds nf n rnfo fhnf nvorngos ouf fo l MIps ovor fho Iong form, buf
doos so bv sondIng nf 0.5 MIps for 2 soconds nnd fhon nf 2 MIps for l socond.
SInco fho fokon buckof rnfo r Is, In n sonso, n Iong-form nvorngo rnfo, fIow I cnn
bo doscrIbod bv n fokon buckof wIfh n rnfo of l MIps.
!nIIko fIow A, howovor, fIow I noods n buckof dopfh B of nf Ionsf l MI, so fhnf
If cnn sforo up fokons whIIo If sonds nf Ioss fhnn l MIps fo bo usod whon If
sonds nf 2 MIps.

Ior fho fIrsf 2 soconds In fhIs oxnmpIo, If rocoIvos fokons nf n rnfo of l MIps buf
sponds fhom nf onIv 0.5 MIps, so If cnn snvo up 2 0.5 = l MI of fokons, whIch
If fhon sponds In fho fhIrd socond (nIong wIfh fho now fokons fhnf confInuo fo
nccruo In fhnf socond) fo sond dnfn nf 2 MIps. Af fho ond of fho fhIrd socond,
hnvIng sponf fho oxcoss fokons, If sfnrfs fo snvo fhom up ngnIn bv sondIng nf 0.5
MIps ngnIn.
If Is InforosfIng fo nofo fhnf n sIngIo fIow cnn bo doscrIbod bv mnnv dIfforonf
fokon buckofs.

As n frIvInI oxnmpIo, fIow A couId bo doscrIbod bv fho snmo fokon buckof ns fIow
I, wIfh n rnfo of l MIps nnd n buckof dopfh of l MI.
Tho fncf fhnf If novor ncfunIIv noods fo nccumuInfo fokons doos nof mnko fhnf nn
Innccurnfo doscrIpfIon, buf If doos monn fhnf wo hnvo fnIIod fo convov somo
usofuI InformnfIon fo fho nofwork fho fncf fhnf fIow A Is ncfunIIv vorv
consIsfonf In Ifs bnndwIdfh noods.
In gonornI, If Is good fo bo ns oxpIIcIf nbouf fho bnndwIdfh noods of nn
nppIIcnfIon ns possIbIo, fo nvoId ovornIIocnfIon of rosourcos In fho nofwork.

AdmIssIon ContvoI

TLe Ideu beLInd udmIssIon ontvoI Is sImIe:

Whon somo now fIow wnnfs fo rocoIvo n pnrfIcuInr IovoI of sorvIco, ndmIssIon
confroI Iooks nf fho TSpoc nnd !Spoc of fho fIow nnd frIos fo docIdo If fho dosIrod
sorvIco cnn bo provIdod fo fhnf nmounf of frnffIc, gIvon fho curronfIv nvnIInbIo
rosourcos, wIfhouf cnusIng nnv provIousIv ndmIffod fIow fo rocoIvo worso sorvIco
fhnn If hnd roquosfod.

If If cnn provIdo fho sorvIco, fho fIow Is ndmIffod; If nof, fhon If Is donIod.
Tho hnrd pnrf Is fIgurIng ouf whon fo snv vos nnd whon fo snv no.
AdmIssIon confroI Is vorv dopondonf on fho fvpo of roquosfod sorvIco nnd on fho
quouIng dIscIpIIno ompIovod In fho roufors; wo dIscuss fho Inffor fopIc Infor In
fhIs socfIon. Ior n gunrnnfood sorvIco, vou nood fo hnvo n good nIgorIfhm fo
mnko n dofInIfIvo vos/no docIsIon.

Ior n confroIIod IondsorvIco, fho docIsIon mnv bo bnsod on hourIsfIcs, such ns
Tho Insf fImo I nIIowod n fIow wIfh fhIs TSpoc Info fhIs cInss, fho doInvs for fho
cInss oxcoodod fho nccopfnbIo bound, so I`d boffor snv no or Mv curronf doInvs
nro so fnr InsIdo fho bounds fhnf I shouId bo nbIo fo ndmIf nnofhor fIow wIfhouf
dIffIcuIfv.

AdmIssIon confroI shouId nof bo confusod wIfh policing.
Tho formor Is n porfIow docIsIon fo ndmIf n now fIow or nof.
Tho Inffor Is n funcfIon nppIIod on n porpnckof bnsIs fo mnko suro fhnf n fIow
conforms fo fho TSpoc fhnf wns usod fo mnko fho rosorvnfIon.
If n fIow doos nof conform fo Ifs TSpocfor oxnmpIo, bocnuso If Is sondIng fwIco
ns mnnv bvfos por socond ns If snId If wouIdfhon If Is IIkoIv fo Inforforo wIfh
fho sorvIco provIdod fo ofhor fIows, nnd somo corrocfIvo ncfIon musf bo fnkon.
Thoro nro sovornI opfIons, fho obvIous ono boIng fo drop offondIng pnckofs.

Howovor, nnofhor opfIon wouId bo fo chock If fho pnckofs ronIIv nro InforforIng
wIfh fho sorvIco of ofhor fIows.
If fhov nro nof InforforIng, fho pnckofs couId bo sonf on nffor boIng mnrkod wIfh
n fng fhnf snvs, In offocf, ThIs Is n nonconformIng pnckof.

rop If fIrsf If vou nood fo drop nnv pnckofs.
AdmIssIon confroI Is cIosoIv roInfod fo fho Imporfnnf Issuo of policx.
Ior oxnmpIo, n nofwork ndmInIsfrnfor mIghf wIsh fo nIIow rosorvnfIons mndo bv

hIs compnnv`s CIO fo bo ndmIffod whIIo rojocfIng rosorvnfIons mndo bv moro
IowIv ompIovoos.
Of courso, fho CIO`s rosorvnfIon roquosf mIghf sfIII fnII If fho roquosfod
rosourcos nron`f nvnIInbIo, so wo soo fhnf Issuos of poIIcv nnd rosourco
nvnIInbIIIfv mnv bofh bo nddrossod whon ndmIssIon confroI docIsIons nro mndo.
Tho nppIIcnfIon of poIIcv fo nofworkIng Is nn nron rocoIvIng much nffonfIon nf
fho fImo of wrIfIng.

ResevvutIon PvotooI
Ono of fho kov nssumpfIons undorIvIng !SVI Is fhnf If shouId nof dofrncf from
fho robusfnoss fhnf wo fInd In fodnv`s connocfIonIoss nofworks.
Iocnuso connocfIonIoss nofworks roIv on IIffIo or no sfnfo boIng sforod In fho
nofwork IfsoIf, If Is possIbIo for roufors fo crnsh nnd roboof nnd for IInks fo go up
nnd down whIIo ond-fo-ond connocfIvIfv Is sfIII mnInfnInod.
!SVI frIos fo mnInfnIn fhIs robusfnoss bv usIng fho Idon of eofI eIoIe In fho
roufors.

SoIt stute
Soff sfnfoIn confrnsf fo fho hnrd sfnfo found In connocfIon-orIonfod nofworks
doos nof nood fo bo oxpIIcIfIv doIofod whon If Is no Iongor noodod.
Insfond, If fImos ouf nffor somo fnIrIv shorf porIod (snv, n mInufo) If If Is nof
porIodIcnIIv rofroshod.
Anofhor Imporfnnf chnrncforIsfIc of !SVI Is fhnf iI oine Io eupporI nulIicoeI
floue jueI oe effecIitelx oe unicoeI floue.
Ono of fho InsIghfs of !SVI`s dosIgnors Is fhnf mosf muIfIcnsf nppIIcnfIons hnvo
mnnv moro rocoIvors fhnn sondors, ns fvpIfIod bv fho Inrgo nudIonco nnd ono
sponkor for n Iocfuro cnrrIod on fho MIono.
AIso, rocoIvors mnv hnvo dIfforonf roquIromonfs.


Ior oxnmpIo, ono rocoIvor mIghf wnnf fo rocoIvo dnfn from onIv ono sondor,
whIIo ofhors mIghf wIsh fo rocoIvo dnfn from nII sondors.
!nfhor fhnn hnvIng fho sondors koop frnck of n pofonfInIIv Inrgo numbor of
rocoIvors, If mnkos moro sonso fo Iof fho rocoIvors koop frnck of fhoIr own noods.
ThIs suggosfs fho receiter-orienIeJ nppronch ndopfod bv !SVI. In confrnsf,
connocfIon-orIonfod nofworks usunIIv Ionvo rosourco rosorvnfIon fo fho sondor,
jusf ns If Is normnIIv fho orIgInnfor of n phono cnII who cnusos rosourcos fo bo
nIIocnfod In fho phono nofwork.

Tho soff sfnfo nnd rocoIvor-orIonfod nnfuro of !SVI gIvo If n numbor of nIco
proporfIos.
Ono nIco proporfv Is fhnf If Is vorv sfrnIghfforwnrd fo Incronso or docronso fho
IovoI of rosourco nIIocnfIon provIdod fo n rocoIvor.
SInco onch rocoIvor porIodIcnIIv sonds rofrosh mossngos fo koop fho soff sfnfo In
pInco, If Is onsv fo sond n now rosorvnfIon fhnf nsks for n now IovoI of rosourcos.
In fho ovonf of n hosf crnsh, rosourcos nIIocnfod bv fhnf hosf fo n fIow wIII
nnfurnIIv fImo ouf nnd bo roIonsod.

To soo whnf hnppons In fho ovonf of n roufor or IInk fnIIuro, wo nood fo Iook n
IIffIo moro cIosoIv nf fho mochnnIcs of mnkIng n rosorvnfIon.
InIfInIIv, consIdor fho cnso of ono sondor nnd ono rocoIvor frvIng fo gof n
rosorvnfIon for frnffIc fIowIng bofwoon fhom.

There ure tuo thino thut neeJ to huppen be]ore u receiter cun muke the
reoertution

IIvst, fho rocoIvor noods fo know whnf frnffIc fho sondor Is IIkoIv fo sond so fhnf
If cnn mnko nn npproprInfo rosorvnfIon.
Thnf Is, If noods fo know fho sondor`s TSpoc.

Seond, If noods fo know whnf pnfh fho pnckofs wIII foIIow from sondor fo
rocoIvor, so fhnf If cnn osfnbIIsh n rosourco rosorvnfIon nf onch roufor on fho
pnfh.
Iofh of fhoso roquIromonfs cnn bo mof bv sondIng n mossngo from fho sondor fo
fho rocoIvor fhnf confnIns fho TSpoc.

ObvIousIv, fhIs gofs fho TSpoc fo fho rocoIvor.
Tho ofhor fhIng fhnf hnppons Is fhnf onch roufor Iooks nf fhIs mossngo (cnIIod n
IATH mossngo) ns If goos pnsf, nnd If fIguros ouf fho reteree poII fhnf wIII bo
usod fo sond rosorvnfIons from fho rocoIvor bnck fo fho sondor In nn offorf fo gof
fho rosorvnfIon fo onch roufor on fho pnfh.

HnvIng rocoIvod n IATH mossngo, fho rocoIvor sonds n rosorvnfIon bnck up fho
muIfIcnsf froo In n !ISV mossngo. ThIs mossngo confnIns fho sondor`s TSpoc
nnd nn !Spoc doscrIbIng fho roquIromonfs of fhIs rocoIvor.
Inch roufor on fho pnfh Iooks nf fho rosorvnfIon roquosf nnd frIos fo nIIocnfo fho
nocossnrv rosourcos fo snfIsfv If.
If fho rosorvnfIon cnn bo mndo, fho !ISV roquosf Is pnssod on fo fho noxf roufor.
If nof, nn orror mossngo Is rofurnod fo fho rocoIvor who mndo fho roquosf.

If nII goos woII, fho corrocf rosorvnfIon Is InsfnIIod nf ovorv roufor bofwoon fho
sondor nnd fho rocoIvor.
As Iong ns fho rocoIvor wnnfs fo rofnIn fho rosorvnfIon, If sonds fho snmo !ISV
mossngo nbouf onco ovorv 30 soconds.

ow wo cnn soo whnf hnppons whon n roufor or IInk fnIIs. !oufIng profocoIs wIII
ndnpf fo fho fnIIuro nnd cronfo n now pnfh from sondor fo rocoIvor.
IATH mossngos nro sonf nbouf ovorv 30 soconds, nnd mnv bo sonf soonor If n
roufor dofocfs n chnngo In Ifs forwnrdIng fnbIo, so fho fIrsf ono nffor fho now
roufo sfnbIIIzos wIII ronch fho rocoIvor ovor fho now pnfh.

Tho rocoIvor`s noxf !ISV mossngo wIII foIIow fho now pnfh nnd (hopofuIIv)
osfnbIIsh n now rosorvnfIon on fho now pnfh.
MonnwhIIo, fho roufors fhnf nro no Iongor on fho pnfh wIII sfop goffIng !ISV
mossngos nnd fhoso rosorvnfIons wIII fImo ouf nnd bo roIonsod.

Thus !SVI donIs quIfo woII wIfh chnngos In fopoIogv, ns Iong ns roufIng chnngos
nro nof oxcossIvoIv froquonf.
Tho noxf fhIng wo nood fo consIdor Is how fo copo wIfh muIfIcnsf, whoro fhoro
mnv bo muIfIpIo sondors fo n group nnd muIfIpIo rocoIvors.

MukInu vesevvutIons on u muItIust tvee

IIrsf, Iof`s donI wIfh muIfIpIo rocoIvors for n sIngIo sondor .
As n !ISV mossngo frnvoIs up fho muIfIcnsf froo, If Is IIkoIv fo hIf n pIoco of fho
froo whoro somo ofhor rocoIvor`s rosorvnfIon hns nIrondv boon osfnbIIshod.
If mnv bo fho cnso fhnf fho rosourcos rosorvod upsfronm of fhIs poInf nro
ndoqunfo fo sorvo bofh rocoIvors.

Ior oxnmpIo, If rocoIvor A hns nIrondv mndo n rosorvnfIon fhnf provIdos for n
gunrnnfood doInv of Ioss fhnn l00 ms, nnd fho now roquosf from rocoIvor I Is for
n doInv of Ioss fhnn 200 ms, fhon no now rosorvnfIon Is roquIrod.
On fho ofhor hnnd, If fho now roquosf woro for n doInv of Ioss fhnn 50 ms, fhon
fho roufor wouId fIrsf nood fo soo If If couId nccopf fho roquosf, nnd If so, If wouId
sond fho roquosf on upsfronm.
Tho noxf fImo rocoIvor A nskod for n mInImum of n l00-ms doInv, fho roufor
wouId nof nood fo pnss fhIs roquosf on.

In gonornI, rosorvnfIons cnn bo morgod In fhIs wnv fo moof fho noods of nII
rocoIvors downsfronm of fho morgo poInf.
If fhoro nro nIso muIfIpIo sondors In fho froo, rocoIvors nood fo coIIocf fho TSpocs
from nII sondors nnd mnko n rosorvnfIon fhnf Is Inrgo onough fo nccommodnfo
fho frnffIc from nII sondors.
Howovor, fhIs mnv nof monn fhnf fho TSpocs nood fo bo nddod up.

Ior oxnmpIo, In nn nudIoconforonco wIfh l0 sponkors, fhoro Is nof much poInf In
nIIocnfIng onough rosourcos fo cnrrv l0 nudIo sfronms, sInco fho rosuIf of l0
poopIo sponkIng nf onco wouId bo IncomprohonsIbIo.
Thus, wo couId ImngIno n rosorvnfIon fhnf Is Inrgo onough fo nccommodnfo fwo
sponkors nnd no moro.
CnIcuInfIng fho corrocf ovornII TSpoc from nII fho sondor TSpocs Is cIonrIv
nppIIcnfIon spocIfIc.
AIso, wo mnv onIv bo Inforosfod In honrIng from n subsof of nII possIbIo
sponkors; !SVI hns dIfforonf rosorvnfIon sfvIos fo donI wIfh such opfIons ns
!osorvo rosourcos for nII sponkors, !osorvo rosourcos for nnv n sponkors, nnd
!osorvo rosourcos for sponkors A nnd I onIv.

Puket CIussIIyInu und SLeduIInu
Onco wo hnvo doscrIbod our frnffIc nnd our dosIrod nofwork sorvIco nnd hnvo
InsfnIIod n suIfnbIo rosorvnfIon nf nII fho roufors on fho pnfh, fho onIv fhIng fhnf
romnIns Is for fho roufors fo ncfunIIv doIIvor fho roquosfod sorvIco fo fho dnfn
pnckofs.
TLeve uve two tLInus tLut need to be done

AssocInfo onch pnckof wIfh fho npproprInfo rosorvnfIon so fhnf If cnn bo hnndIod
corrocfIv, n procoss known ns cloeeifxing pnckofs.
Mnnngo fho pnckofs In fho quouos so fhnf fhov rocoIvo fho sorvIco fhnf hns boon
roquosfod, n procoss known ns pnckof ecIeJuling.
Tho fIrsf pnrf Is dono bv oxnmInIng up fo fIvo fIoIds In fho pnckof:

o Tho sourco nddross.
o Tho dosfInnfIon nddross,
o IrofocoI numbor
o Sourco porf
o osfInnfIon porf

Insod on fhIs InformnfIon, fho pnckof cnn bo pIncod In fho npproprInfo cInss.
Ior oxnmpIo, If mnv bo cInssIfIod Info fho confroIIod Iond cInssos, or If mnv bo
pnrf of n gunrnnfood fIow fhnf noods fo bo hnndIod sopnrnfoIv from nII ofhor
gunrnnfood fIows.

In shorf, fhoro Is n mnppIng from fho fIowspocIfIc InformnfIon In fho pnckof
hondor fo n sIngIo cInss IdonfIfIor fhnf doformInos how fho pnckof Is hnndIod In
fho quouo.
Ior gunrnnfood fIows, fhIs mIghf bo n ono-fo-ono mnppIng, whIIo for ofhor
sorvIcos; If mIghf bo mnnv fo ono.
Tho dofnIIs of cInssIfIcnfIon nro cIosoIv roInfod fo fho dofnIIs of quouo
mnnngomonf.

If shouId bo cIonr fhnf somofhIng ns sImpIo ns n IIIO quouo In n roufor wIII bo
Inndoqunfo fo provIdo mnnv dIfforonf sorvIcos nnd fo provIdo dIfforonf IovoIs of
doInv wIfhIn onch sorvIco.
Tho dofnIIs of pnckof schoduIIng IdonIIv shouId nof bo spocIfIod In fho sorvIco
modoI.
Insfond, fhIs Is nn nron whoro ImpIomonfors cnn frv fo do cronfIvo fhIngs fo

ronIIzo fho sorvIco modoI offIcIonfIv.
In fho cnso of gunrnnfood sorvIco, If hns boon osfnbIIshod fhnf n woIghfod fnIr
quouIng dIscIpIIno, In whIch onch fIow gofs Ifs own IndIvIdunI quouo wIfh n
corfnIn shnro of fho IInk, wIII provIdo n gunrnnfood ond-fo-ond doInv bound fhnf
cnn rondIIv bo cnIcuInfod.

Ior confroIIod Iond, sImpIor schomos mnv bo usod.
Ono possIbIIIfv IncIudos fronfIng.nII fho confroIIod Iond frnffIc ns n sIngIo,
nggrognfod fIow (ns fnr ns fho schoduIIng mochnnIsm Is concornod), wIfh fho
woIghf for fhnf fIow boIng sof bnsod on fho fofnI nmounf of frnffIc ndmIffod In fho
confroIIod Iond cInss.

Tho probIom Is mndo hnrdor whon vou consIdor fhnf In n sIngIo roufor, mnnv
dIfforonf sorvIcos nro IIkoIv fo bo provIdod concurronfIv, nnd fhnf onch of fhoso
sorvIcos mnv roquIro n dIfforonf schoduIIng nIgorIfhm.
Thus, somo ovornII quouo mnnngomonf nIgorIfhm Is noodod fo mnnngo fho
rosourcos bofwoon fho dIfforonf sorvIcos.

SuIubIIIty Issues
WhIIo fho Infogrnfod SorvIcos nrchIfocfuro nnd !SVI roprosonfod n sIgnIfIcnnf
onhnncomonf of fho bosf-offorf sorvIco modoI of II, mnnv Infornof sorvIco
provIdors foIf fhnf If wns nof fho rIghf modoI for fhom fo dopIov.
Tho ronson for fhIs rofIconco roInfos fo ono of fho fundnmonfnI dosIgn gonIs of II:
scnInbIIIfv.
In fho bosf-offorf sorvIco modoI, roufors In fho Infornof sforo IIffIo or no sfnfo
nbouf fho IndIvIdunI fIows pnssIng fhrough fhom.

Thus, ns fho Infornof grows, fho onIv fhIng roufors hnvo fo do fo koop up wIfh
fhnf growfh Is fo movo moro bIfs por socond nnd fo donI wIfh Inrgor roufIng
fnbIos.
Iuf !SVI rnIsos fho possIbIIIfv fhnf ovorv fIow pnssIng fhrough n roufor mIghf
hnvo n corrospondIng rosorvnfIon.

To undorsfnnd fho sovorIfv of fhIs probIom, supposo fhnf ovorv fIow on nn OC-48
(2.5-Cbps) IInk roprosonfs n 64-Kbps nudIo sfronm.
Tho numbor of such fIows Is 2.5 l0
9
/64 l0
3
= 39,000
Inch of fhoso rosorvnfIons noods somo nmounf of sfnfo fhnf noods fo bo sforod In
momorv nnd rofroshod porIodIcnIIv.
Tho roufor noods fo cInssIfv, poIIco, nnd quouo onch of fhoso fIows.
AdmIssIon confroI docIsIons nood fo bo mndo ovorv fImo such n fIow roquosfs n
rosorvnfIon.
And somo mochnnIsms nro noodod fo push bnck on usors so fhnf fhov don`f
mnko nrbIfrnrIIv Inrgo rosorvnfIons for Iong porIods of fImo.
Thoso scnInbIIIfv concorns hnvo, nf fho fImo of wrIfIng, provonfod fho wIdosprond
dopIovmonf of InfSorv.
Iocnuso of fhoso concorns, ofhor nppronchos fhnf do nof roquIro so much por-
fIow sfnfo hnvo boon dovoIopod. Tho noxf socfIon dIscussos n numbor of such
nppronchos.

I.3 IIIRNTIAT SRVICS (I, AI)
IfforonfInfod SorvIcos modoI (offon cnIIod IffSorv for shorf) nIIocnfos rosourcos
fo n smnII numbor of cInssos of frnffIc.
Thio io un eminentlx oenoible upprouch to tuke
If vou consIdor fho dIffIcuIfv fhnf nofwork opornfors oxporIonco jusf frvIng fo
koop n bosf-offorf Infornof runnIng smoofhIv, If mnkos sonso fo ndd fo fho sorvIco
modoI In smnII Incromonfs.
In fncf, fho IfforonfInfod SorvIcos workIng group of fho IITI Is sfnndnrdIzIng n
sof of roufor bohnvIors fo bo nppIIod fo mnrkod pnckofs.
Thoso nro cnIIod por-hop bohnvIors (IHIs), n form fhnf IndIcnfos fhnf fhov
dofIno fho bohnvIor of IndIvIdunI roufors rnfhor fhnn ond-fo-ond sorvIcos.
Iocnuso fhoro Is moro fhnn ono now bohnvIor, fhoro Is nIso n nood for moro fhnn
l bIf In fho pnckof hondor fo foII fho roufors whIch bohnvIor fo nppIv.
Tho IITI hns docIdod fo fnko fho oId TOS bvfo from fho II hondor, whIch hns
nof boon wIdoIv usod, nnd rodofIno If.
SIx bIfs of fhIs bvfo hnvo boon nIIocnfod for IffSorv codo poInfs (SCI), whoro
onch SCI Is n 6-bIf vnIuo fhnf IdonfIfIos n pnrfIcuInr IHI fo bo nppIIod fo n
pnckof.

Ono of fho sImpIosf IHIs fo oxpInIn Is known ns oxpodIfod forwnrdIng (II).
Inckofs mnrkod for II fronfmonf shouId bo forwnrdod bv fho roufor wIfh
mInImnI doInv nnd Ioss.
Tho onIv wnv fhnf n roufor cnn gunrnnfoo fhIs fo nII II pnckofs Is If fho nrrIvnI
rnfo of II pnckofs nf fho roufor Is sfrIcfIv IImIfod fo bo Ioss fhnn fho rnfo nf
whIch fho roufor cnn forwnrd II pnckofs.

Tho rnfo IImIfIng of II pnckofs Is nchIovod bv confIgurIng fho roufors nf fho odgo
of nn ndmInIsfrnfIvo domnIn fo nIIow n corfnIn mnxImum rnfo of II pnckof
nrrIvnIs Info fho domnIn.
Thoro nro sovornI possIbIo ImpIomonfnfIon sfrnfogIos for fho II bohnvIor.

Ono Is fo gIvo II pnckofs sfrIcf prIorIfv ovor nII ofhor pnckofs.
Anofhor Is fo porform woIghfod fnIr quouIng bofwoon II pnckofs nnd ofhor
pnckofs, wIfh fho woIghf of II sof suffIcIonfIv hIgh fhnf nII II pnckofs cnn bo
doIIvorod quIckIv. ThIs hns nn ndvnnfngo ovor sfrIcf prIorIfv:

Tho non-II pnckofs cnn bo nssurod of goffIng somo nccoss fo fho IInk, ovon If fho
nmounf of II frnffIc Is oxcossIvo.
Anofhor IHI Is known ns nssurod forwnrdIng (AI). ThIs bohnvIor hns Ifs roofs
In nn nppronch known ns !I wIfh In nnd Ouf (!IO) or WoIghfod !I, wo
soo drop probnbIIIfv on fho x-nxIs IncronsIng ns nvorngo quouo Iongfh Incronsos
nIong fho x-nxIs.
Iuf now, for our fwo cInssos of frnffIc, wo hnvo fwo sopnrnfo drop probnbIIIfv
curvos. !IO cnIIs fho fwo cInssos In nnd ouf for ronsons fhnf wIII bocomo cIonr
shorfIv.
Iocnuso fho ouf curvo hns n Iowor MInThroshoId fhnn fho In curvo, If Is cIonr
fhnf, undor Iow IovoIs of congosfIon, onIv pnckofs mnrkod ouf wIII bo dIscnrdod
bv fho !I nIgorIfhm.

If fho congosfIon bocomos moro sorIous, n hIghor porconfngo of ouf pnckofs nro
droppod, nnd fhon If fho nvorngo quouo Iongfh oxcoods MInin, !I sfnrfs fo drop
In pnckofs ns woII.

Tho ronson for cnIIIng fho fwo cInssos of pnckofs In nnd ouf sfoms from fho
wnv fho pnckofs nro mnrkod.Wo nIrondv nofod fhnf pnckof mnrkIng cnn bo
porformod bv n roufor nf fho odgo of nn ndmInIsfrnfIvo domnIn.
Wo cnn fhInk of fhIs roufor ns boIng nf fho boundnrv bofwoon n nofwork sorvIco
provIdor nnd somo cusfomor of fhnf nofwork.
In pnrfIcuInr, If fho mnjorIfv of pnckofs, IncIudIng fhoso sonf bv cusfomors who
hnvo nof pnId oxfrn fo osfnbIIsh n profIIo, nro ouf pnckofs, fhon If shouId
usunIIv bo fho cnso fhnf fho !IO mochnnIsm wIII ncf fo koop congosfIon Iow
onough fhnf In pnckofs nro rnroIv droppod.
CIonrIv, fhoro musf bo onough bnndwIdfh In fho nofwork so fhnf fho In pnckofs
nIono nro rnroIv nbIo fo congosf n IInk fo fho poInf whoro !IO sfnrfs droppIng
In pnckofs.

Jusf IIko !I, fho offocfIvonoss of n mochnnIsm IIko !IO doponds fo somo oxfonf
on corrocf pnrnmofor choIcos, nnd fhoro nro consIdornbIv moro pnrnmofors fo sof
for !IO.
Ono InforosfIng proporfv of !IO Is fhnf If doos nof chnngo fho ordor of In nnd
ouf pnckofs.
Tho Idon of !IO cnn bo gonornIIzod fo provIdo moro fhnn fwo dro probnbIIIfv
curvos, nnd fhIs Is fho Idon bohInd fho nppronch known ns woIghfod !I
(W!I).

In fhIs cnso, fho vnIuo of fho SCI fIoId Is usod fo pIck ono of sovornI drop
probnbIIIfv curvos, so fhnf sovornI dIfforonf cInssos of sorvIco cnn bo provIdod.
A fhIrd wnv fo provIdo IfforonfInfod SorvIcos Is fo uso fho SCI vnIuo fo
doformIno whIch quouo fo puf n pnckof Info In n woIghfod fnIr quouIng
schoduIor.
As n vorv sImpIo cnso, wo mIghf uso ono codo poInf fo IndIcnfo fho bosf-offorf
quouo nnd n socond codo poInf fo soIocf fho promIum quouo.
Wo fhon nood fo chooso n woIghf for fho promIum quouo fhnf mnkos fho
promIum pnckofs gof boffor sorvIco fhnn fho bosf-offorf pnckofs. ThIs doponds on
fho offorod Iond of promIum pnckofs.

Ior oxnmpIo, If wo gIvo fho promIum quouo n woIghf of l nnd fho bosf-offorf
quouo n woIghf of 4, fhnf onsuros fhnf fho bnndwIdfh nvnIInbIo fo promIum
pnckofs Is.


Thnf Is, wo hnvo offocfIvoIv rosorvod 20 of fho IInk for promIum pnckofs, so If
fho offorod Iond of promIum frnffIc Is onIv l0 of fho IInk on nvorngo, fhon fho
promIum. TrnffIc wIII bohnvo ns If If Is runnIng on n vorv undorIondod nofwork
nnd fho sorvIco wIII bo vorv good.

In pnrfIcuInr, fho doInv oxporIoncod bv fho promIum cInss cnn bo kopf Iow, sInco
WIQ wIII frv fo frnnsmIf promIum pnckofs ns soon ns fhov nrrIvo In fhIs
sconnrIo.

On fho ofhor hnnd, If fho promIum frnffIc Iond woro 30, If wouId bohnvo IIko n
hIghIv Iondod nofwork, nnd doInv couId bo vorv hIgh for fho promIum pnckofs
ovon worso fhnn fho so-cnIIod bosf-offorf pnckofs.

Thus, knowIodgo of fho offorod Iond nnd cnrofuI soffIng of woIghfs Is Imporfnnf
for fhIs fvpo of sorvIco.

Howovor, nofo fhnf fho snfo nppronch Is fo bo vorv consorvnfIvo In soffIng fho
woIghf for fho promIum quouo.
If fhIs woIghf Is mndo vorv hIgh roInfIvo fo fho oxpocfod Iond, If provIdos n
mnrgIn of orror nnd vof doos nof provonf fho bosf-offorf frnffIc from usIng nnv
bnndwIdfh fhnf hns boon rosorvod for promIum buf Is nof usod bv promIum
pnckofs.

I.4 ATM OUAIITY OI SRVIC
In mnnv rospocfs, fho QoS cnpnbIIIfIos fhnf nro provIdod In ATM nofworks nro
sImIInr fo fhoso provIdod In nn II nofwork usIng Infogrnfod SorvIcos.
Howovor, fho ATM sfnndnrds bodIos cnmo up wIfh n fofnI of fIvo sorvIco cInssos
compnrod fo fho IITI`s fhroo.
TIe fite ATM eertice cloeeee ore...

consfnnf bIf rnfo (CI!)
vnrInbIo bIf rnforonI-fImo (VI!-rf)
vnrInbIo bIf rnfonon-ronI-fImo (VI!-nrf)
nvnIInbIo bIf rnfo (AI!)
unspocIfIod bIf rnfo (!I!)

MosfIv fho ATM nnd II sorvIco cInssos nro quIfo sImIInr, buf ono of fhom, AI!,
hns no ronI counforpnrf In II.

In ATM, qunIIfv of sorvIco Is dofInod nf fho fImo n vIrfunI cIrcuIf Is sof up.
ThIs Is dono bv IncIudIng InformnfIon In fho sIgnnIIIng mossngos fhnf nro sonf nf
VC sofup fImo.

VI!-rf Is vorv much IIko fho gunrnnfood sorvIco cInss In II Infogrnfod SorvIcos.
Tho oxncf pnrnmofors fhnf nro usod fo sof up n VI!-rfVCnro sIIghfIv dIfforonf
fhnn fhoso usod fo mnko n gunrnnfood sorvIco rosorvnfIon,buf fho bnsIc Idon Is
fho snmo.
Tho frnffIc gonornfod bv fho sourco Is chnrncforIzod bv n fokon buckof, nnd fho
mnxImum fofnI doInv roquIrod fhrough fho nofwork Is spocIfIod.

CI! Is nof foo dIfforonf fhnn VI!-rf, oxcopf fhnf sourcos of CI! frnffIc nro
oxpocfod fo sond nf n consfnnf rnfo.
ofo fhnf fhIs Is ronIIv n spocInI cnso of VI!, whoro fho sourco`s ponk rnfo nnd
nvorngo rnfo of frnnsmIssIon nro oqunI.

Tho mnIn ronson for mnkIng fhIs n sopnrnfo cInss In ATM Is fhnf fhIs spocInI
cnso Is vIowod ns vorv Imporfnnf fo foIophono compnnIos, sInco fho mnjorIfv of
fho sorvIcos fhov offor fodnvvoIco cnIIs nnd Ionsod IInos, for oxnmpIoprovIdo
n pIpo of fIxod bnndwIdfh fo fho ond usor.
CI! nIso furnod ouf fo bo n roInfIvoIv onsv sorvIco fo spocIfv nnd ImpIomonf, so
fhnf mnnv onrIv ATM swIfchos couId supporf CI! buf nof VI!.
Tho onrIv nvnIInbIIIfv of CI! In ATM producfs corfnInIv hoIpod fho nccopfnnco of
ATM In fho mnrkofpInco, ospocInIIv sInco fhoso producfs npponrod boforo II
roufors wIfh nnv QoS fonfuros fo sponk of woro nvnIInbIo.

VI!-nrf bonrs somo sImIInrIfv fo II`s confroIIod Iond sorvIco. AgnIn, fho sourco
frnffIc Is spocIfIod bv n fokon buckof, buf fhoro Is nof fho snmo hnrd doInv
gunrnnfoo of VI!-rf or II`s gunrnnfood sorvIco.

!I! Is ATM`s bosf-offorf sorvIco.
Thoro Is ono smnII dIfforonco bofwoon !I! nnd fho sfnndnrd bosf-offorf modoI
provIdod In II.
Iocnuso ATM nIwnvs roquIros n sIgnnIIIng phnso boforo dnfn Is sonf, If Is
possIbIo fo convov InformnfIon nbouf fho sourconf VC sofup fImo.

!I! nIIows fho sourco fo spocIfv n mnxImum rnfo nf whIch If wIII sond, whIch
mnv bo Ioss fhnn fho IIno rnfo.
SwIfchos mnv mnko uso of fhIs InformnfIon fo docIdo whofhor ndmIffIng fho now
VC wouId ndvorsoIv nffocf provIousIv osfnbIIshod VCs, nnd fhus mnv rojocf fho
VC sofup or frv fo nogofInfo n Iowor ponk rnfo wIfh fhIs sourco.
IInnIIv, wo como fo AI!, whIch Is moro fhnn jusf n sorvIco cInss; If nIso dofInos n
sof of congosfIon-confroI mochnnIsms.
HnvIng boon dosIgnod bv n sfnndnrds bodv, If Is rnfhor compIox, so fhIs socfIon
covors onIv n fow of fho hIgh poInfs.

IInnIIv, wo como fo AI!, whIch Is moro fhnn jusf n sorvIco cInss; If nIso dofInos n
sof of congosfIon-confroI mochnnIsms. HnvIng boon dosIgnod bv n sfnndnrds
bodv, If Is rnfhor compIox, so fhIs socfIon covors onIv n fow of fho hIgh poInfs.

An ATM vIrfunI cIrcuIf cIonrIv hns fwo onds, whIch wo cnn cnII fho eource nnd
fho JeeIinoIion.
VCs nro usunIIv bIdIrocfIonnI, so n nodo fhnf Is fho sourco In ono dIrocfIon Is
gonornIIv fho dosfInnfIon In fho ofhor.
Tho AI! mochnnIsms opornfo ovor n vIrfunI cIrcuIf bv oxchnngIng spocInI ATM
coIIs cnIIod rosourco mnnngomonf (!M) coIIs bofwoon fho sourco nnd dosfInnfIon
of fho VC.

Tho gonI of sondIng fho !M coIIs Is fo gof InformnfIon nbouf fho sfnfo of
congosfIon In fho nofwork bnck fo fho sourco so fhnf If cnn sond frnffIc nf nn
npproprInfo rnfo. In fhIs rospocf, !M coIIs nro nn oxpIIcIf congosfIon foodbnck
mochnnIsm.
ThIs Is sImIInr fo fho ICbIf, buf confrnsfs wIfh TCI`s uso of ImpIIcIf foodbnck,
whIch doponds on pnckof Iossos fo dofocf congosfIon.
InIfInIIv, fho sourco sonds fho coII fo fho dosfInnfIon nnd IncIudos In If fho rnfo nf
whIch If wouId IIko fo sond dnfn coIIs.
SwIfchos nIong fho pnfh Iook nf fho roquosfod rnfo nnd docIdo If suffIcIonf
rosourcos nro nvnIInbIo fo hnndIo fhnf rnfo, bnsod on fho nmounf of frnffIc boIng
cnrrIod on ofhor cIrcuIfs.

If onough rosourcos nro nvnIInbIo, fho !M coII Is pnssod on unmodIfIod;
ofhorwIso, fho roquosfod rnfo Is docronsod boforo fho coII Is pnssod nIong.
Af fho dosfInnfIon, fho !M coII Is furnod nround nnd sonf bnck fo fho sourco,
whIch fhorobv Ionrns whnf rnfo If cnn sond nf.

Tho InfonfIon of AI! Is fo nIIow n sourco fo Incronso or docronso Ifs nIIoffod rnfo
ns condIfIons dIcfnfo. As n consoquonco, !M coIIs nro sonf porIodIcnIIv nnd mnv
confnIn oIfhor hIghor or Iowor roquosfod rnfos. AIso, fho rnfo nf whIch n sourco Is
nIIowod fo sond docnvs wIfh fImo If nof usod.

WhIIo wo nssumod so fnr fhnf fho sourco nnd dosfInnfIon of fho !M coIIs nro fho
ondpoInfs of fho VC, fhIs nood nof bo fho cnso.
AI! oxfonds fho nofIon of sourco nnd dosfInnfIon, InfroducIng fho concopfs of
vIrfunI sourco (VS) nnd vIrfunI dosfInnfIon (V).
Thov nro vIrfunI In fho sonso fhnf fhov nro nof fho fruo ondpoInfs of fho VC.

ThIs onnbIos fho confroI Ioop nround whIch !M coIIs fIow fo bo mndo shorfor
fhnn fho VC IfsoIf.
Iv mnkIng fho confroI Ioops shorfor, fho rosponso fImo of fho svsfom cnn bo
roducod.
Iurfhormoro, If mnv roduco fho buffor roquIromonfs of fho swIfchos bv roducIng
fho fImo bofwoon whon fhov sonso congosfIon nnd whon fho (vIrfunI) sourco
sIows down.

A vIrfunI cIrcuIf fhnf hns boon sogmonfod In fho mIddIo wIfh n vIrfunI sourco
nnd vIrfunI dosfInnfIon Is shown In IIguro.
Tho ronI sourco sonds !M coIIs fo fho swIfch provIdIng VS/V cnpnbIIIfv, nnd
fhnf swIfch, ncfIng ns V, furns nround fho !M coIIs.
If wIII IncIudo In fhoso coIIs fho rnfo nf whIch If Is wIIIIng fo nccopf frnffIc on fhIs
VC.
In Ifs cnpncIfv ns VS, If nIso orIgInnfos!McoIIs fownrd fho ronI dosfInnfIon,
whIch wIII In furn bo sonf bnck fo fho VS foIIIng If nf whnf rnfo If cnn sond frnffIc
on fhIs VC.
Thoro Is n gronf donI of fIoxIbIIIfv In how n swIfch ncfunIIv ImpIomonfs AI!.

In gonornI, proprIofnrv nIgorIfhms nro usod fo sof fho rnfos In !M coIIs ns fhov
pnss fhrough fho swIfchos, bnsod on n wIdo vnrIofv of InformnfIon such ns fho
curronf buffor occupnncv nnd fho monsurod nrrIvnI rnfos on nII VCs, ns woII ns
fho nIIoffod rnfos on fhoso VCs (whIch mnv nof bo fho snmo ns fho monsurod
rnfos).
Thoso nIgorIfhms, ns Is normnI for congosfIon-confroI nIgorIfhms, sook fo
mnxImIzo fhroughpuf nnd wIII koop doInv nnd Ioss Iow.

Ono uncorfnIn nspocf of AI! Is how If Inforncfs wIfh TCI`s congosfIon-nvoIdnnco
mochnnIsms.
Thoso mochnnIsms nro fInoIv funod bnsod on oxporIonco, nnd fhov work on fho
promIso fhnf fhoro Is nofhIng fnncv goIng on In fho nofworkIf vou sond foo fnsf,
pnckofs gof droppod. WIfh AI!, vou cnn ImngIno fhnf fho VS mIghf hnvo fo drop
pnckofs whIIo If wnIfs for nn !M coII fo rofurn, ovon fhough fhoro Is In fncf no
ronI congosfIon In fho nofwork.
Af fho fImo of wrIfIng, mosf of fho oxporIonco wIfh AI! hns boon In sImuInfIon
nnd Inbornforv condIfIons, nnd ronI-worId oxporIonco hns boon !ImIfod.

I.5 OUATION-BAS CONGSTION CONTROI
Is If possIbIo fo nchIovo fho bosf of bofh worIds: compnfIbIIIfv wIfh TCI
congosfIon confroI for fho snko of fnIrnoss, whIIo susfnInIng n smoofh
frnnsmIssIon rnfo for fho snko of fho nppIIcnfIon`
!oconf work suggosfs fhnf fho nnswor Is vos.

SpocIfIcnIIv, sovornI so-cnIIod TCI-frIondIv congosfIon-confroI nIgorIfhms hnvo
boon proposod.

Thoso nIgorIfhms hnvo fwo mnIn gonIs.
Ono Is fo sIowIv ndnpf fho congosfIon wIndow. ThIs Is dono bv ndnpfIng ovor
roInfIvoIv Iongor fImo porIods (o.g., nn !TT) rnfhor fhnn on n por-pnckof bnsIs.
ThIs smoofhs ouf fho frnnsmIssIon rnfo.
Tho socond Is fo bo TCI-frIondIv In fho sonso of boIng fnIr fo compofIng TCI
fIows. ThIs proporfv Is offon onforcod bv onsurIng fhnf fho fIow`s bohnvIor
ndhoros fo nn oqunfIon fhnf modoIs TCI`s bohnvIor. Honco, fhIs nppronch Is
somofImos cnIIod eouoIion-IoeeJ congeeIion conIrol.

Ior our purposos, fho oxncf form of fho oqunfIon Is Ioss InforosfIng fhnn Ifs
gonornI form:

WhIch snvs fhnf fo bo TCI-frIondIv, fho frnnsmIssIon rnfo musf bo InvorsoIv
proporfIonnI fo fho round-frIp fImo (!TT) nnd fho squnro roof of fho Ioss rnfo ().

3.9 BANWITH- IAY- JITTR
G.1 BANWITH- IAY
ofwork porformnnco Is monsurod In fwo fundnmonfnI wnvs:
BonJuiJII (oleo colleJ IIrougIpuI)
IoIencx (oleo colleJ Jelox).
Tho bnndwIdfh of n nofwork Is gIvon bv fho numbor of bIfs fhnf cnn bo
frnnsmIffod ovor fho nofwork In n corfnIn porIod of fImo.

Ior oxnmpIo, n nofwork mIghf hnvo n bnndwIdfh of l0 mIIIIon bIfs/socond
(Mbps), monnIng fhnf If Is nbIo fo doIIvor l0 mIIIIon bIfs ovorv socond.
If Is somofImos usofuI fo fhInk of bnndwIdfh In forms of how Iong If fnkos fo
frnnsmIf onch bIf of dnfn. On n l0-Mbps nofwork, for oxnmpIo, If fnkos 0.l
mIcrosocond (s) fo frnnsmIf onch bIf.

WhIIo vou cnn fnIk nbouf fho bnndwIdfh of fho nofwork ns n whoIo, somofImos
vou wnnf fo bo moro procIso, focusIng, for oxnmpIo, on fho bnndwIdfh of n sIngIo
phvsIcnI IInk or of n IogIcnI procoss-fo-procoss chnnnoI.
Af fho phvsIcnI IovoI, bnndwIdfh Is consfnnfIv ImprovIng, wIfh no ond In sIghf.
InfuIfIvoIv, If vou fhInk of n socond of fImo ns n dIsfnnco vou couId monsuro wIfh
n ruIor, nnd bnndwIdfh ns how mnnv bIfs fIf In fhnf dIsfnnco, fhon vou cnn fhInk
of onch bIf ns n puIso of somo wIdfh.

Ior oxnmpIo, onch bIf on n l-Mbps IInk Is l s wIdo, whIIo onch bIf on n 2-Mbps
IInk Is 0.5 s wIdo, ns IIIusfrnfod In IIguro.

Bito trunomitteJ ut u purticulur bunJuiJth cun be reurJeJ uo hutin
oome uiJth: (u) bito trunomitteJ ut 1 Mbpo (euch bit 1 o uiJe), (b) bito
trunomitteJ ut 2 Mbpo (euch bit 0.5 o uiJe).

Tho moro sophIsfIcnfod fho frnnsmIffIng nnd rocoIvIng fochnoIogv, fho nnrrowor
onch bIf cnn bocomo, nnd fhus, fho hIghor fho bnndwIdfh.
Ior IogIcnI procoss-fo-procoss chnnnoIs, bnndwIdfh Is nIso InfIuoncod bv ofhor

fncfors, IncIudIng how mnnv fImos fho soffwnro fhnf ImpIomonfs fho chnnnoI hns
fo hnndIo, nnd possIbIv frnnsform, onch bIf of dnfn.
Tho socond porformnnco mofrIc, Infoncv, corrosponds fo how Iong If fnkos n
mossngo fo frnvoI from ono ond of n nofwork fo fho ofhor. !nfoncv Is monsurod
sfrIcfIv In forms of fImo.
Thoro nro mnnv sIfunfIons In whIch If Is moro Imporfnnf fo know how Iong If
fnkos fo sond n mossngo from ono ond of n nofwork fo fho ofhor nnd bnck, rnfhor
fhnn fho ono-wnv Infoncv. Wo cnII fhIs fho rounJ-trip time (RTT) o] the
netuork.
TLvee omonents oI Iuteny
IIvst fhoro Is fho spood of- IIghf propngnfIon doInv.
ThIs doInv occurs bocnuso nofhIng, IncIudIng n bIf on n wIro, cnn frnvoI fnsfor
fhnn fho spood of IIghf.
If vou know fho dIsfnnco bofwoon fwo poInfs, vou cnn cnIcuInfo fho spood-of IIghf
Infoncv, nIfhough vou hnvo fo bo cnrofuI bocnuso IIghf frnvoIs ncross dIfforonf
modIums nf dIfforonf spoods: If frnvoIs nf 3.0l08 m/s In n vncuum, 2.3l08 m/s
In n cnbIo, nnd 2.0l08 m/s In n fIbor.

Seond, fhoro Is fho nmounf of fImo If fnkos fo frnnsmIf n unIf of dnfn.
ThIs Is n funcfIon of fho nofwork bnndwIdfh nnd fho sIzo of fho pnckof In whIch
fho dnfn Is cnrrIod.

TLIvd, fhoro mnv bo quouIng doInvs InsIdo fho nofwork, sInco pnckof swIfchos
gonornIIv nood fo sforo pnckofs for somo fImo boforo forwnrdIng fhom on nn
oufbound IInk,
So, wo couId dofIno fho fofnI Infoncv ns.
Iuteny = PvouuutIon + TvunsmIt + Oueue
PvouuutIon = Istune/SeedOIIIuLt
TvunsmIt = SIze/BundwIdtL
Whoro Isfnnco Is fho Iongfh of fho wIro ovor whIch fho dnfn wIII frnvoI,
SpoodOf!Ighf Is fho offocfIvo spood of IIghf ovor fhnf wIro, SIzo Is fho sIzo of fho
pnckof, nnd InndwIdfh Is fho bnndwIdfh nf whIch fho pnckof Is frnnsmIffod.
IIguro gIvos vou n sonso of how Infoncv or bnndwIdfh cnn domInnfo porformnnco
In dIfforonf cIrcumsfnncos of vnrIous sIzos (l bvfo, 2 KI, l MI) ncross nofworks
wIfh !TTs rnngIng from l fo l00 ms nnd IInk spoods of oIfhor l.5 or l0 Mbps.

PeveIved Iuteny vesonse tIme vevsus vound tvItIme Iov vuvIous objet
sIzes und IInk seeds
Wo uso IognrIfhmIc scnIos fo show roInfIvo porformnnco. Ior n l-bvfo objocf (snv,
n kovsfroko), Infoncv romnIns nImosf oxncfIv oqunI fo fho !TT, so fhnf vou
cnnnof dIsfInguIsh bofwoon n l.5-Mbps nofwork nnd n l0-Mbps nofwork.
Ior n 2-KI objocf (snv, nn omnII mossngo), fho IInk spood mnkos quIfo n
dIfforonco on n l-ms !TT nofwork buf n nogIIgIbIo dIfforonco on n l00- ms !TT
nofwork.
And for n l-MI objocf (snv, n dIgIfnI Imngo), fho !TT mnkos no dIfforoncoIf Is
fho IInk spood fhnf domInnfos porformnnco ncross fho fuII rnngo of !TT.

G.2 IAY BANWITH PROUCT

InfuIfIvoIv, If wo fhInk of n chnnnoI bofwoon n pnIr of procossos ns n hoIIow pIpo
(soo IIguro), whoro fho Infoncv corrosponds fo fho Iongfh of fho pIpo nnd fho
bnndwIdfh gIvos fho dInmofor of fho pIpo, fhon fho doInv bnndwIdfh producf
gIvos fho voIumo of fho pIpofho numbor of bIfs If hoIds.
SnId nnofhor wnv, If Infoncv (monsurod In fImo) corrosponds fo fho Iongfh of fho
pIpo, fhon gIvon fho wIdfh of onch bIf (nIso monsurod In fImo), vou cnn cnIcuInfo
how mnnv bIfs fIf In fho pIpo.

Ior oxnmpIo, n frnnsconfInonfnI chnnnoI wIfh n ono-wnv Infoncv of 50 ms nnd n
bnndwIdfh of 45 Mbps Is nbIo fo hoId 50 l0
3
soconds 45 l0
6
bIfs/socond=
2.2 106 IiIe or npproxImnfoIv 280 KI of dnfn.
Tho doInv bnndwIdfh producf Is Imporfnnf fo know whon consfrucfIng hIgh
porformnnco nofworks bocnuso If corrosponds fo how mnnv bIfs fho sondor musf
frnnsmIf boforo fho fIrsf bIf nrrIvos nf fho rocoIvor.

If fho sondor Is oxpocfIng fho rocoIvor fo somohow sIgnnI fhnf bIfs nro sfnrfIng fo
nrrIvo, nnd If fnkos nnofhor chnnnoI Infoncv for fhIs sIgnnI fo propngnfo bnck fo
fho sondor (I.o., wo nro Inforosfod In fho chnnnoI`s !TT rnfhor fhnn jusf Ifs ono-
wnv Infoncv), fhon fho sondor cnn sond up fo fwo doInv bnndwIdfh`s worfh of
dnfn boforo honrIng from fho rocoIvor fhnf nII Is woII.
Tho bIfs In fho pIpo nro snId fo bo In fIIghf, whIch monns fhnf If fho rocoIvor
foIIs fho sondor fo sfop frnnsmIffIng; If mIghf rocoIvo up fo n doInv bnndwIdfh`s
worfh of dnfn boforo fho sondor mnnngos fo rospond.
In our oxnmpIo nbovo, fhnf nmounf corrosponds fo 5.5 l0
6
bIfs (6?l KI) of
dnfn.
On fho ofhor hnnd, If fho sondor doos nof fIII fho pIposond n whoIo doInv
bnndwIdfh producf`s worfh of dnfn boforo If sfops fo wnIf for n sIgnnIfho sondor
wIII nof fuIIv ufIIIzo fho nofwork.

G.3 HIGH-SP NTWORKS
Tho bnndwIdfhs nvnIInbIo on fodnv`s nofworks nro IncronsIng nf n drnmnfIc rnfo,
nnd fhoro Is ofornnI opfImIsm fhnf nofwork bnndwIdfh wIII confInuo fo Improvo.
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bv fho sImpIo roInfIonshIp.
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fho snmo.
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fImo fo dIspInv If.
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If noods In fImo fo updnfo fho scroon, nnd fho vIdoo qunIIfv wIII suffor; If wIII nof
bo smoofh.
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fho Infoncv fhnf n pnckof cnn oxporIonco, If cnn doInv fho fImo nf whIch If sfnrfs
pInvIng bnck fho vIdoo (I.o., dIspInvs fho fIrsf frnmo) Iong onough fo onsuro fhnf
In fho fufuro If wIII nIwnvs hnvo n frnmo fo dIspInv whon If noods If.
Tho rocoIvor doInvs fho frnmo, offocfIvoIv smoofhIng ouf fho jIffor, bv sforIng If
In n buffor.

***N***
Unit 4: Network Security & Application
*Kalpana**Sujatha**Karpagam**Marimuthu**Thangavel Murugan* 4.1

UNIT IV
NETWORK SECURITY AND APPLICATION

4.1 CRYPTOGRAPHIC ALGORITHMS
There are three types of cryptographic algorithms: secret key algorithms, public
key algorithms, and hashing algorithms.
Secret key algorithms are symmetric in the sense that both participants in the
communication share a single key.

Fig: Secret key encryption

The above Figure illustrates the use of secret key encryption to transmit data
over an otherwise insecure channel. DES (Data Encryption Standard) is the best-known
example of a secret key encryption function, while IDEA (International Data
Encryption Algorithm) is another.

In contrast to a pair of participants sharing a single secret key, public key
cryptography involves each participant having a private key that is shared with no one
else and a public key that is published so everyone knows it. To send a secure message
to this participant, you encrypt the message using the widely known public key.


The participant then decrypts the message using his or her private key. This
scenario is depicted in the below Figure. RSA - named after its inventors, Rivest,
Shamir, and Adleman - is the best-known public key encryption algorithm.

Fig: Public key encryption

The third type of cryptography algorithm is called a hash or message digest
function. Unlike the preceding two types of algorithms, cryptographic hash functions
typically dont involve the use of keys.

Instead, the idea is to map a potentially large message into a small fixed-length
number, analogous to the way a regular hash function maps values from a large space
into values from a small space.

The best way to think of a cryptographic hash function is that it computes a
cryptographic checksum over a message. That is, just as a regular checksum protects
the receiver from accidental changes to the message, a cryptographic checksum protects
the receiver from malicious changes to the message.

The all cryptographic hash algorithms are carefully selected to be one-way
functions - given a cryptographic checksum for a message, it is virtually impossible to
figure out what message produced that checksum. Said another way, it is not
computationally feasible to find two messages that hash to the same cryptographic
checksum.

The relevance of this property is that if you are given a checksum for a message
(along with the message), and you are able to compute exactly the same checksum for
that message, then it is highly likely that this message produced the checksum you
were given. The most widely used cryptographic checksum algorithm is Message Digest
version 5 (MD5).

Fig: Taxonomy of network security.

To reemphasize, cryptography algorithms like DES, RSA, and MD5 are just
building blocks from which a secure system can be constructed. The above Figure gives
a simple taxonomy.

A) REQUIREMENTS
The basic requirement for an encryption algorithm is that it is able to turn
plaintext into ciphertext in such a way that only the intended recipientthe holder of
the decryption keycan recover the plaintext. What this means is that the encryption
method should be safe from attacks by people who do not hold the key.

As a starting point, we should assume that the encryption algorithm itself is
known and that only the key is kept secret. The reason for this assumption is that if
you depend on the algorithm being kept secret, then you have to throw it out when you
believe it is no longer secret.

The frequent changes of the algorithm, which is problematic since it takes a lot
of work to develop a new algorithm. Also, one of the best ways to know that an
algorithm is effective is to use it for a long timeif no one breaks it, its probably
secure. (Fortunately, there are plenty of people who will try to break algorithms and
who will let it be widely known when they have succeeded, so no news is generally good
news.) Thus, there is considerable risk in deploying a new algorithm. Therefore, our
first requirement is that secrecy of the key, and not of the algorithm itself, is the only
thing that is needed to ensure the privacy of the data.

It is important to realize that when someone receives a piece of ciphertext, they
may have more information at their disposal than just the ciphertext itself. For
example, they may know that the plaintext was written in English, which means that
the letter e occurs more often in the plaintext than any other letter; the frequency of
many other letters and common letter combinations can also be predicted.

This information can greatly simplify the task of finding the key. Similarly, they
may know something about the likely contents of the message; for example, the word
login is likely to occur at the start of a remote login session. This may enable a
known plaintext attack, which has a much higher chance of success than a ciphertext
only attack.

Even better is a chosen plaintext attack, which may be enabled by feeding
some information to the sender that you know the sender is likely to transmitsuch
things have happened in wartime, for example.

The best cryptographic algorithms, therefore, can prevent the attacker from
deducing the key even when the individual knows both the plaintext and the ciphertext.
One approach, the one taken in DES, is to make the algorithm so complicated that
virtually none of the structure of the plaintext remains in the ciphertext. This leaves
the attacker with no choice but to search the space of possible keys exhaustively.

The algorithm can be made infeasible by choosing a suitably large key space and
by making the operation of checking a key reasonably costly. As we will see, DES is now
becoming only marginally secure on that basis.

Some other cryptographic algorithms derive their strength from mathematics.
RSA, for example, can be broken only if the attacker is able to find the factors of a
number that is the product of two large primes - a problem that is known (or at least
widely believed) to be very costly.

4.2 SECRET KEY ENCRYPTION (DES)
DES encrypts a 64-bit block of plaintext using a 64-bit key. The key actually
contains only 56 usable bitsthe last bit of each of the 8 bytes in the key is a parity bit
for that byte. Also, messages larger than 64 bits can be encrypted using DES, as
described below.

DES has three distinct phases:
1) The 64 bits in the block are permuted (shuffled).
2) Sixteen rounds of an identical operation are applied to the resulting data and the
key.
3) The inverse of the original permutation is applied to the result.

The below Table represents part of the initial permutation. The final
permutation is the inverse (e.g., bit 40 would be permuted to bit position 1. It is
generally agreed that these two permutations add nothing to the security of DES.

Some security experts speculate that they were included to make the
computation take longer, but it is just as likely that they are an artifact of the initial
hardware implementation, involving some restriction of pin layout, for example.


Fig: High-level outline of DES

Table: Initial (and final) DES permutation


During each round, the 64-bit block is broken into two 32-bit halves, and a
different 48 bits are selected from the 56-bit key. If we denote the left and right halves
of the block at round i as Li and Ri, respectively, and the 48-bit key at round i as Ki ,
then these three pieces are combined during round i according to the following rule:
Li = Ri1
Ri = Li1 F (Ri1, Ki )
Where F is a combiner function described below and is the exclusive-OR (XOR)
operator.

Fig: Manipulation at each round of DES

The above Figure illustrates the basic operation of each round. Note that L0 and
R0 correspond to the left and right halves of the 64-bit block that results from the
initial permutation, and that L16 and R16 are combined back together to form the 64-
bit block to which the final inverse permutation is applied.

We now need to define function F and show how each Ki is derived from the 56-
bit key. We start with the key. Initially, the 56-bit key is permuted according to below
Table.


Table: DES key permutation

Note that every eighth bit is ignored (i.e., bit 64 is missing from the table),
reducing the key from 64 bits to 56 bits. Then for each round, the current 56 bits are
divided into two 28-bit halves and each half is independently rotated left either one or
two bit positions, depending on the round. The extent of the rotation in bits for each
round is given in below Table.

Table: DES key rotation amount per round
The 56 bits that result from this shift is used both as input for the next round
(i.e., the preceding shift is repeated) and to select the 48 bits that make up the key for
the current round.

Table: DES compression permutation

The above Table shows how 48 of the 56 bits are selected; note that they are
simultaneously selected and permuted. For example, the bit in position 9 is not selected
because it is not in the table.

Function F combines the resulting 48-bit key for round i (Ki ) with the right half
of the data block after round i1 (Ri1), as follows. To simplify our notation, we refer to
Ki and Ri1 as K and R, respectively.

First, function F expands R from 32 bits into 48 bits so that it can be combined
with the 48-bit K. It does this by breaking R into eight 4-bit chunks and expanding each
chunk into 6 bits by stealing the rightmost and leftmost bit from the left and right
adjacent 4-bit chunks, respectively. This expansion is illustrated in the below Figure,
where R is treated as circular in the sense that the first and last chunks get their extra
bit from each other.

Fig: Expansion phase of DES

Next, the 48-bit K is divided into eight 6-bit chunks, and each chunk is XORed
with the corresponding chunk that resulted from the previous expansion of R.

Finally, each resulting 6-bit value is fed through something called a substitution
box (S box), which reduces each 6-bit chunk back into 4 bits. There are actually eight
different S boxes, one for each of the 6-bit chunks. You can think of an S box as just
performing a many-to-one mapping from 6-bit numbers to 4-bit numbers. The below
Table gives part of the S box function for the first chunk. We are now done with round i.

Table: Example DES S box (bits 16)

Notice that the preceding description does not distinguish between encryption
and decryption. One of the nice features of DES is that both sides of the algorithm work
exactly the same. The only difference is that the keys are applied in the reverse order,
that is, K16, K15, . . . , K1.

Also keep in mind that the preceding discussion is limited to a single 64-bit data
block. To encrypt a longer message using DES, a technique known as cipher block
chaining (CBC) is typically used.

The idea of CBC is simple: The ciphertext for block i is XORed with the plaintext
for block i +1 before running it through DES. An initialization vector (IV) is used in lieu
of the nonexistent ciphertext for block 0. This vector IV, which is a random number
generated by the sender, is sent along with the message so that the first block of
plaintext can be retrieved.


CBC on the encryption side is shown in the below Figure for a 256-bit (four-
block) message. Decryption works in the expected way since XOR is its own inverse,
with the process starting with the last block and moving toward the front of the
message.

Fig: Cipher block chaining (CBC) for large messages

The amount of time is considered borderline-secure in many circles, especially
considering that processor speeds are doubling every 18 months. For this reason, many
applications now use triple-DES (3DES), that is, encrypt the data three times. This can
be done with three separate keys, or with two keys: The first is used, then the second,
and finally the first key is used again.

4.3 PUBLIC KEY ENCRYPTION (RSA)
RSA is a much different algorithm, not only because it involves different keys for
encryption (public key) and decryption (private key), but also because it is grounded in
number theory.

In fact, the essential aspect of RSA comes down to how these two keys are
selected. The act of encrypting or decrypting a message is expressed as a simple
function, although this function requires enormous computational power.

In particular, RSA commonly uses a key length of 1024 bits, making it much
more expensive to compute than DES; we discuss this more below.

STEPS
1) To generate a public and private key. To do this, choose two large prime numbers
p and q, and multiply them together to get n. Both p and q should be roughly 256
bits long.
2) Choose the encryption key e, such that e and (p 1) (q 1) are relatively
prime. (Two numbers are relatively prime if they have no common factor greater
than 1.)
3) Compute the decryption key d such that
d = e1 mod ((p 1) (q 1))
4) The public key is constructed from the pair _e, n_ and the private key is given by
the pair _d, n_. The original prime numbers p and q are no longer needed. They
can be discarded, but they must not be disclosed.
5) Given these two keys, encryption is defined by the following formula:
c = me mod n
and decryption is defined by
m = cd mod n
Where m is the plaintext message and c is the resulting ciphertext. Note that m
must be less than n, which means that it can be no more than the 1024 bits long. A
larger message is simply treated as the concatenation of multiple 1024-bit blocks.

Example
p = 7 and q = 11. That means n = 7 11 = 77 d
(p 1) (q 1) = 60
So we need to pick a value of e that is relatively prime to 60. We choose e = 7; 7
and 60 have no common factor except 1. Now we need to calculate d such that
d = 71 mod ((7 1) (11 1))
which is to say,

7 d = 1 mod 60.
It turns out that d = 43, since
7 43 = 301
= 1 mod 60

So now we have the public key <e, n> = <7, 77> and the private key
<d, n> = <43, 77>. Note that in this example it would be pretty easy to figure out p and
q once you knew n, and thus figure out e from d, but if n was the product of two
numbers each of which was about 256 bits long, it would be computationally infeasible
to find p and q. It should be clear why p and q must not be disclosed - once they are
known, it is easy to determine the private key from the public key.

Now consider a simple encryption operation. Suppose we want to encrypt a
message containing the value 9. Following the encryption algorithm above:
c = me mod n
= 97 mod 77
= 37

So 37 is the ciphertext that we would send. (You can verify this calculation
pretty easily with a calculator.) On receipt of the message, the ciphertext would be
decrypted as follows:
m = cd mod n
= 3743 mod 77
= 9
Thus, as required, the original message is recovered.

RSA security comes from the premise that factoring large numbers is a
computationally expensive proposition. In particular, if you could factor n, you could
recover p and q, which would compromise d.


The speed at which large numbers can be factored is a function of both the
available processor speed and the factoring algorithm being used. It is estimated that
512-bit numbers will be factorable in the next few years, which is why people are now
using 1024- and even 2048-bit keys.

4.4 MESSAGE DIGEST ALGORITHMS (MD5)
There are a number of popular message digest algorithms known as MDn for
various values of n. MD5 is the most widely used at the time of writing. The secure
hash algorithm (SHA) is another well-known message digest function. All these
functions do much the same thing, which is to compute a fixed-length cryptographic
checksum from an arbitrarily long input message.
Mathematically, message digest algorithms tend to have more in common with
DES than with RSA. That is, they dont have a formal mathematical foundation, but
rely on the complexity of the algorithm to produce a random output such that the
requirements outlined above are met.
We provide just a brief outline of the MD5 algorithm here. The algorithm itself
seems to be a random collection of transformations, so it is not surprising that it
produces suitably random outputs.

Fig: Overview of message digest operation

The basic operation of MD4, MD5, and SHA is depicted in the above Figure.
These algorithms operate on a message 512 bits at a time, so the first step is to pad the
message to a multiple of 512 bits.
This is done by following the message with between 1 and 512 padding bits, the
first of which is a 1, the rest of which are 0s, and then following that with a 64-bit
integer that is the original message length in bits. Note that this allows messages of
arbitrary length up to 264 bits.

The digest calculation begins with the digest value initialized to a constant; this
value is combined with the first 512 bits of the message to produce a new value for the
digest, using a complex transformation described below; the new value is combined
with the next 512 bits of the message using the same transformation, and so on, until
the final value of the digest is produced.

The main ingredient of the MD5 algorithm is thus the transformation that takes
as its input the current value of the 128-bit digest, plus 512 bits of message, and
outputs a new 128-bit digest.
MD5, like other modern digest algorithms (and unlike some earlier ones like
MD2), operates on 32-bit quantities, since these are efficiently handled in modern
processors. So we can think of the current digest value as four 32-bit words (d0, d1, d2,
d3) and the piece of message currently being digested as sixteen 32-bit words (m0
through m15).

The basic transformation performed by MD5 can be divided into four passes. In
the first pass, a new value of the digest is produced from the old value and the 16
message words using 16 steps, the first 6 of which are shown below:
d0 = (d0 + F (d1, d2, d3) + m0 + T1) 7
d3 = (d3 + F (d0, d1, d2) + m1 + T2) 12
d2 = (d2 + F (d3, d0, d1) + m2 + T3) 17

d1 = (d1 + F (d2, d3, d0) + m3 + T4) 22
d0 = (d0 + F (d1, d2, d3) + m4 + T5) 7
d1 = (d3 + F (d0, d1, d2) + m5 + T6) 12

This process continues until all 16 words have been digested. Each step causes
one of the digest words to be rewritten, with the new value depending on its old value,
the current value of the other three digest words, and one word of the message being
digested.
The function F (a, b, c) is a combination of bitwise operations (OR, AND, NOT)
on its arguments. The Ti s are constants. The n operator rotates the operand left by
n bits.

The second pass looks pretty much the same as the first pass (especially if your
eyes are glazing over). The differences are the following:
F is replaced by a slightly different function G.
The constants T1 through T16 are replaced by another set (T17 through T32).
The amount of the left rotation is {5, 9, 14, 20, 5, 9, . . .} at each step.
Instead of taking the bytes of the message in orderm0 throughm15, the message
byte that is used at stage i is m(5i+1)mod16.

In the third pass:
G is replaced by yet another function H, which is just the XOR of its arguments.
Another set of constants (T33 through T48) are used.
The message byte that is used at stage i is m(3i+5)mod16.


The attentive reader could probably propose a fourth pass that would be as secure
as the one that is actually used; for the sake of completeness, the fourth pass has the
following properties:
H is replaced by the function I, which is a combination of bitwise XOR, OR, and
NOT on its arguments.
Another set of constants (T49 through T64) are used.
The message byte that is used at stage i is m(7i )mod16.

After all this work, the original values of (d0, d1, d2, d3) have been thoroughly
mangled in a way that, while completely dependent on the message bytes, provides no
algorithmic way to find out what those message bytes were.

The mangled digest is now added to the digest value that existed prior to the
current stage, and that becomes the new digest value. The algorithm now proceeds to
digest the next 16 bytes of the message until there is no more to be digested; the output
of the last stage is the messages digest.

4.5 IMPLEMENTATION AND PERFORMANCE

DES and MD5 are several orders of magnitude faster than RSA when
implemented in software. On a state-of-the-art processor, for example, DES processes
data at a rate of roughly 100 Mbps and MD5 at approximately 600 Mbps, while RSA
runs at only 100 Kbps.

In practice, people dont think about RSA performance in terms of throughput
rates because it doesnt make sense to run RSA on a data message. Instead, we
typically talk about RSA in terms of the number of values per second it can sign and
verify, respectively. On todays processors, RSA can sign approximately 100 1024-bit
values per second and verify approximately 2000 1024-bit values per second.


When implemented in hardware, that is, by custom VLSI chips, it has been
reported that DES andMD5can achieve rates measured in gigabits per second, whereas
RSA rates are still measured in kilobits per second.

This is why DES and MD5 are the more likely of the three algorithms to be
implemented in hardware on a given computer - even when implemented in hardware,
RSA is still too slow to be of any practical use in encrypting data messages.

Instead, RSA is typically used to encrypt very small amounts of data, such as a
secret key. Security protocols then use these RSA-protected secrets in conjunction with
DES and MD5, possibly implemented in hardware, to provide message privacy and
integrity.

4.6 SECURITY MECHANISMS
Cryptographic algorithms are just one piece of the picture when it comes to
providing security in a network. The next thing we need is a set of mechanisms and
protocols for solving various problems.

B.1 AUTHENTICATION PROTOCOLS
Before two participants are likely to establish a secure channel between
themselves that is, use an algorithm such as DES to encrypt messages they exchange
they will generally wish to establish that the other participant is who he or she claims
to be. This is the problem of authentication.
If you think about authentication in the context of a client/server relationship,
say, a remote file system, then it is understandable that the server would want to
establish the identity of the client: If the client is going to be allowed to modify or delete
Johns file, then the server is obligated to make sure that the client is, in fact, John. It
is also the case, however, that the client often wants to verify the identity of the server.

It describes three common protocols for implementing authentication.
The first two use secret key cryptography (e.g., DES)
The third uses public key cryptography (e.g., RSA)

SIMPLE THREE-WAY HANDSHAKE
A simple authentication protocol is possible when the two participants who want
to authenticate each otherthink of them as a client and a serveralready share a
secret key. This situation is analogous to a user (the client) having an account on a
computer system (the server), where both client and server know the password for the
account.

The client and server authenticate each other using a simple three-way
handshake protocol similar to the one described in Section 5.2.3. In the following, we
use E(m,k) to denote the encryption of message m with key k and D(m,k) to denote the
decryption of message m with key k.

Fig: Three-way handshake protocol for authentication

The above Figure, the client first selects a random number x and encrypts it
using its secret key, which we denote as CHK (client handshake key). The client then
sends E(x, CHK), along with an identifier (ClientId), for itself to the server. The server
uses the key it thinks corresponds to client ClientId (call it SHK for server handshake
key) to decrypt the random number.

The server adds 1 to the number it recovers and sends the result back to the
client. It also sends back a random number y that has been encrypted with SHK. Next,
the client decrypts the first half of this message and if the result is 1 more than the
random number x that it sent to the server, it knows that the server possesses its secret
key. At this point, the client has authenticated the server.
The client also decrypts the random number the server sent it (this should yield
y), encrypts this number plus 1, and sends the result to the server. If the server is able
to recover y + 1, then it knows the client is legitimate.

After the third message, each side has authenticated itself to the other. The
fourth message in above Figure corresponds to the server sending the client a session
key (SK), encrypted using SHK (which is equal to CHK).

Typically, the client and server then use SK to encrypt any future data they send
to each other. The advantage of using a session key is that it means that the permanent
secret key is only used for a small number of messages, making it harder for an
attacker to gather data that might be used to determine the key.
This only begs the question of where the client and server handshake keys came
from in the first place. One possibility is that they correspond to a password that a user
entered; the ClientId could be the login identifier in this situation.

TRUSTED THIRD PARTY
A more likely scenario is that the two participants know nothing about each
other, but both trust a third party. This third party is sometimes called an
authentication server, and it uses a protocol to help the two participants authenticate
each other. There are actually many different variations of this protocol. The one we
describe is the one used in Kerberos, a TCP/IP-based security system developed at MIT.
In the following, we denote the two participants who want to authenticate each
other as Aand B, and we call the trusted authentication server S. The Kerberos protocol
assumes that Aand B each share a secret key with S; we denote these two keys as KA
and KB, respectively. As before, E(m,k) denotes message m encrypted with key k.

Fig: Third-party authentication in Kerberos
As illustrated in the above Figure, participant A first sends a message to server
S that identifies both itself and B. The server then generates a timestamp T, a lifetime
L, and a new session key K. Timestamp T is going to serve much the same purpose as
the random number in the simple three-way handshake protocol given above, plus it is
used in conjunction with L to limit the amount of time that session key K is valid.

Participants A and B will have to go back to server S to get a new session key
when this time expires. The idea here is to limit the vulnerability of any one session
key.
Server S then replies to A with a two-part message. The first part encrypts the
three values T, L, and K, along with the identifier for participant B, using the key that
the server shares with A. The second part encrypts the three values T, L, and K, along
with participant As identifier, but this time using the key that the server shares with
B. Clearly, when A receives this message, it will be able to decrypt the first part but not
the second part.
A simply passes this second part on to B, along with the encryption of A and T
using the new session key K. (A was able to recover T and K by decrypting the first part
of the message it got from S.)
Finally, B decrypts the part of the message from A that was originally encrypted
by S, and in so doing, recovers T, K, and A. It uses K to decrypt the half of the message
encrypted by A and, upon seeing that A and T are consistent in the two halves of the
message, replies with a message that encrypts T + 1 using the new session key K. A and
B can now communicate with each other using the shared secret session key K to
ensure privacy.

PUBLIC KEY AUTHENTICATION
Our final authentication protocol uses public key cryptography (e.g., RSA). The
public key protocol is a useful one because the two sides need not share a secret key;
they only need to know the other sides public key.
As shown in below Figure, participant A encrypts a random number x using
participant Bs public key, and B proves it knows the corresponding private key by
decrypting the message and sending x back to A. A could authenticate itself to B in
exactly the same way.

Fig: Public key authentication

B.2 MESSAGE INTEGRITY PROTOCOLS
Sometimes two communicating participants do not care whether an
eavesdropper is able to read the messages they are sending to each other, but they are
worried about the possibility of an imposter sending messages that claim to be from one
of them. That is, the participants want to ensure the integrity of their messages.
One way to ensure the integrity of a message is to encrypt it using DES with
cipher block chaining, and then to use the CBC residue (the last block output by the
CBC process) as message integrity code (MIC).
The plaintext message plus the MIC would be transmitted to the receiver, with
the MIC acting as a sort of checksum - if the receiver could not reproduce the attached
MIC using the secret key it shares with the sender, then either the message was not
sent by the sender, or it was modified since it was transmitted.
Note that you would not want to use DES with CBC to both encrypt the message
for privacy and generate the MIC for integrity, because you would simply end up
transmitting the CBC-encrypted message with the last block repeated.Thus, anyone
who wanted to tamper with the CBC encrypted message could take the value of the
final block they wanted to send, and send it twice.

DIGITAL SIGNATURE USING RSA
A digital signature is a special case of a message integrity code, where the code
can have been generated only by one participant. The easiest digital signature
algorithm to understand is an RSA signature, which works in the obvious way - since a
given participant is the only one that knows its own private key; the participant uses
this key to produce the signature.
In other words, to sign a message, you encrypt it using your private key, and to
verify a signature, you decrypt it using the public key of the purported sender. Clearly,
this means that producing an RSA signature is as slow as RSA, which we have already
seen is two or three orders of magnitude slower than DES.
Observe that the use of keys is exactly reversed relative to their use for privacy:
The sender encrypts with the senders private key rather than with the receivers public
key, and the receiver decrypts with the senders public key rather than with the
receivers private key.

KEYED MD5
Recall that MD5 produces a cryptographic checksum for a message. This
checksum does not depend on a secret key, so it does not prevent an imposter from
creating a message that claims to be from someone else and computing an MD5
checksum for that message.
However, there are two ways to use MD5 to implement message integrity. Both
approaches overcome the performance problems inherent in using RSA alone.
The first method, which is commonly referred to as keyedMD5, works as follows:
Suppose that we can arrange for the sender and receiver of a message to share a secret
key k. This might be done by preconfiguration of the key, or by some more dynamic
mechanism such as Kerberos.

The sender then runs MD5 over the concatenation of the message (denoted m)
and this key. In practice, the key k is attached to the end of the message for the purpose
of running MD5; k is then removed from the message once MD5 is finished. The sender
now transmits m+ MD5(m+ k) where MD5(s) represents applying the MD5 algorithm to
string s, and a + b denotes the concatenation of strings a and b.
The receiver of the message applies MD5 to the concatenation message body and
the secret key k. If the result matches the checksum sent with the message, then the
message must have been sent by the participant who holds that key.

Keyed MD5 itself does not depend on public key cryptography, but it can be
combined with it to simplify the problem of getting the same value of the secret key k to
the sender and receiver.
The sender picks k at random, encrypts it using RSA and the receivers public
key, and then encrypts the result with its own private key. The result can now be sent
to the receiver along with the original message and the MD5 checksum. The following
summarizes the complete message transmitted by the sender:
m+ MD5(m+ k) + E(E((k, rcv public), snd private)
The receiver recovers the random key using the purported senders public RSA
key and its own private key, and proceeds to run MD5 on the concatenation of the
received message and k.

As before, if the result matches the checksum sent with the message, then the
message must have been sent by the participant who generated the random key. While
this approach solves the problem of getting the secret key from sender to receiver, it
still leaves the problem of getting the senders public key reliably to the receiver;


MD5 WITH RSA SIGNATURE
The second method for using MD5 for message integrity works in combination
with RSA as follows. The sender runs MD5 over the original message it wants to
protect, producing an MD5 checksum. It then signs this checksum with its own private
RSA key. That is, the sender does not sign the entire message, it just signs the
checksum.
The original message, theMD5checksum, and the RSA signature for the
checksum are then transmitted. Using the same notation as above, this means that the
sender transmits
m+ E(MD5(m), private)
The receiver verifies the message by
9 running the MD5 algorithm on the received message
9 decrypting the signed checksum with the senders public key
9 comparing the two checksums
If they match, this means that the message was not modified since the time the
sender computed the MD5 checksum and signed it.

B.3 PUBLIC KEY DISTRIBUTION (X.509)
Public key cryptography is an extremely powerful technology, but it depends on
the distribution of public keys. The problem of getting keys to people who need them in
such a way that they can be sure that the key is legitimate (i.e., that it belongs to the
entity that it purports to belong to) turns out to be a challenging problem.
Suppose participant A wants to convey his public key to participant B. He cant
just use email or a bulletin board to send it, because without As public key, B has no
way to authenticate the key as having really come from A.

Some third party could send a public key to B and claim that the message came
from A. If A and B are individuals who know each other, then they can get together in
the same room and A can give his public key to B directly, perhaps on a business card.
However, there are clear shortcomings to this approach, such as the inability to
receive a key from someone unless you can be in the same room with them.
The basic solution to the problem relies on the use of digital certificates. The
following sections explain what certificates are and some issues that arise in using
them to achieve widespread key distribution.

CERTIFICATES
We introduced the notion of a digital signature, by which the owner of a certain
key can cryptographically sign a piece of data. A digital signature proves that the data
was generated by the owner of a certain key and that it has not been modified since it
was signed. A certificate is just a special type of digitally signed document.
The document says, in effect, I certify that the public key in this document
belongs to the entity named in this document, signed X. X in this case could be anyone
with a public key. It is commonly the case that X would be a certification authority
(CA), 4 that is, an administrative entity that is in the business of issuing certificates.
It should be clear that this certificate is only useful to a participant who already
holds the public key for X because that key is needed to verify the signature. Thus,
certificates do not in themselves solve the key distribution problem, but they give us a
way to make inroads on it.
Clearly, once you have a public key for one entity X, you can start to accumulate
more public keys from other participants if those participants can get certificates issued
by X.


The idea of certificates allows the building of chains of trust. If Xcertifies that a
certain public key belongs to Y, and then Y goes on to certify that another public key
belongs to Z, then there exists a chain of certificates from X to Z, even though X and Z
may have never met.
If Z wants to provide his public key to A, he can provide the complete chain of
certificates - the certificate for Ys public key issued by X, and the certificate for Zs key
issued by Y. If A has the public key for X, he can use the chain to verify that the public
key of Z is legitimate.
With this idea of building chains of trust, public key distribution becomes
somewhat more tractable. A popular way to build such chains is to arrange them in a
tree-structured hierarchy, as shown in Figure.
If everyone has the public key of the root CA, then any participant can provide a
chain of certificates to another participant and know that it will be sufficient to build a
chain of trust for that participant.
There are still significant issues with building chains of trust. First of all, even if
you are certain that you have the public key of the root CA, you need to be sure that
every CA from the root on down is doing its job properly.
If some CA is willing to issue certificates to individuals without verifying their
identity, then what looks like a valid chain of certificates becomes meaningless.
One question to ask about certificates is what is being certified? Since a
certificate creates a binding between an identity and a public key, we should look more
closely at what we mean by identity.
For example, a certificate that says, This public key belongs to John Smith may
not be terribly useful if you cant tell which of the thousands of John Smiths is being
identified. Thus certificates must use a well-defined name space for the identities being
certified.

For example, certificates are often issued for email addresses; a certificate might
say, in effect, This public key belongs to jsmith@acme.com _John Q. Smith_.
Certificates can, of course, be issued for many entities other than individuals. It
is particularly useful to be able to issue a certificate for a domain in the Domain Name
System.
For example, a certificate for the domain acme.com would be useful to enable
customers visiting the acme.com Web site to be sure they had come to the real Web site
and not an imposter before sending in their credit card information. One of the major
standards for certificates is known as X.509. This standard leaves a lot of details open,
but specifies a basic structure for certificates.

Components of a certificate clearly must include
the name of the entity being certified
the public key of the entity
the name of the certificate authority
a digital signature

X.509 certificates may use a number of different digital signature algorithms, so
the certificate must specify which algorithm it uses. Another possible component is an
expiration time for the certificate. We will see a particular use of this feature below. An
important point to understand about certificates is that possession of a certificate says
nothing about your identity.
Certificates can be freely copied and distributed, and indeed must be to be
useful. To prove that you are the entity named in the certificate, you need to do
something that shows you have the private key corresponding to the public key
contained in the certificate.

CERTIFICATE REVOCATION
One issue that arises with certificates is how to revoke, or undo, a certificate.
Why is this important? Suppose that you suspect that someone has discovered your
private key. There may be any number of certificates in the universe that assert that
you are the owner of the public key corresponding to that private key.
The person who discovered your private key thus has everything he needs to
impersonate you: valid certificates and your private key. To solve this problem, it would
be nice to be able to revoke the certificates that bind your old, compromised key to your
identity, so that the impersonator will no longer be able to persuade other people that
he is you.

The basic solution to the problem is simple enough. A certification authority can
issue a certificate revocation list (CRL), which is a digitally signed list of certificates
that have been revoked.
The CRL is periodically updated and made publicly available. Because it is
digitally signed, it can just be posted on a bulletin board. Now, when participant A
receives a certificate for B that he wants to verify, A will first consult the latest CRL
issued by the CA. As long as the certificate has not been revoked, it is valid.

Note that if all certificates have unlimited life spans, the CRL would always be
getting longer, since you could never take a certificate off the CRL for fear that some
copy of the revoked certificate might be used.
However, by attaching an expiration date to a certificate when it is issued, we
can limit the length of time that a revoked certificate needs to stay on a CRL. As soon
as its original expiration date is passed, it can be removed from the CRL.


4.7 FIREWALLS
A firewall is a specially programmed router that sits between a site and the rest
of the network. It is a router in the sense that it is connected to two or more physical
networks and it forwards packets from one network to another, but it also filters the
packets that flow through it.

Fig: A firewall filters packets flowing between a site and the rest of the
Internet.

The firewall might also filter packets based on the sources IP address. This is
useful if you want to protect hosts within the site from an unwanted flood of packets
from an external host.

Such a flood of packets is sometimes called a denial-of-service attack.
Firewalls are conceptually very simple devices that can be classified in one of two broad
categories: filter-based and proxy-based.

C.1 FILTER-BASED FIREWALLS
Filter-based firewalls are the simplest and most widely deployed type of firewall.
They are configured with a table of addresses that characterize the packets they will,
and will not, forward.

Generally, each entry in the table is a 4-tuple: It gives the IP address and TCP
(or UDP) port number for both the source and destination.

For example, a firewall might be configured to filter all packets that match the
following description:(192.12.13.14, 1234, 128.7.6.5, 80 ).This pattern says to filter all
packets from port 1234 on host 192.12.13.14 addressed to port 80 on host 128.7.6.5.
address patterns like these require the firewall to make forwarding/filtering decisions
based on level 4 port numbers, in addition to level 3 host addresses. It is for this reason
that filter-based firewalls are sometimes called level 4 switches.

Two important variations:
First, there is the issue of whether the firewall forwards everything unless
specifically instructed to filter certain kinds of packets.
The second issue is whether the filters must be specified when the system is
booted, or if new filters can be installed as the firewall is running.

Fig: Firewall protecting a company Web server from some external
accesses.

C.2 PROXY-BASED FIREWALLS
A proxy is a process that sits between a client process and a server process. To
the client, the proxy appears to be the server; in a sense, the proxy is standing in for the
server. To the server, the proxy appears to be the client.

One thing a proxy might do is implement a cache. This allows the proxy to
respond to a client request without having to pass the request along to the server. It
passes the request on to the server only if it doesnt have the requested item in its
cache.
To understand how a proxy-based firewall works and why you would want one
consider a corporate Web server, where the company wants to make some of the
servers pages accessible to all external users but it wants to restrict certain of the
pages to corporate users at one or more remote sites.

Fig: HTTP proxy mediating access to a corporate Web server.

The solution is to put an HTTP proxy on the firewall. Remote users establish an
HTTP/TCP connection to the proxy, which looks at the URL contained in the request
message. If the requested page is allowed for the source host, the proxy establishes a
second HTTP/TCP connection to the server and forwards the request on to the server.
The proxy then forwards the response in the reverse direction between the two TCP
connections.

Fig: Simple internet, with source S sending message to receiver R
through proxy.

Finally, proxy-based firewalls can be characterized as being either transparent
or classical. A transparent proxy, as the name implies, is not explicitly visible to
either the sender or the receiver. In contrast, the source purposely addresses messages
to a classical proxy, which then forwards the message to the ultimate destination.

In Figure above, in which source S sends a message to receiver R through proxy
P. If P is transparent, then S addresses the message to R, and the message just
happens to pass through P en route to R.

C.3 LIMITATIONS
A traditional firewall protects internal users from external users, it does nothing
to protect or isolate internal users from each other. Traditional firewalls cannot keep
mobile code out of the local network. Mobile computers make it easy for users to
anonymously attach their machines to the network at arbitrary points.

Wireless communication becomes more unambiquitous. It is impossible for
existing firewalls to know who is accessing the network and, therefore, who has the
ability to connect to other machines on the network.

4.8 NAME SERVICE (DNS)
Up to this point, we have been using addresses to identify hosts. While
perfectly suited for processing by routers, addresses are not exactly user friendly. It is
for this reason that a unique name is also typically assigned to each host in a network.
This section describes how a naming service can be developed to map user-
friendly names into router-friendly addresses. Such a service is often the first
application program implemented in a network since it frees other applications to
identify hosts by name rather than by address.


Name services are sometimes called middleware because they fill a gap
between applications and the underlying network.
Host names differ from host addresses in two important ways.
First, they are usually of variable length and mnemonic, thereby making them
easier for humans to remember.

Second, names typically contain no information that helps the network locate
the host. Addresses, in contrast, sometimes have routing information embedded in
them; flat addresses are the exception.

Before getting into the details of how hosts are named in a network, we first introduce
some basic terminology.
First, a name space defines the set of possible names. A name space can be
either flat or hierarchy Cal.

Second, the naming system maintains a collection of bindings of names to
values. The value can be anything we want the naming system to return when
presented with a name; in many cases it is an address.

Finally, a resolution mechanism is a procedure that, when invoked with a name,
returns the corresponding value. A name server is a specific implementation of a
resolution mechanism that is available on a network and that can be queried by
sending it a message.

What happens in the Internet is that a user presents a host name to an
application program, and this program engages the naming system to translate this
name into a host address.
The application then opens a connection to this host by presenting some
transport protocol (e.g., TCP) with the hosts IP address. This situation is illustrated (in
the case of sending email) in below Figure.

Fig: Names translated into addresses, where the numbers 15 show the
sequence of steps in the process.

D.1 DOMAIN HIERARCHY
DNS implements a hierarchical name space for Internet objects.DNS names are
processed from right to left and use periods as the separator. What we mean by this is
that DNS is not strictly used to map host names into host addresses. It is more accurate
to say that DNS maps domain names into values.

DNS hierarchy can be visualized as a tree, where each node in the tree
corresponds to a domain and the leaves in the tree correspond to the hosts being
named. The below Fig gives an example of a domain hierarchy. Note that we should not
assign any semantics to the term domain other than that it is simply a context in
which additional names can be defined.

There are domains for each country, plus the big six domains: edu, com, gov,
mil, org, and net. These six domains are all based in the United States; the only domain
names that dont explicitly specify a country are those in the United States. =Aside
from this U.S. bias, you might notice a military bias in the hierarchy.

Fig: Example of a domain hierarchy.

D.2 NAME SERVERS
The first step is to partition the hierarchy into sub trees called zones. For
example, the below Figure shows how the hierarchy given in might be divided into
zones. Each zone can be thought of as corresponding to some administrative authority
that is responsible for that portion of the hierarchy.
For example, the top level of the hierarchy forms a zone that is managed by the
NIC. Below this is a zone that corresponds to Princeton University. Within this zone,
some departments do not want the responsibility of managing the hierarchy, while
others, like the Department of Computer Science, manage their own department-level
zone.

Fig: Domain hierarchy partitioned into zones.

Fig: Hierarchy of name servers
The relevance of a zone is that it corresponds to the fundamental unit of
implementation in DNS the name server. Specifically, the information contained in
each zone is implemented in two or more name servers.
Each name server, in turn, is a program that can be accessed over the Internet.
Clients send queries to name servers, and name servers respond with the requested
information.

Sometimes the response contains the final answer that the client wants, and
sometimes the response contains a pointer to another server that the client should
query next. Thus, from an implementation perspective, it is more accurate to think of
DNS as being represented by a hierarchy of name servers rather than by a hierarchy of
domains, as illustrated in the above Figure.

Each name server implements the zone information as a collection of resource
records. In essence, a resource record is a name-to-value binding, or more specifically, a
5-tuple that contains the following fields:

(Name, Value, Type, Class, TTL )

The Name and Value fields are exactly what you would expect, while the
Type field specifies how the Value should be interpreted. For example, Type = A
indicates that the Value is an IP address. Thus, A records implement the name-to-
address mapping, we have been assuming.

Other record types include
NS: The Value field gives the domain name for a host that is running a name
server that knows how to resolve names within the specified domain.
CNAME: The Value field gives the canonical name for a particular host; it is
used to define aliases.
MX: The Value field gives the domain name for a host that is running a mail
server that accepts messages for the specified domain.

The Class field was included to allow entities other than the NIC to define useful
record types. To date, the only widely used Class is the one used by the Internet; it is
denoted IN. Finally, the TTL field shows how long this resource record is valid. It is
used by servers that cache resource records from other servers; when the TTL expires,
the server must evict the record from its cache.

First, the root name server contains an NS record for each second-level server. It
also has an A record that translates this name into the corresponding IP address.
Taken together, these two records effectively implement a pointer from the root name
server to each of the second-level servers.

(princeton.edu, cit.princeton.edu, NS, IN)
(cit.princeton.edu, 128.196.128.233, A, IN)
(cisco.com, ns.cisco.com, NS, IN)
(ns.cisco.com, 128.96.32.20, A, IN)
...

Next, the domain princeton.edu has a name server available on host
cit.princeton.edu that contains the following records. Note that some of these records
give the final answer (e.g., the address for host saturn.physics.princeton.edu), while
others point to third-level name servers.

(cs.princeton.edu, gnat.cs.princeton.edu, NS, IN)
(gnat.cs.princeton.edu, 192.12.69.5, A, IN)
(ee.princeton.edu, helios.ee.princeton.edu, NS, IN)
(helios.ee.princeton.edu, 128.196.28.166, A, IN)
(jupiter.physics.princeton.edu, 128.196.4.1, A, IN)
(saturn.physics.princeton.edu, 128.196.4.2, A, IN )
(mars.physics.princeton.edu, 128.196.4.3, A, IN)
(venus.physics.princeton.edu, 128.196.4.4, A, IN)
...

Finally, a third-level name server, such as the one managed by domain
cs.princeton.edu, contains a records for all of its hosts. It might also define a set of
aliases (CNAME records) for each of those hosts.
Aliases are sometimes just convenient (e.g., shorter) names for machines, but
they can also be used to provide a level of indirection. For example,
www.cs.princeton.edu is an alias for the host named cicada.cs.princeton.edu.

D.3 NAME RESOLUTION
Given a hierarchy of name servers, we now consider the issue of how a client
engages these servers to resolve a domain name. The client first sends a query
containing this name to the root server. The root server, unable to match the entire
name, returns the best match it hasthe NS record for princeton.edu.


The server also returns all records that are related to this record, in this case,
the A record for cit.princeton.edu. The client, having not received the answer it was
after, next sends the same query to the name server at IP host 128.196.128.233.
This server also cannot match the whole name, and so returns the NS and
corresponding A records for the cs.princeton.edu domain. Finally, the client sends the
same query as before to the server at IP host 192.12.69.5, and this time gets back the A
record for cicada.cs.princeton.edu.

The first question is, How did the client locate the root server in the first place,
or said another way, How do you resolve the name of the server that knows how to
resolve names? This is a fundamental problem in any naming system, and the answer
is that the system has to be bootstrapped in some way. In this case, the name-to-
address mapping for one or more root servers is well known, that is, published through
some means outside the naming system itself.
In practice, however, not all clients know about the root servers. Instead, the
client program running on each Internet host is initialized with the address of a local
name server. For example, all the hosts in the Department of Computer Science at
Princeton know about the server on gnat.cs.princeton.edu. This local name server, in
turn, has resource records for one or more of the root servers, for example:
(root, venera.isi.edu, NS, IN)
( venera.isi.edu, 128.9.0.32, A, IN )

Thus, resolving a name actually involves a client querying the local server,
which in turn acts as a client that queries the remote servers on the original clients
behalf. This results in the client/server interactions illustrated in the below Figure.

One advantage of this model is that all the hosts in the Internet do not have to
be kept up-to-date on where the current root servers are located; only the servers have
to know about the root. A second advantage is that the local server gets to see the
answers that come back from queries that are posted by all the local clients.

Fig: Name resolutions in practice, where the numbers 18 show the
sequence of steps in the process.

The second question is how the system works when a user submits a partial
name (e.g., cicada) rather than a complete domain name (e.g., cicada.cs.princeton.edu).

The answer is that the client program is configured with the local domain in
which the host resides (e.g., cs.princeton.edu) and it appends this string to any simple
names before sending out a query.

4.9 TRADITIONAL APPLICATIONS
The World Wide Web and email, network management, like DNS, all three
applications employ the request/reply paradigmusers send requests to servers, which
then respond accordingly. We refer to these as traditional applications.


Three general points
The first is to distinguish between application programs and application
protocols. There can be many different application programs that is, Web clients like
Internet Explorer, Mosaic, and Netscape.

Three application protocols
SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is used to exchange electronic mail.
HTTP: Hyper Text Transport Protocol is used to communicate between Web
browsers and Web servers.
SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol is used to query (and sometimes
modify) the state of remote network nodes. The second point is request/reply
communication pattern; they are all built on top of an RPC transport protocol.

E.1 ELECTRONIC MAIL (SMTP, MIME, IMAP)
Email is one of the oldest network applications.
How email works is,
(1) To distinguish the user interface (i.e., your mail reader) from the underlying
message transfer protocol (in this case, SMTP), and
(2) To distinguish between this transfer protocol and a companion protocol (RFC
822 and MIME) that defines the format of the messages being exchanged.

Message Format
RFC 822 defines messages to have two parts: a header and a body both parts are
represented in ASCII text. Originally, the body was assumed to be simple text.

The message header is a series of <CRLF>-terminated lines. The header is
separated from the message body by a blank line. Each header line contains a type and
value separated by a colon.RFC 822 was extended in 1993 (and updated again in 1996)
to allow email messages to carry many different types of data: audio, video, images,
Word documents, and so on. MIME consists of three basic pieces.
The first piece is a collection of header lines that augment the original set
defined by RFC 822.The second piece is definitions for a set of content types (and
subtypes).
For example, MIME defines two different still image types, denoted image/gif
and image/jpeg, each with the obvious meaning. MIME also defines a multipart type
that says how a message carrying more than one data type is structured.
This is like a programming language that defines both base types (e.g., integers
and floats) and compound types (e.g., structures and arrays).To address this issue,
MIME uses a straightforward encoding of binary data into the ASCII character set. The
encoding is called base64. The idea is to map every three bytes of the original binary
data into four ASCII characters.
This is done by grouping the binary data into 24-bit units, and breaking each
such unit into four 6-bit pieces.
MIME-Version: 1.0
Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary ="-------417CA6E2DE4ABCAFBC5"
From: Alice Smith <Alice@cisco.com>
To: Bob@cs.Princeton.edu
Subject: promised material
Date: Mon, 07 Sep 1998 19:45:19 -0400
---------417CA6E2DE4ABCAFBC5
Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii

Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit
Bob,
Here's the jpeg image and draft report I promised.
--Alice
Content-Type: image/jpeg
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
. . . unreadable encoding of a jpeg figure
Content-Type: application/postscript; name="draft.ps"
Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit
. . . readable encoding of a PostScript document
In this example, the Content-Type line in the message header says that this
message contains various pieces, each denoted by a character string that does not
appear in the data itself. Each piece then has its own Content-Type and Content-
Transfer-Encoding lines.

Message Transfer
SMTPthe protocol used to transfer messages from one host to another. First,
users interact with a mail reader when they compose, file, search, and read their email.
Second, there is a mail daemon (or process) running on each host.
The send mail program on a senders machine establishes an SMTP/TCP
connection to the send mail program on the recipients machine; in many cases the mail
traverses one or more mail gateways on its route from the senders host to the receivers
host. Like the end hosts, these gateways also run a send mail process.

Fig: Sequence of mail gateways store and forward email messages.
The forwarding gateway maintains a database that maps users into the machine
on which they currently want to receive their mail; the sender need not be aware of this
specific name.
Another reason is that the recipients machine may not always be up, in which
case the mail gateway holds the message until it can be delivered. Each SMTP session
involves a dialog between the two mail daemons, with one acting as the client and the
other acting as the server.
Multiple messages might be transferred between the two hosts during a single
session. Since RFC 822 defines messages using ASCII as the base representation, it
should come as no surprise to learn that SMTP is also ASCII based.
HELO cs.princeton.edu
250 Hello daemon@mail.cs.princeton.edu [128.12.169.24]
MAIL FROM:<Bob@cs.princeton.edu>
250 OK
RCPT TO:<Alice@cisco.com>
250 OK
RCPT TO:<Tom@cisco.com>

550 No such user here
DATA
354 Start mail input; end with <CRLF>.<CRLF>
Blah blah blah...
...etc. etc. etc.
<CRLF>.<CRLF>
250 OK
QUIT
221 Closing connection

Mail Reader
The final step is for the user to actually retrieve his or her messages from the
mailbox, read them, reply to them, and possibly save a copy for future reference. The
user performs all these actions by interacting with a mail reader. The user accesses his
or her mailbox from a remote machine using yet another protocol, such as the Post
Office Protocol (POP) or the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP).
IMAP is similar to SMTP in many ways. It is a client/server protocol running
over TCP, where the client issues commands in the form of <CRLF>-terminated ASCII
text lines and the mail server responds in kind. The exchange begins with the client
authenticating him- or her, and identifying the mailbox he or she wants to access.
In this diagram, LOGIN, AUTHENTICATE, SELECT, EXAMINE, CLOSE, and
LOGOUT are example commands that the client can issue, while OK is one possible
server response. Other common commands include FETCH, STORE, DELETE, and
EXPUNGE with the obvious meanings. Additional server responses include NO and
BAD.

E.2 WORLD WIDE WEB (HTTP)
Most people are exposed to the Web through a graphical client program, or Web
browser, like Netscape or Explorer. The below Figure shows the Netscape browser in
use, displaying a page of information from a project called PlanetLab.

Fig: IMAP state transition diagram.
(1) Connection without preauthentication (OK greeting)
(2) preauthenticated connection (PREAUTH greeting)
(3) rejected connection (BYE greeting)
(4) Successful LOGIN or AUTHENTICATE command
(5) Successful SELECT or EXAMINE command
(6) CLOSE command, or failed SELECT or EXAMIN command
(7) LOGOUT command, server shutdown, or connection closed

When you select to view a page, your browser (the client) fetches the page from
the server using HTTP running over TCP. Like SMTP, HTTP is a text-oriented
protocol. At its core, each HTTP message has the general form.

START_LINE <CRLF>
MESSAGE_HEADER <CRLF>
<CRLF>
MESSAGE_BODY <CRLF>

Where as before, <CRLF> stands for carriage-return-line-feed. The first line
(START LINE) indicates whether this is a request message or a response message. In
effect, it identifies the remote procedure to be executed or the status of the request.

Request Messages
HTTP request message specifies three things:
1) The operation to be performed.
2) The Web page the operation should be performed on.
3) The version of HTTP being used.
The two most common operations are GET (fetch the specified Web page) and
HEAD (fetch status information about the specified Web page). The former is obviously
used when your browser wants to retrieve and display a Web page. The latter is used to
test the validity of a hypertext link.


Table: HTTP request operations
Response Messages
Like request messages, response messages begin with a single START LINE.
The line specifies the version of HTTP being used, a three digit code indicating whether
or not the request was successful, and a text string giving the reason for the response.
For example, the START LINE HTTP/1.1 202 Accepted
indicates that the server was able to satisfy the request, while HTTP/1.1 404 Not Found
indicates that it was not able to satisfy the request because the page was not found.

Fig: Five types of HTTP result codes

TCP Connections
Connection setup and teardown messages had to be exchanged between the
client and server even if all the client wanted to do was verify that it had the most
recent copy of a page. Thus, retrieving a page that included some text and a dozen icons
or other small graphics would result in 13 separate TCP connections being established
and closed.

Persistent connections
The client and server can exchange multiple request/response messages over the
same TCP connection. Persistent connections have two advantages. First, they
obviously eliminate the connection setup overhead, thereby reducing the load on the
server, the load on the network caused by the additional TCP packets, and the delay
perceived by the user.
Second, because a client can send multiple request messages down a single TCP
connection, TCPs congestion window mechanism is able to operate more efficiently.

Caching
Caching can be implemented in many different places. For example, a users
browser can cache recently accessed pages, and simply display the cached copy if the
user visits the same page again. As another example, a site can support a single site
wide cache. This allows users to take advantage of pages previously downloaded by
other users. Closer to the middle of the Internet, ISPs can cache pages.
Note that in the second case, the users within the site most likely know what
machine is caching pages on behalf of the site, and they configure their browsers to
connect directly to the caching host.

This node is sometimes called a proxy the cache can use the HEAD or conditional
GET operation (GET with If-Modified-Since header line) to verify that it has the most
recent copy of the page. More generally, there is a set of cache directives that must be
obeyed by all caching mechanisms along the request/response chain.

E.3 NETWORK MANAGEMENT (SNMP)
A protocol that allows us to read, and possibly write, various pieces of state
information on different network nodes. The most widely used protocol for this purpose
is the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). SNMP is essentially a
specialized request/reply protocol that supports two kinds of request messages: GET
and SET.
The former is used to retrieve a piece of state from some node, and the latter is
used to store a new piece of state in some node. The following discussion focuses on the
GET operation, since it is the one most frequently used.
A system administrator interacts with a client program that displays
information about the network. Whenever the administrator selects a certain piece of
information that he or she wants to see, the client program uses SNMP to request that
information from the node in question. The current version of MIB, called MIB-II,
organizes variables into 10 different groups.

For example
System: general parameters of the system (node) as a whole, including where
the node is located, how long it has been up, and the systems name.
Interfaces: information about all the network interfaces (adaptors) attached to
this node, such as the physical address of each interface, how many packets have
been sent and received on each interface.

Address translation: information about the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
and in particular, the contents of its address translation table.
IP: variables related to IP, including its routing table, how many datagrams it
has successfully forwarded, and statistics about datagram reassembly. Includes
counts of how many times IP drops a datagram for one reason or another.
TCP: information about TCP connections, such as the number of passive and
active opens, the number of resets, the number of timeouts, default timeout
settings, and so on. Per-connection information persists only as long as the
connection exists.
UDP: information about UDP traffic, including the total number of UDP
datagrams that have been sent and received.

Two problems
First, we need a precise syntax for the client to use to state which of the MIB
variables it wants to fetch. Second, we need a precise representation for the values
returned by the server. Both problems are addressed using ASN.1.

Consider the second problem; ASN.1 BER defines a representation for different
data types, such as integers. The MIB uses this identification system to assign a
globally unique identifier to each MIB variable. These identifiers are given in a dot
notation, not unlike domain names.
The SNMP client puts the ASN.1 identifier for the MIB variable it wants to get
into the request message, and it sends this message to the server. The server then maps
this identifier into a local variable, retrieves the current value held in this variable, and
uses ASN.1 BER to encode the value it sends back to the client.


4.10 MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS
Multimedia applications such as audio- and videoconferencing applications need
application-layer protocols. Multimedia applications came from the MBone tools
applications such as vat and vic that were developed for use on the MBone, using IP
multicast to enable multiparty conferencing.

The protocol that has been developed to meet with rather different
characteristics than TCP and with more functionality than UDP is called the Real-
time Transport Protocol (RTP).

A third class of protocol that many multimedia applications need is a session
control protocol would also like to be able to support features like call forwarding,
three-way calling. SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) and H.323 are examples of
protocols that address the issues of session control

F.1 REAL-TIME TRANSPORT PROTOCOL (RTP)
RTP contains a considerable amount of functionality that is specific to
multimedia applications. It typically runs on top of one of the transport-layer protocols.
Which provides some of the application-independent functions you usually associate
with a transport protocol.

Multimedia applications are sometimes divided into two Classes conferencing
applications and streaming applications. The former class is vat, the audio
conferencing tool that is often used over networks supporting IP multicast. The
control panel for a typical vat conference is shown in below Figure. Another
conferencing application is vic, the videoconferencing tool.


Fig: User interface of a vat audio conference.

Fig: Protocol stack for multimedia applications using RTP.


Streaming applications typically deliver audio or video streams from a server to
a client, and are typified by such commercial products as Real Audio. RTP actually
derives from the application protocol that was originally embedded in vat.

Newer versions of vat (and many other applications) run over RTP. RTP can run
over many lower-layer protocols, but commonly runs over UDP. That leads to the
protocol stack shown in above Figure.

REQUIREMENTS
The most basic requirement for a general-purpose multimedia protocol is that it
allows similar applications to interoperate with each other. Protocol should provide a
way that a sender can tell a receiver which coding scheme it wants to use, and possibly
negotiate until a scheme that is available to both parties is identified.

First common function that RTP can provide is the ability to communicate that
choice of coding scheme. Another important requirement for RTP is to enable the
recipient of a data stream to determine the timing relationship among the received
data. Another important function to be provided is an indication of packet loss.
Application with tight latency bounds generally cannot use a reliable transport
like TCP because retransmission of data to correct for loss would probably cause the
packet to arrive too late to be useful .Another common function across multimedia
applications is the concept of frame boundary indication. A frame in this context is
application specific.

For example, it may be helpful to notify a video application that a certain set of
packets corresponds to a single frame. In an audio application it is helpful to mark the
beginning of a talk spurt, which is a collection of sounds or words followed by silence.
The receiver can then identify the silences between talk spurts and use them as
opportunities to move the playback point.


RTP DETAILS
The RTP standard actually defines a pair of protocols, RTP and the Real-time
Transport Control Protocol (RTCP). The former is used for the exchange of multimedia
data, while the latter is used to periodically send control information associated with a
certain data flow.

When running over UDP, the RTP data stream and the associated RTCP control
stream use consecutive transport-layer ports. The RTP data uses an even port number
and the RTCP control information uses the next higher (odd) port number. RTP defines
a profile and one or more formats. The format specification explains how the data
that follows the RTP header is to be interpreted.

HEADER FORMAT
The below Figure shows the header format used by RTP. The first two bits are a
version identifier, which contains the value 2 in the RTP version deployed at the time of
writing.

Fig: RTP header format.

The first two bits are a version identifier, which contains the value 2 in the RTP
version deployed at the time of writing. The next bit is the padding (P) bit, which is
set in circumstances in which the RTP payload has been padded for some reason.

RTP data might be padded to fill up a block of a certain size as required by an
encryption algorithm padding removes any need for a length field in the RTP header in
the common case of no padding, the length is deduced from the lower-layer protocol.

The extension (X) bit is used to indicate the presence of an extension header,
which would be defined for a specific application and follow the main header. The X bit
is followed by a 4-bit field that counts the number of contributing sources, if any
are included in the header.

The function of the timestamp field is to enable the receiver to play back samples
at the appropriate intervals and to enable different media streams to be synchronized.

Fig: Padding of an RTP packet.

The timestamp is just a counter of ticks, where the time between ticks is
dependent on the encoding in use. The timestamp value in the packet is a number
representing the time at which the first sample in the packet was generated.

TimeBetweenPackets TimePerSample = [(10 103) (125106)]
= 80

The synchronization source (SSRC) is a 32-bit number that uniquely
identifies a single source of an RTP stream. In a given multimedia conference, each
sender picks a random SSRC and is expected to resolve conflicts in the unlikely event
that two sources pick the same value.


The contributing source (CSRC) is used only when a number of RTP streams
pass through a mixer. A mixer can be used to reduce the bandwidth requirements for
a conference by receiving data from many sources and sending it as a single stream.

CONTROL PROTOCOL
RTCP provides a control stream that is associated with a data stream for a
multimedia application. This control stream provides three main functions:
Feedback on the performance of the application and the network
A way to correlate and synchronize different media streams that have come from
the same sender
A way to convey the identity of a sender for display on a user interface (e.g., the
vat interface shown in Figure) RTCP defines a number of different packet
types, including.
sender reports, which enable active senders to a session to report transmission
and reception statistics
receiver reports, which receivers who are not senders use to report reception
statistics
source descriptions, which carry CNAMEs and other sender description
information
Application-specific control packets

These different RTCP packet types are sent over the lower-layer protocol, which,
as we have noted, is typically UDP. Several RTCP packets can be packed into a
single PDU of the lower-level protocol. Once a participant has determined how
much bandwidth it can consume with RTCP traffic, it sets about sending periodic
reports at the appropriate rate.
Sender reports and receiver reports differ only in that the former include some
extra information about the sender. Both types of reports contain information about the
data that was received from all sources in the most recent reporting period.


The extra information in a sender report consists of
A timestamp containing the actual time of day when this report was generated.
The RTP timestamp corresponding to the time when the report was generated.
Cumulative counts of the packets and bytes sent by this sender since it began
transmission.

Both sender and receiver report contain one block of data per source that has been
heard from since the last report.

Each block contains the following statistics for the source in question:
Its SSRC
The fraction of data packets from this source that were lost since the last report
was sent (calculated by comparing the number of packets received with the
number of packets expected; this last value can be determined from the RTP
sequence numbers)
Total number of packets lost from this source since the first time it was heard
from.
Highest sequence number received from this source (extended to 32 bits to
account for wrapping of the sequence number).
Estimated interarrival jitter for the source (calculated by comparing the
interarrival spacing of received packets with the expected spacing at
transmission time)
Last actual timestamp received via RTCP for this source.
Delay since last sender report received via RTCP for this source.

F.2 SESSION CONTROL AND CALL CONTROL (SDP, SIP, H.323)
The IETF has a working group (the Multiparty Multimedia Session Control
group) that has defined protocols for just this purpose.


The protocols that have been defined include
9 SDP (Session Description Protocol)
9 SAP (Session Announcement Protocol)
9 SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
9 SCCP (Simple Conference Control Protocol)

Session Description Protocol (SDP)
SDP is a rather general protocol that can be used in a variety of situations. It
conveys the following information:
The name and purpose of the session
Start and end times for the session
The media types (e.g., audio, video) that comprise the session
Detailed information needed to receive the session (e.g., the multicast address to
which data will be sent, the transport protocol to be used, the port numbers, the
encoding schemes)

v=0
o=larry 2890844526 2890842807 IN IP4 10.0.1.5
s=Networking 101
i=A class on computer networking
u=http://www.cs.princeton.edu/
e=larry@cs.princeton.edu
c=IN IP4 224.2.17.12/127
t=2873397496 2873404696
m=audio 49170 RTP/AVP 0
m=video 51372 RTP/AVP 31
m=application 32416 udp wb


The first thing to notice is that each information type is identified by a single
character. For example, the line v=0 tells us that version has the value zero; that is,
this message is formatted according to version zero of SDP. The next line provides the
origin of the session, which contains enough information to uniquely identify the
session.

Larry is a username of the session creator, and 10.0.1.5 is the IP address of his
computer. The number following larry is a session identifier that is chosen to be unique
to that machine. This is followed by a version number for the SDP announcement; if
the session information was updated by a later message, the version number would be
increased.

The next three lines (s, i, and u) provide the session name, a session description,
and a session uniform resource identifier (URI).session has three media types
available audio, video, and a shared whiteboard application known as wb.

Fig: A session directory tool displays information extracted from SDP
messages.

For each media type there is one line of information formatted as follows:
m=<media> <port> <transport> <format>

The media types are self-explanatory, and the port numbers in each case are
UDP ports. When we look at the transport field, we can see that the wb application
runs directly over UDP, while the audio and video are tranported using RTP/AVP.

SIP
SIP is an application-layer protocol that bears a certain resemblance to HTTP,
being based on a similar request/response model.

The capabilities provided by SIP can be grouped into five categories:

User location: determining the correct device with which to communicate to
reach a particular user.
User availability: determining if the user is willing or able to take part in a
particular communication session.
User capabilities: determining such items as the choice of media and coding
scheme to use.
Session setup: establishing session parameters such as port numbers to be used
by the communicating parties.
Session management: a range of functions including transferring sessions (e.g.,to
implement call forwarding) and modifying session parameters.

SIP is primarily used for human-to-human communication. it is important to
be able to locate individual users, not just machines. Consider the two users in Figure
5.The first thing to notice is that each user has a name in the format user@domain,
very much like an email address.


Fig: Establishing communication through SIP proxies.

When user Bruce wants to initiate a session with Larry, he sends his initial SIP
message to the local proxy for his domain, cisco.com.

Among other things, this initial message contains a SIP URIthis is a form of
uniform resource identifier that looks like this:

SIP:larry@princeton.edu

The proxy can therefore forward the message on to Larrys chosen device(s).
Sending the message to more than one device is called forking and may be done either
in parallel or in series(e.g., send it to his cell phone if he doesnt answer the phone at
his desk). The initial message from Bruce to Larry is likely to be a SIP invite message,
which looks something like the following:

INVITE sip:larry@princeton.edu SIP/2.0
Via: SIP/2.0/UDP bsd-pc.cisco.com;branch=z9hG4bK433yte4
To: Larry sip:larry@princeton.edu

The first line identifies the type of function to be performed (invite); the resource
on which to perform it, that is, the called party (sip:larry@princeton.edu); and the
protocol version (2.0).

The subsequent header lines probably look somewhat familiar because of their
resemblance to the header lines in an email message.

The Content-Type: and Content-Length: headers describe the contents of the
message following the header, just as in a MIME-encoded email message. A user can
register with a location service by sending a SIP register message to the registrar for
his domain.

This message creates a binding between an address of record and a contact
address. An address of record is likely to be a SIP URI that is the well-known
address for the user (e.g., sip:larry@princeton.edu), and the contact address will be the
address at which the user can currently be found. (e.g., sip:larry@llpph.
cs.princeton.edu).

SIP is a very rich and flexible protocol that can support a wide range of complex
calling scenarios as well as applications that have little or nothing to do with telephony.
Below Figure shows the Message flow for a basic SIP session.

H.323
H.323 is popular as a protocol for internet telephony. A device that originates or
terminates calls is known as an H.323 terminal; this might be a workstation running
an internet telephony application, or it might be a specially designed appliance a
telephone like device with networking software and an Ethernet port.

H.323 terminals can talk to each other directly, but the calls are frequently
mediated by a device known as a gatekeeper. H.323 also includes the concept of a
gateway, which connects the H.323 network to other types of networks.


Fig: Message flow for a basic SIP session.

Fig: Devices in an H.323 network.


The most common use of a gateway is to connect an H.323 network to the
public-switched telephone network (PSTN) as illustrated in above Figure.

When an H.323 terminal makes a call to an endpoint that is a conventional
phone, the gateway becomes the effective endpoint for the H.323 call and is responsible
for performing the appropriate translation of both signaling information and the media
stream that need to be carried over the telephone network.

An important part of H.323 is the H.245 protocol, which is used to negotiate the
properties of the call. An H.245 message might list a number of different audio CODEC
standards that it can support, and the far endpoint of the call would reply with a list of
its own supported CODECs, and the two ends could pick a coding standard that they
can both live with.

***END***

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2.B GIOBAI INTRNT

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Ior oxnmpIo, consIdor fhroo Inforconnocfod ASs, l, 2, nnd 3. Supposo AS l Ionrns

2.B.4 ROUTING ARAS

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.1

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.2

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.3

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.4

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.5

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.6

TCI nIso hns nn oxpIIcIf connocfIon fonrdown phnso.

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.?

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.B

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.9

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.10

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.11

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.12

A.3 CONNCTION STABIISHMNT AN TRMINATION

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.13

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu ** TLunuuveI Muvuuun ** 3.14

9$/$9$/$08'$1 9$/$9$/$08'$1 9$/$9$/$08'$1 9$/$9$/$08'$1

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.1

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.2

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.3

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.4

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.5

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.6

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.?

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.B

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.9

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.10

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.11

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.12

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.13

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.14

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.15

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.16

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.1?

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.1B

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.19

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.20

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.21

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.22

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.23

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.24

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.25

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.26

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.2?

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.2B

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.29

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.30

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.31

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.32

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.33

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.34

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.35

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.36

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.3?

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.3B

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.39

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.40

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.41

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.42

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.43

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.44

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.45

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.46

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.4?

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.4B

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.49

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.50

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.51

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.52

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.53

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.54

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.55

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.56

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.5?

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.5B

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.59

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.60

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.61

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.62

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.63

A.Pvoten ' SIIvu TLunuuveI Muvuuun 3.64