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Source: Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Nov., 2000), pp. 348-355 Published by: International Mountain Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3674056 Accessed: 23/10/2008 06:18
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MarcusNiisser
348
Change and Persistence: ContemporaryLandscape Transformationin the Nanga Parbat Region, Northern Pakistan
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system in northern Pakistan is based on ~ irrigated crop cultiva.? _ J tion on valley floors, il combined with animal "
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Lutilization in the upper altitudinal belts. Local communities subsist on this agropastoral economy to a considerable extent. Environmental conditions and the ecological risks of resource utilization are intimately linked in this high mountain region. Rapid population growth, a corresponding increase in pressure on natural resources, and the consequent danger of environmental degradation raise questions about sustainable resource management in relation to contemporary land use and land cover change. The present study investigates vegetation changes and the development of land use patterns in the Nanga Parbat region (Northwest Himalaya) using matched pairs of photographs. A comprehensive collection of historical landscape photographs, taken by members of the German Himalaya expeditions of 1934 and 1937, forms a valuable baseline data set for the area. Recent fieldwork made it possible to reproduce a number of these photographs from viewpoints identical to the earlier ones. Direct comparisons illustrate change and persistence in the cultural landscape over a span of 60 years. The development of the cultural landscape is characterized by the enlargement of settlements and the expansion of cultivated areas in most valleys. On a local scale, intensified irrigation has led to an increase of groundwater-dependent thickets along the water channels and below the cultivated terraces. The montane coniferous forests are characterized by gradual decline, though change is drastic in some places due to local overexploitation. The submontane Pinus gerardiana and Juniperus semiglobosa forests in the vicinity of the villages and near the lower timberline have been seriously degraded.
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Keywords: Landscape transformation; human ecology; repeat photography; Nanga Parbat; Northwest Himalaya; Pakistan. Peer reviewed: May 2000. Accepted: June 2000.
Introduction
The issue of land use and land cover change is widely recognized as a key issue in contemporary research on global environmental change (eg, Turner et al 1994; Lambin et al 1999). Whereas land use change addresses the shift to a different type of use or intensification of an existing
one, land cover change deals with the conversion or modification of the physical state of the land (Turner and Meyer 1994: 5). The concept of landscape transformation encompasses both components, which are closely connected. In the course of the past 15 years, regional assessments of land use and land cover change by multitemporal interpretation of aerial photographs and satellite imagery have increasingly gained importance. Like remote sensing, repeat photography can serve as a basis for detecting landscape transformation (eg, Rogers et al 1984). Comparing terrestrial photographs of the same landscape taken many years apart provides an effective means for assessing land cover and land use change. This method of investigating change has been widely used by geographers and ecologists in various regions, especially in the United States (eg, Rogers 1982; Vale 1987; Veblen and Lorenz 1991; Webb 1996) and in South Africa (Hoffmann and Cowling 1990). Winiger (1996) and Byers (2000) discuss methodological aspects and shortcomings of repeat photography in the general context of high mountain research. Especially in the context of uncertainty about the extent of contemporary vegetation and landscape changes in the Himalaya (Ives and Messerli 1989), repeat photography might help cope with the problem of different interpretations of vague terms such as "landscape degradation" and "sustainable resource utilization." Unfortunately, this method has rarely been used for the Himalaya in the past (eg, Byers 1987: 78-79; Ives 1987: 82-85; Ives and Messerli 1989: 56-59). In this context, Byers (1987: 80) states, "It is to be hoped that photographic materials for other regions in the Himalaya will soon become available, and that repeat photography will eventually become a standard component of future land use assessments and studies." Members of the German Himalaya expeditions of 1934 and 1937 took many landscape photographs in the Nanga Parbat region. These comprehensive collections form a valuable database for repeat photography. Scientific work in the 1930s resulted in two prominent maps (1:50,000) showing the topography (Finsterwalder 1938) and vegetation (Troll 1939) of this Himalayan massif. Whereas the metric photographs by Finsterwalder and Raechl were mostly taken from exposed viewpoints (ridges, rock spurs) in order to obtain panoramic views for the topographical mapping survey (Finsterwalder et al 1935), most of the photographs by Carl Troll show aspects of vegetation, land use, and settlement patterns. In 1992-1995, the present study repeated 20 of these photographs from viewpoints identical to the earlier ones. These replicates make it possible to illustrate changes in land use and land cover over the past 60 years. Current vegetation and land use dynamics can be discussed on the basis of visual interpretation of this bitemporal photographic material.
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Regional aspects
Nanga Parbat (8126 m, 350 14'N, 74035'E) constitutes the northwestern corner of the High Himalaya. The mountain massif towers more than 7000 m above the adjoining gorge of the Indus River (ca 1 100 m) and more than 4500 m above the upper Rupal Valley, lying south of the summit (Figure 1). High relief energy and steep climatic gradients result in a distinct altitudinal zonation of vegetation belts (Troll 1939; Niisser 1998;
Dickor6 and Niisser 2000). The ecological zonation of resource potential in the area stipulates a vertical and seasonal migration pattern between permanent and seasonal settlements as part of an adapted agropastoral economy (Troll 1973; Nfssser and Clemens 1996a,b; Clemens and Nfisser 1997). The spheres of irrigated agriculture and livestock rearing are not only related but interdependent within mixed mountain agriculture (Rhoades and Thompson 1975) or combined mountain agriculture (Ehlers and Kreutzmann 2000: 17-19), form-
Marcus Nusser
350
FIGURE 2 Villages in the Gor region with the Indus Valley. (Photo by C.
21 Troll, May1937)
FIGURE3 Villages in the Gor region with the Indus Valley. (Photo by M. Nusser, 4 September 1995)
ing the economic basis of regional livelihood strategies in the mountain areas of the Western Himalaya, Karakorum, and Hindukush. In the last century, demographic development in the Nanga Parbat region was characterized by high population growth (sometimes over 4% a year; see Clemens and Nfsser 2000: 165). This significant increase in the total population raises questions of environmental degradation as well as questions about contemporary land use and land cover change.
Research
351
mulberries (Morus alba), apricots (Prunus armeniaca) and walnuts (Juglans regia) spread over the irrigated area.
Marcus Nusser
FIGURE Cultivated fields of 6 Harchu and Luskum, Astor Valley. (Photo by C. Troll, 31 May 1937)
FIGURE7 Cultivated fields of Harchu and Luskum, Astor Valley. (Photo by M. Nusser, 6 September 1995)
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Conclusions
The matched pairs of photographs presented reveal that the extent of land use and land cover change in the valleys of Nanga Parbat varies greatly. This calls for a research perspective that takes into account environmental resources as well as historical processes and socioeconomic aspects of land use systems. Furthermore, photographic documentation of landscape transformation proves that changes between the 1930s and the 1990s have not reached an extent that can be described in general terms such as "environmental deterioration" or "ecological disaster." Until now, devel-
opment of the cultural landscape in the Nanga Parbat region has been characterized by a land use system that is highly adapted to natural resource potentials but also reveals increasing pressure on forest resources. In particular, the relatively accessible forest stands in the vicinity of the settlements and near the lower timberline have been seriously depleted due to uncontrolled exploitation and intensive forest pasturing. In comparison, the situation of submontane oak forests in the Gor region looks more positive. Rules and regulations controlled by institutional arrangements have so far led to
MarcusNuisser
354
sustainable utilization of common pool resources.N( , Due to general population growth, the development of the cultural landscape is characterized by the expansion of settlements and cultivated areas in all valleys. In most examples, the limits of this expansion, which is dependent on the availability of irrigation water, On local scale, d. the have not yet been reached fled irrigation with new water channels has led to an increase of hygrophilous vegetation along the channels and below the cultivated terraces. In other examples, enlargement of settlements and expansion of the road network can be detected. Generally, visual interpretation of bitemporal photographs and contemporary landscape dynamics strongly depends7 on the integration of additional ground truth analy-./\I~ ses, interviews with local....... people, and reviews of historical literature. If these conditions are fulfilled, matching historical photographs can serve as a valu
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forest aspects lPinuswallichiana, Conmfer on northern Piceasmidliana. Abiespindmol a Deciduous spp., tress lPopulus Slix spp.,Juglans regia) houses .,., Settlement channel * , 22.7.1994 Source:Photo M. NOsser, on shrub Dwarf communitieslArftemiabrevtblal southern forestsand aspecs withopenJuniper solitarytre lJunipenus se,migobos,J. turkestnical fields(terraces, Cultivated paths. irrgation channels) MnpahRvr Draft: H.Kieslinger M.Nusser,Cartography:
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
of Allee 166, Departmentof Geography, University Bonn, Meckenheimer D-53115 Bonn, Germany. m.nuesser@uni-bonn.de
As a memberof the "Culture Area Karakorum" research interdisciplinary project,the authoris first of all indebtedto the GermanResearch Council and (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) the project'sscientific coordinaProfE. Ehlers(Bonn),and ProfM. tors, Profi. Stellrecht(Tubingen), (Bonn).Foraccess to and permissionto reproducethe historical Winiger (Munich) photographs,the authoris indebtedto ProfRid. Finsterwalder and DrI. Honsch(Leipzig).Botanicalnames correspondto the taxonomy of DrW.B.Dickor((G6ttingen)withinthe framework the "Flora employedby Karakorumensis" Project. Manythanks also go to my guides and friends Nabi(Tato,RaikotValAkhtarHussain(Tarishing, RupalValley)and Ghulam ley) for their hospitalityand assistance in the field.
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