VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

Dr. Adly Kh. Al-Saafin Engg./Env. Geology Earth Sciences Dept. KFUPM - Dhahran

Recommended approach to tackle Environmental problems

(Risk Assessment)
DEFINE
IDENTIFICATION

the type & magnitude Of Hazards

Evaluation

Natural setting, Parameters Influencing ..

Environmental Issue

Hazards ADJUSTMENT (Control Measures) Measures

(Monitoring Program)

OUTLINE
I. Basic Concepts I. Basic Concepts II. Hazards Associated with Volcanic Eruption II. Hazards Associated with Volcanic Eruption III. Impacts of Volcanic Eruption III. Impacts of Volcanic Eruption IV. IV. V. V. VI. VI. Evaluation of Volcanic Hazards Evaluation of Volcanic Hazards Mitigating of Volcanic Hazards Mitigating of Volcanic Hazards Case Studies Case Studies

VII. Volcanoes in Saudi Arabia VII. Volcanoes in Saudi Arabia VIII.Relevant WWW VIII.Relevant WWW

I.

Basic Concepts

Volcanic understanding and description is a vital task and should covers:

What is a Volcano? Characteristics and Types of Magma Types of volcanoes and volcanic features Products of Volcanic Eruption (materials associated volcanic eruptions) Active Volcanoes Distribution

Identification of Volcanic Hazards

What Is a Volcano?
1. 2. 3.
The word "volcano" comes from the little island of volcano Vulcano in the Mediterranean Sea of Sicily. The term volcano also refers to the opening or vent through which the molten rock and associated gases are expelled. Volcanoes are mountains driven by buoyancy and gas pressure the molten rock (magma / lava). lava Lava is the term used for molten materials that has reached the ground surface because of a volcanic eruption. Magma is the molten materials that is found below the ground.

Where Do Volcanoes Erupt? Volcanoes and plates movement movement

There are 16 major plates. These rigid plates float on a softer layer of rock in the Earth's mantle. The plates move about they push together or pull apart. Most volcanoes occur near the edges of plates. When plates push together, one plate slides beneath the other (subduction zone). zone When the plunging plate gets deep enough inside the mantle, some of the rock on the overlying plate melts and forms magma that can move upward and erupt at the Earth's surface. surface At rift zones, plates are moving apart and magma comes to the surface through volcanic eruption. eruption Some volcanoes occur in the middle of ocean that are called hot spots.

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

most volcanic activity is associated with lithospheric plate boundaries: 60% along Pacific Rim (RING OF FIRE) - all associated with convergent margins. 17% on mid-oceanic islands (e.g., Hawaii, Iceland) 14% along Indonesian arch 9% in Mediterranean area, Africa, Asia areas of subduction.

Why Do Volcanoes Erupt?

Deep within the Earth, it is so hot that some rocks slowly melt and increasing volume in magma chamber, high confined pressure, and dissolved gases,. Some volcanic eruptions are explosive and other are not. .

Explosive volcanic eruptions can be dangerous and deadly

Characteristics of Magma
Behavior, extension, temperature of volcanic products, and magnitude of volcanic hazards depend on:

Magma is characterized by a range of composition in Silica: Silica

Basaltic magma (<50% SiO2) Andesitic Magma (52-55% SiO2) Dacitic magma (60-65% SiO2) Ryolitic magma (>70% SiO2)
low

Viscosity
high

Temp

Silica

Characteristics of Magma
Behavior, extension, temperature of volcanic products, and magnitude of volcanic hazards depend on:

Magma has some dissolved gases and water: water More silica rich magma, the greater water and dissolved gases contents. Dissolved water is responsible for causing explosive behavior upon eruption Water remains in solution in the magma as long as the magma is under significant confining pressure beneath the earths surface.

Characteristics of Magma
Behavior, extension, temperature of volcanic products, and magnitude of volcanic hazards depend on:

Magma is characterized by Temperature: Temperature

high

Magmas temperature range from 600 1200 C. Temperature of basaltic magma (dark, low silica) is much higher than in dacitic magma (light, high silica)

Characteristics of Magma
Behavior, extension, temperature of volcanic products, and magnitude of volcanic hazards depend on:

Magma is characterized by a range of viscosity: viscosity

More viscous magma / lava, the more resistant to flow Basaltic magma is characterized by the lowest viscosity Magma viscosity increases as Temp. decreases and as silica content increases.

How Hot Is a Volcano?

Volcano's temperature depends on the location, time and type of volcanic materials:
Temperature of basalt lava at Kilauea reaches 1160 C. Temperature of the lava in the tubes reaches up to 1250 C. Temperature of pyroclastic flows, which can reach (815 C, and move at 100-150 miles per hour. Temperatures in the pyroclastic-flow deposits (at Mount St. Helens) were 415 C for two weeks after the May 18, 1980 eruption.

Such lava / pyroclastic flows are capable of knocking down and burning everything in their paths. paths

Types of Volcanoes

Shield volcano

See Figure 8.4 in your Textbook)

The largest type which characterized with gently sloping, and built almost entirely of low viscosity basaltic lava flows. flows The eruptions are generally non-explosive due to the low silica content. content Example: Hawaiian, and Iceland Volcanoes.

Composite volcanoes = Stratovolcano

Steep-sided, symmetrical cone shapes. The most deadly volcano types, at least in Holocene time. They are built up by eruptions of intermediate viscosity andesitic lava and explosive tephra. tephra Examples: Mount Shasta in California, Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier in Washington state, and Mount Fuji in Japan.

Volcanic Domes
Form by highly viscous rhyolitic magma (approximately 70% silica). Typically small. Some are subjected to explosive blowouts during dome building processes. Domes commonly occur adjacent to or within craters of composite volcanoes. Other domes begin as subsurface confinement.
shallow laccolithic intrusions

that grow and expand beyond

Examples: Pocatello, Idaho, Big Southern Butte and East Butte on the Snake River Plain.

Basaltic flows

There are parts of the world covered by thousands of square kilometers of thick basalt lava flows called Basaltic flows. Individual flows may be more than 50 meters thick and extend for hundreds of kilometers. The largest flood basalts in Saudi Arabia are grouped in the western parts of Saudi Arabia and called Harrat.

Caldera: a large depression created by the collapse of

a volcano.

The largest and most explosive volcanic eruptions eject tens to hundreds of cubic kilometers of pyroclastic material onto the Earths surface. When such a large volume of magma is removed from beneath a volcano, the ground collapses, collapses into the emptied space to form a huge depression called a caldera.

Crater Lake, Oregon - USA

Crater Lake, Oregon - USA

II. Products of Volcanic Eruptions (Volcano Hazards) Hazards

Many kinds of volcanic-events directly or indirectly endanger people as well as various kinds of property around volcanoes: (1) Lava Flow (2) Pyroclastic flow (3) Lahars (4) Tephra (Ash) (5) Emission of volcanic gases (6) Landslides (7) Fumaroles

Products of Volcanic Eruptions (Volcanic Hazards)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Lava flow Lahar Pyroclastic flow Ash fall (Tephra) Volcanic gases Landslides Fumaroles

Volcanic Hazards
The Volcanic Hazards include:

1. Lava flows are streams of molten rock 2. Pyroclastic flows are high speed avalanches of hot
ash, rock fragments, crystals, and gas which move down the sides of a volcano during explosive eruptions.

3. Ash Fall (Tephra) is the material blown out of the

volcanic vent when an explosion occurs.
N.B: Ash-flows, lateral blasts, and ash-falls are the types of pyroclastic activity that produce tephra, with composite volcanoes and large calderas the vent sources .

Impacts of Ash-fall
Ash-fall poses a serious threat to people: people
1. Civilian life damage (Crops, machines, and computers,.. 2. People can have serious respiratory problems due to fine 3. 4. 5. 6.
ash particles. Vegetation covered by layers of volcanic ash is virtually destroyed. Surface water (lakes, streams) can be seriously contaminated. The weight of thick and/or wet layers of ash can cause structural damage (example- collapsing roofs). Windborne ash causes serious problems for airliners, (During the past 15 years, about 80 commercial jets have been damaged by inadvertently flying into ash).

Volcanic Hazards
4. Volcanic Gases All magmas contain dissolved gases
that are released during and between eruptive episodes. Gases: Gases water vapor CO2, CO H2S HCl HF

Volcanic Hazards
5. Lahars (Debris Flows/Mud Flows) are mixtures
of water + rock + ash + sand + and mud that originate from the slopes of a volcano. Lahars are commonly formed when:
Large landslides of water-saturated debris, Heavy rainfall eroding volcanic deposits, Radiant heat emitted from a volcanic vent suddenly melting snow and ice, Pyroclastic flows on the flanks of a volcano, or Breakout of water from glaciers, crater lakes, or from lakes dammed by volcanic eruptions. during eruption and after eruption

Impacts of Lahars
Lahars containing a high percentage of rock debris look
like fast-moving rivers of concrete. Close to a volcano, they have the strength to rip huge boulders, trees, and structures from the ground and carry them for great distances. Farther downstream the coarser debris settles to the bottom of the flow, leaving mud to continue on to cover everything it passes.
Historically, Lahars have been one of the most deadly of the volcanic hazards. hazards The 1985 lahars off Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia killed approximately 23,000 people.

Volcano Hazards
6. 7.
Landsliding Hot springs, and geysers

Some Deadly Volcanic Eruptions

Eruption Year Casualties
25,000 30,000 36,000 92,000 15,000 9,000 10,000 350

Cause
Mudflows Ash flows Tsunami Starvation
Volcano collapse,

Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia 1985 Mont Pelee, Martinique 1902 Krakatau, Indonesia Tambora, Indonesia Unzen, Japan
Tsunami

1883 1815 1792

Lakagigar (Laki), Iceland 1783 Kelut, Indonesia 1586

Starvation

----------Roof collapse, Disease

Mount Pinatubo, Philippines 1991

What Can Volcanic Ash Do To Aircraft?

As reduces engine performance and may cause engine failure. Ash Abrades External Components of Airplanes. Ash contaminates interior airplanes.

Damage Caused by the Eruption

As of February 1996, the current eruption has destroyed 181 homes. Photograph by J.D. Griggs, U.S. Geological Survey, December 19, 1986.

Damage Caused by the Eruption

Buildings, structures, roads, trails, and facilities have been destroyed in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and in Harry K. Brown county park. Numerous archaeological sites have been buried. Photograph by J.D. Griggs, U.S. Geological Survey, June 22, 1989.

Damage Caused by the Eruption

Total losses exceed $61 million, making this eruption the most costly ever in Hawaii. More than 500 acres (200 hectometers) of new land has been added to the island. 1.7 billion cubic yards (1.3 billion m3) of lava has been erupted. Photograph by Steve Mattox, USGS, 1990

Bulldozer removing from volcanic ash Mount St. Helens as part of the massive cleanup effort in eastern Washington.
(Copyrighted photograph by Daryl Gusey).

Distribution of May 18, 1980 ash fallout within the United States

III. Impacts of Volcanic Eruption

Inevitable Impacts Avoidable Impacts Primary impacts: that are produced directly by the
volcanic activity such as:
lava flows, ash-flows, lateral blasts, ash-falls, and gases

Secondary and Tertiary impacts: that are the result of

primary effects such as:
Lahars (mudflows), floods, fires, tsunamis, atmospheric effects, famine & diseases. Disruption of normal human activity, such as sanitation and farming leads to famine (shortage of food) and disease.

Beneficial aspects of volcanism

Important

1. 2. 3. 4.

Creating new lands Enrich soil with natural fertilizers Formation of mineral deposits Source of a geothermal energy

View of Mount St. Helens from the north in April 1981, with Spirit Lake in the middle ground.
(Photograph by Lyn Topinka).

View of Mount St. Helens from the north in August 1984. The fireweed was among the first plant-life to reappear after the devastation on May 18, 1980.
(Photograph by Lyn Topinka).

Types of volcanic Activity

1. Active volcano: volcano
that is erupted recently or at least within the recorded history. that did not show any

2. Inactive (extinct) volcano: volcano

activity within the recorded history.

3. Dormant volcano: volcano

has not erupted in recent memory and show no signs of current activity, but it is not deeply eroded.

Pinatubo volcano, Philippine (1990) after 400 year Mount St. Hellen, us (1980) after 123 years

IV. Volcanic Hazard Evaluation

Steps of Volcanic Hazard Evaluation: Evaluation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Determination of type(s), frequency, and magnitude of volcanic hazards Estimation of environmental, social impacts Prediction of Areal Extinction of the impacts of eruption Estimation Likelihood of New Eruption Allocation the Future Centers of eruptive activity Predicting the Time of Eruption
Geologic Information

How??.... Using ..

MAP MAP MAP

Monitoring

Analysis

Mapping
MAP MAP

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)

Scale varies from 0 to 8 VEI depend on: 1. Volume of material ejected (m3), 2. Height to which material rises (h), 3. Duration of eruption (t). VEI (V H t)

Hazard-Zone Map
The purpose of hazard-zone maps is to give accurate information on the

type and frequency of volcanic and eruptions

consequent volcanic and hydrologic processes that could impact a given area -information vital to sound land-use planner.

Hazard-Zone Map

Ash Accumulation of 10cm or More

Hazard-Zone Map

Hazard-Zone Map

Mudflows at Mount Rainier

Hazard-Zone Map

Map of Lava and Pyroclastic Flow Hazards at Mount Rainier

Hazard-Zone Map

Map of Lahar Hazards at Mount Rainier

Hazard-Zone Map

Map of Ash-fall Hazards at Mount Rainier

Areas inundated by debris flows from Glacier Peak eruptions

Identification

Evaluation

V. Mitigation
(Reducing ) of Volcanic Hazards

V. Mitigation of Volcanic
Hazards
Response and Actions

i.

Monitoring of Volcanic eruption (Prediction & forecasting) forecasting ii. Adjustment and Perception of volcanic hazard.

i.

Monitoring & Prediction of Volcanic Hazards

i. Monitoring of Volcanic eruption i. Monitoring of Volcanic eruption

Purpose:
1. 2. To track the distribution & movement of magma To predict volcanic activity and eruption of magma

Monitoring the movement of Magma

1. 2. 3. 4. Seismic Studies (S, P waves) Change in magnetic field Change in electrical resistivity Magma chamber modeling 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Identification of physical Anomalies & precursors phenomena

Ground deformation Change in Temp of craters lake, well water Change in the heat output of the surface Change in the composition of gases Local seismic activity

Monitoring of Volcanic Activity

Geologists have developed several methods to monitor changes in active volcanoes. These methods allow geologists to forecast and, in some cases, predict, the onset of an eruption.

Methods used to monitor active volcanoes: 1. Ground deformation: GPS, Tiltometer, EDM 2. Geophysical measurements: change in Magnetic field, Electric Resistivity, magma movement (S & P waves)

3. Remote sensing: Satellite imagery 4. Seismicity: Seismometer 5. Gas: SO2, Mehan, HCl. 6. Hydrogeology: Change in temp. of crater lakes, water
wells, or hot spring
http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/monitor_activities.html

Single precursor indicator is sufficient to predict an eruption. Taken together, several physical, and chemical anomalies may create an overall picture that provide clear indication that an eruption is imminent.

See Figure 4.30, page 128 (Murck et. al, 1996)

Seismic Studies and Volcano Monitoring (magma movement)

See Figure 4.28, page 126 (Murck et. al, 1996)

Volcano Monitoring Techniques

http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/monitor_activities.html

Monitoring sites at Mount St. Helens as of March 1982. (Modified from: E. Iwatsubo, 1996, and Brantley and Topinka, 1984)

Ground deformation GPS & Tiltometer, EDM

Seismicity Seismometer

Ground Movements

Tiltmeter
The Tiltmeters used by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory are very sensitive because they must measure changes in slope as small as one part per million. A slope change of one part per million is equivalent to raising the end of a board one kilometer long only one millimeter.
Photograph of a tiltmeter courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey.

Standard Leveling Surveys

Standard leveling surveys are also used to determine changes in horizontal and vertical distances. (Geologists use permanent markers, called benchmarks, as reference points). As magma intrudes beneath an area, the benchmarks move upward and outward.
(after U.S. Geological Survey)

Global Position System (GPS)

A new tool is being used to measure the changes in a volcano prior to or during eruptions. GPS uses a system of orbiting satellites, receivers on the volcano, and computers. GPS can measure vertical and horizontal changes between different GPS receivers down to about one third of an inch (1 cm). By visiting the same locations every few months volcanologists can determine where and how much the volcano is changing shape. This photo shows a GPS receiver on the south flank of Kilauea. Note the benchmark below the receiver. (after USGS)

B. M.

The position of the satellites are known to within a few meters. They send signals which include the time the signal left the satellite. The receivers note the time that the signal arrived. The time it takes for the signal to travel from satellite to receiver can then be determined. Knowing the travel time and the velocity of the signal (the speed of light) the distance between the satellite and receiver can be determined.

Seismometer & Telecommunication devices

Seismometers, the instruments that detect the earthquakes, are set up at numerous locations on the volcano. The information about the earthquakes is sent by radio waves to the Volcano Observatory.
(after U.S. Geological Survey)

Seismograph Records

Four major types of seismograms, or "seismic signatures," are recognized from seismometers in the vicinity of Mount St. Helens. Seismologists review and classify the seismic records daily.

Gas Geochemistry
Gas samples are collected from fumaroles, like those near Sulfur Bank, and from active vents. The composition of the gas or a change in the rate of gas emission provides additional information on what is happening inside the volcano. For example, an increase in the ratio of Carbon to Sulfur can be used to indicate the arrival of a new batch of magma at the summit reservoir. Shortly before the onset of the Puu Oo eruption, the amount of hydrogen gas at the summit of Kilauea Volcano increased significantly. (This photo shows gas geochemists collecting a sample, U.S. Geological Survey, 1990).

Gas Geochemistry (spectrometer)

The spectrometer compares the light coming through the volcanic plume to a known spectra of sulfur dioxide (SO2).

The amount of sulfur dioxide (SO2) released by the volcano can be measured indirectly by a correlation spectrometer. The flux of sulfur dioxide (SO2) nearly doubled after the 1983 eruption began (Greenland and others, 1985).. Photo shows volcanologist measuring sulfur dioxide plume at Puu Oo vent, U.S. Geological Survey.

Geophysical parameters
Changes in magnetic field, electric conductivity indicate to the magma movement and volcanic eruption
.

Remote Sensing for Monitoring Volcanoes

Detecting Eruption Clouds with Weather Satellites

Detecting Eruption Clouds with Weather Satellites

TM & AVHRR

Satellite image showing the location of the September 16-17 eruption cloud about 48 hours after the eruption started. This image shows the result of using the difference between two thermal bands of the AVHRR sensor. AVHRR The eruption cloud is clearly visible extending in an arc from northern Quebec, southwest above Ontario, Michigan and Wisconsin.

ii.
i. ii. iii. i. ii. iii. iv. i. ii. iii.

Adjustment of volcanic hazards

Diversion of lava / lahar flow using wall, dam, Bombing of lava with Water (cooling and buffering), Channelling

1. Physical Structures:

2. Public Education & Training:

Evacuation plan, Adequate communication system, Monitoring program Land use planning

3. Use of New Technologies:

Remote sensing detection, Warning System, Robotics and ground-based sensors for data collection.

Diversion of lava flow

Diversion of lava flow can be done by: by
1. Bombing of lava with Water, Water 2. Channeling, 3. Wall / Dam

Comments on Lava Diversion?!!!!

Diverting lava flows by artificial means is a largely untested and costly option for
protecting developed areas. Well-placed barriers may successfully divert a shortlived lava flow.

During a longer eruption, with the sheer volume of lava and the number of flows
involved, diverting operation may be impossible.

For

such efforts require favorable conditions of topography and property ownership that
can rarely be met in a populated area.

example, during the 1955 eruption of Hawaiis eruption, barriers temporarily diverted flows from two different plantations, but in both cases, flows on subsequent days took different routes and ultimately destroyed the property. A few attempts at lava diversion have been partially successful elsewhere in the world.

Artificial diversion of lava onto property that otherwise would have been spared could
lead to complex legal problems. Lava diversion, is a reasonable option in unpopulated areas where isolated, high-value property is at risk.

In Summary: Methods of prediction Summary 1.Field Studies 2.Topographic changes 3.Seismicity 4.Change in heat flow 5.Volcanic gases
No single indicator can be used alone. No single indicator can be used alone. Exact timing is not an easy job to determine volcanic eruption. Exact timing is not an easy job to determine volcanic eruption. Cost & Reliability of prediction. Cost & Reliability of prediction. Socio-economic aspects should be considered. Socio-economic aspects should be considered. Warning system should be implemented. Warning system should be implemented.

VI. Case Studies

Case Studies:
Icelands Volcanoes Mount St. Helen, Washington Mount Pinatubo, Philippines Sakurjima and Unzen, Japan

VII.Volcanoes In Saudi Arabia

Volcanoes of the Middle East and the Indian Ocean

http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=03

Types of volcanoes landform at Harrat Hutaymah

The town of Tabah is in a tuff ring. Basaltic cinder cones and flows are on the
south rim of the tuff ring. Jabal Salma forms the horizon. Jabal Salma is made of 570-585 million year old granitic plutons that are part of the Arabian-Nubian Shield. View is to the northwest. Photo by Carl Thornber, U.S. Geological Survey.

Types of volcanoes landform at Harrat Hutaymah

Looking northwest to Hutaymah, a tuff cone and namesake of the volcanic province. Tabah tuff cone is in the distance (upper left margin). Jabal Salma is on the horizon. Photo by Carl Thornber, U.S. Geological Survey.

Types of volcanoes landform at Harrat Hutaymah

View of west-northwest wall of Hutaymah tuff ring. Photo by Carl Thornber, Geological Survey

Types of volcanoes landform at Harrat Hutaymah

Looking northwest to the nested cinder and spatter cones of Harrat ad Dakhana in the north-central part of the Harrat Hutaymah volcanic field.. Cinder cones are made of varying amounts of unconsolidated to poorly consolidated basaltic cinder, bombs, and spatter. The slopes of the cinder cones tend to be greater than 30.
Photo by Carl Thornber, U.S. Geological Survey

Types of volcanoes landform at Harrat Hutaymah

A complex of eroded tuff cones at Jabal Dilham, and Samra Asafra..

Photo by Carl Thornber, U.S. Geological Survey.

Satellite image of Jebel al Tair volcano

Oct. 1st. 2007

VIII. Relevant WWW

http://www.avo.alaska.edu/ Alaska Volcano Observatory http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/ USGS Volcano Hazards Program http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/home.html Cascades Volcano Observatory http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/VOLCANOES/LongValley/ Long Valley Observatory http://magic.geol.ucsb.edu/~fisher/benefits.htm List of benefits from volcanism http://www.geol.ucsb.edu/~fisher/ The Volcano Information Center http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/ Volcano World http://www.dartmouth.edu/~volcano/ The Electronic Volcano http://www.discovery.com/ Discovery Channel Onlines Daily Updates on the State of the Planet Find out about some Deadly Volcanoes http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/europe_west_asia/saudi_arabia/harr at.html http://www.volcano.si.edu/ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=03 http://boris.vulcanoetna.com/