CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1. MODULATION
Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a high frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with respect to a modulating signal. Here the three key parameters of a periodic waveform are its amplitude ("volume"), its phase ("timing") and its frequency ("pitch"), all of which can be modified in accordance with a low frequency signal to obtain the modulated signal. Typically a high frequency sinusoidal waveform is used as carrier signal.

1.2. TYPES OF MODULATION

Amplitude Modulation: It is a type of modulation where amplitude of an information signal vary while frequency and phase kept constant. Frequency Modulation: It is a type of modulation where frequency of information signal varies while amplitude and phase kept constant. Phase Modulation: It is a type of modulation where phase of information signal vary while Amplitude and frequency kept constant.

1.3. TRANSMISSION BANDS

At the beginning of radio, few people would have guessed that we would be wondering now about the difference between the narrow band and wideband meter used in radio communications. At that time, someone guessed that using the small frequency deviation could produce a narrow spectrum, narrower than the AM, because that spectrum could be restricted to a larger range of frequencies. Systems are defined as wideband or narrowband depending on the transmission bandwidth.

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1.3.1. NARROW BAND In radio, narrowband describes a channel in which the bandwidth of the message does not significantly exceed the channel's coherence bandwidth. It is a common misconception that narrowband refers to a channel which occupies only a small amount of space on the radio spectrum. In the study of wireless channels, narrowband implies that the channel under consideration is sufficiently narrow that its frequency response can be considered flat. The message bandwidth will therefore be less than the coherence bandwidth of the channel. This is usually used as an idealizing assumption, no channel has perfectly flat fading, but the analysis of many aspects of wireless systems is greatly simplified if flat fading can be assumed. Narrowband can also be used with the audio spectrum to describe sounds which occupy a narrow range of frequencies. In telephony, narrowband is usually considered to cover frequencies 3003400 Hz. 1.3.2. BROAD BAND In communications, wideband is a relative term used to describe a wide range of frequencies in a spectrum. A system is typically described as wideband if the message bandwidth significantly exceeds the channel's coherence bandwidth. Some communication links have such a high data rate that they are forced to use a wide bandwidth, other links may have relatively low data rates, but deliberately use a wider bandwidth than necessary for that data rate in order to gain other advantages. A wideband antenna is one with approximately or exactly the same operating characteristics over a very wide pass band. It is distinguished from broadband antennas, where the pass band is large, but the gain and/or pattern need not stay the same over the pass band. The term Wideband Audio or (also termed HD Voice or Wideband Voice) denotes a telephone conversation using a wideband codec, which uses a greater frequency range of the spectrum than conventional voice band telephone calls, resulting in a clearer sound. According to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, WIDEBAND is a registered trademark of Wideband Corporation, a USA based manufacturer of Gigabit Ethernet managed switches, adapters, and networking equipment. In some contexts wideband is distinguished from broadband in being broader.
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1.4. FREQUENCY MODULATION

Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the modulating signal. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant. The information bearing signal (the modulating signal) changes the instantaneous frequency of the carrier. Since the amplitude is kept constant, FM modulation is a low-noise process and provides a high quality modulation technique which is used for music and speech in high fidelity broadcasts. For FM the carrier frequency is proportional to the basebands amplitude, the carrier increases frequency proportional to the positive magnitude of the baseband and decreases frequency proportional to the negative magnitude of the baseband.

Fig. 1.1 Frequency Modulation

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CHAPTER 2 TECHNICAL BACKGROUND

Each frequency range has a band designator and each range of frequencies behaves differently and performs different functions. The frequency spectrum is shared by civil, government, and military users of all nations according to International Telecommunications Union (ITU) radio regulations. For communications purposes, the usable frequency spectrum now extends from about 3Hz to about 300GHz. There are also some experiments at about 100THz where research on laser communications is taking place but we won't discuss this now. This range from 3Hz to 300GHz has been split into regions. The good thing is that once this range has been split it remained that way and became standard. And it is up to you if you want to accept this standard or not. Frequency band standard is described in International Telecommunications Union radio regulations. And it looks as follows: Designation ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF Extremely Low Frequency Super Low Frequency Ultra Low Frequency Very Low Frequency Low Frequency Medium Frequency High Frequency Very High Frequency Ultra High Frequency Super High Frequency Extremely High Frequency Frequency 3Hz to 30Hz 30Hz to 300Hz 300Hz to 3000Hz 3KHz to 30KHz 30KHz to 300KHz 300KHz to 3000KHz 3MHz to 3MKHz 30MHz to 300MHz 300MHz to 3000MHz 3GHz to 3GHz 30GHz to 300GHz Wavelength 100000Km to 10000Km 10000Km to 1000Km 1000 Km to 100Km 100 Km to 10Km 10 Km to 1Km 1 Km to 100 m 100m to10 m 10m to 1m 1m to 10 cm 10cm to 1cm 1cm to 1mm

Table 2.1 Standard Frequency Band However, to simplify things about VLF a good idea would be to use term audio frequency range. Imagine doing a project covering 20 Hz to 20 KHz, it would be annoying to write ELF/SLF/ULF/VLF all the time. But again it would not be correct if you just write VLF because there is much more in that range. Instead, simply use term audio frequency range. As
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I said in the beginning there are already dozens of articles with wrong frequency designations and a good thing would be to correct and minimize mistakes. On some documents that describe electromagnetic spectrum you might see terms like LW, MW and SW. In a lot of occasions you might see them mixed in the same context as frequency range we mentioned above. LW is not LF, and MW is not MF, therefore you can't put them together in same context with HF and VHF. LW, MW and SW are frequency designations of AM broadcast radio stations, and thats about it. They have nothing to do with ITU's band designations we mentioned in the table above. Some countries don't even have LW, so you should not mix LW, MW or SW with HF, VHF etc. unless you are talking about AM broadcast stations. To be exact MW and HF should never be mixed together in the same context.

2.1. BROADCASTING
Broadcast Frequencies: Designation LW MW SW Name Long Wave Medium Wave Short Wave Frequency 153 - 279 KHz 531 1620 KHz 2310 25820 KHz

Table 2.2 Broadcast Frequencies Designations for television and FM radio broadcast frequencies vary between countries see Television channel frequencies and FM broadcast band. Since VHF and UHF frequencies are desirable for many uses in urban areas, in North America some parts of the former television broadcasting band have been reassigned to cellular phone and various land mobile communications systems. Even within the allocation still dedicated to television, TV band devices use channels without local broadcasters. Air Band Air band refers to VHF frequencies used for navigation and voice communication with aircraft. Transoceanic aircraft also carry HF radio and satellite transceivers.
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Marine Band The greatest incentive for development of radio was the need to communicate with

ships out of visual range of shore. From the very early days of radio, large oceangoing vessels carried powerful long-wave and medium wave transmitters. High frequency allocations are still designated for ships, although satellite systems have taken over some of the safety applications previously served by 500 KHz and other frequencies. 2182 KHz is a medium wave frequency still used for marine emergency communication. Marine VHF radio is used in coastal waters and relatively short range communication between vessels and to shore stations. Radios are channelized, with different channels used for different purposes; marine Channel 16 is used for calling and emergencies. Amateur Radio Frequencies Amateur radio frequency allocations vary around the world. Several bands are common for amateurs world-wide, usually in the shortwave part of the spectrum. Other bands are national or regional allocations only due to differing allocations for other services, especially in the VHF and UHF parts of the radio spectrum. Citizens Band And Personal Radio Services Citizens band radio is allocated in many countries, using channelized radios in the upper HF part of the spectrum (around 27 MHz). It used for personal, small business and hobby purposes. Other frequency allocations are used for similar services in different jurisdictions. A wide range of personal radio services exist around the world, usually emphasizing short range communication between individuals or for small businesses, simplified or no license requirements, and usually FM transceivers use around 1 watt or less. Industrial, Scientific, Medical The ISM bands were initially reserved for non communications uses of RF energy, such as microwave ovens, radio frequency heating, and similar purposes. However in recent years the largest use of these bands has been by short-range low power communications systems, since users do not have to hold a radio operator's license. Cordless telephones, networks, Bluetooth devices, and garage door openers all use the ISM bands. ISM devices do not have regulatory protection against interference from other users of the band.

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Land Mobile Bands Bands of frequencies, especially in the VHF and UHF parts of the spectrum, are

allocated for communication between fixed base stations and land mobile vehicle mounted or portable transceivers. In the United States these services are informally known as business band radio. See also Professional mobile radio. Police radio and other public safety services such as fire departments and ambulances are generally found in the VHF and UHF parts of the spectrum. Trunking systems are often used to make most efficient use of the limited number of frequencies available. Radio Control Reliable radio control uses bands dedicated to the purpose. Radio controlled toys may use portions of unlicensed spectrum in the 27 MHz or 49 MHz bands, but more costly aircraft, boat, or land vehicle models use dedicated remote control frequencies near 72 MHz to avoid interference by unlicensed uses. Licensed amateur radio operators use portions of the 6-meter band in North America. Industrial remote control of cranes or railway locomotives use assigned frequencies that vary by area. Radar Radar applications use relatively high power pulse transmitters and sensitive receivers, so radar is operated on bands not used for other purposes. Most radar bands are in the microwave part of the spectrum, although certain important applications

for meteorology make use of powerful transmitters in the UHF band.

2.2. RADIO FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH RANGES

Radio waves have a wide range of applications, including communication during emergency rescues (transistor and short wave radios), international broadcasts (satellites), and cooking food (microwaves). A radio wave is described by its wavelength (the distance from one crest to the next) or its frequency (the number of crests that move past a point in one second). Wavelengths of radio waves range from 100,000 m (270,000 ft) to 1 mm (.004 in). Frequencies range from 3 kilo hertz to 300 GHz.

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2.3. FM THEORY
Angle and Amplitude Modulation are techniques used in Communication to transmit Data or Voice over a particular medium, whether it is over wire cable, fibre optic or air (the atmosphere). A wave that is proportional to the original baseband (a real time property, such as amplitude) information is used to vary the angle o r amplitude o f a higher frequency wave (the carrier). Carrier = A cos (t) (t) = 2fct + Where A is the amplitude of the carrier and (t) is the angle of the carrier, which constitutes the frequency(fc) and the phase() of the carrier. Angle modulation varies the angle of the carrier by an amount proportional to the information signal. Angle modulation can be broken into 2 distinct categories, frequency modulation and phase modulation. Formal definitions are given below: Phase Modulation (PM) Angle modulation in which the phase of a carrier is caused to depart from its reference value by an amount proportional to the modulating signal amplitude. Frequency Modulation (FM) Angle modulation in which the instantaneous frequency of a sine wave carrier is caused to depart from the carrier frequency by an amount proportional to the instantaneous value of the modulator or intelligence wave. Phase modulation differs from Frequency modulation in one important way. PM will have the carrier phase in between the + and - excursions of the modulating signal. FM modulation also has the carrier in the middle but the fact that when you integrate the modulating signal and put it through a phase modulator you get fm, and if the modulating wave were put thro ugh a differentiator before a frequency modulator you get a phase modulated wave.

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CHAPTER 3 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

Fig. 3.1 FM Transmitter Block Diagram

The microphone converts sound pressure wave to electrical signals. These audio voltages are amplified by the audio amplifier. The amplified audio is used to control the deviation of the frequency controlled oscillator.

The oscillator frequency is at the carrier frequency, in the 88-108 MHz FM band. The antenna produces an electromagnetic wave.

3.1. CE AMPLIFIER:
The single stage common emitter circuit shown above uses what is commonly called voltage divider biasing. This type of biasing arrangement uses two resistors as a potential divider network and is commonly used in the design of bipolar transistor amplifier circuits. This type of biasing the transistor greatly reduces the effect of varying beta by holding the base bias at a constant steady voltage level allowing for best stability. The quiescent base voltage(Vb) is determined by the potential divider network formed by the two resistors R1, R2 and the power supply voltage Vcc as shown with the current flowing through both resistors.
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Fig. 3.2 CE Amplifier Then the total resistance RT will be equal to R1+R2 giving the current as i=Vcc/RT. The voltage level generated at the junction of resistors R1 and R2 holds the base voltage(Vb) constant at a value below the supply voltage. Then the potential divider network used in the common emitter amplifier circuit divides the input signal in proportional to the resistance. This bias reference voltage can be calculated using the simple voltage divider formula below: Vb = (Vcc R2)/ (R1+R2) The same supply voltage Vcc also determine the maximum collector current, Ic when the transistor is switched fully ON (saturation), Vce=0. The base current Ib for the transistor is found from the collector current, Ic and DC current gain beta, of the transistor. Beta is sometimes referred to as hfe which is transistors forward current gain in the common emitter configuration. Beta has no units as it is a fixed ratio of the two currents, Ic and Ib so a small change in the base current will cause a large change in the collector current. The transistors of the same type and part number will have large variation in their beta value. As the base or emitter junction is forward biased, the emitter voltage Ve will be one junction voltage drop different to the base voltage. If the voltage across the emitter resistor is known then the emitter current, Ie can be easily calculated using ohms law. The collector current Ic can be approximated, since it is almost a same value as the emitter current.

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3.1.1. OUTPUT CHARACTEISTIC CURVES We can now construct a series of curves that shows the collector current Ic, against the collector or emitter voltage, Vce with different values of base current, Ib for simple common emitter amplifier circuit. These curves are known as output characteristic curves and are used to show how the transistor will operate over its dynamic range. A static or DC load line is drawn the curves for the load resistor RL to show all the transistors possible operating points. When the transistor is switched OFF Vce equals the supply voltage Vcc and this is point B on the line. Likewise when the transistor is fully On and saturated the collector current I determined by load resistor and this pint A on the line. We calculated before from the DC gain of the transistor that the base current requires for the mean position of the transistor was 45.8 micro amps and this is marked as point Q on the load line which represents the quiescent point of the amplifier. We could quite easily make life easy for ourselves and round off this value to 50 micro amps exactly, without any effect to the operating point. Point Q on the load line gives us the base current Q point of Ib = 45.8micro amps. We need to find maximum or minimum peak swings of base current that will result in a proportional change to the collector current without any distortion to the output signal. As the load line cuts through the different base current values on the DC characteristics curves we can find the peak swings of the base currents that are equally spaced along the load line. These values are marked as points N and M on the line, giving a minimum and maximum base current of 20 micro amps and 80 micro amps respectively. These points, N and M can be anywhere along the load line that we choose as long as they are equally spaced from Q. This then gives us a theoretical maximum input signal to the base terminal of 60 micro amps peak to peak, without producing any distortion to the output signal. Any input signal giving a base current greater than this value will drive the transistor to go beyond point N and into its cutoff region or beyond point M and into its saturation region there by resulting in distortion to the output signal in the form of clipping. Using points N and M as an example the instantaneous values of collector current and corresponding values of collector emitter voltage can be projected from the load line. It can be seen that the collector emitter voltage is in anti phase (-180) with the collector current. As the base current Ib changes in a positive direction from 50 to 80 micro amps the collector

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emitter voltage which is also the output voltage decreases from its steady state value of 5.8v to 2.0v.

Fig. 3.3 Output Characteristic Curves Then the single stage common emitter amplifier is also an inverting amplifier as an increase in base voltage causes a decrease in Vout and a decrease in base voltage produces an increase in Vout. In other words the output signal is 180 out of phase with the input signal 3.1.2. VOLTAGE GAIN The voltage gain of the common emitter amplifier is equal to the ratio of the change in the input voltage to the change in the amplifiers output voltage. Then VL is Vout and Vb is Vin. But voltage is also equal to the ratio of the signal resistance in the collector to the signal resistance in the emitter AND is given as Voltage gain = Vout / Vin = VL / Vb = -RL / Re
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3.2. LC OSCILLATOR
This oscillator consists of a capacitor and a coil connected in parallel. To understand how the LC oscillator basically works, let's start off with the basics. Suppose a capacitor is charged by a battery. Once the capacitor is charged, one plate of the capacitor has more electrons than the other plate, thus it is charged. Now, when it is discharged through a wire, the electrons return to the positive plate, thus making the capacitor's plates neutral, or discharged. However, this action works differently when you discharge a capacitor through a coil. When current is applied through a coil, a magnetic field is generated around the coil. This magnetic field generates a voltage across the coil that opposes the direction of electron flow. Because of this, the capacitor does not discharge right away. The smaller the coil, the faster the capacitor discharges. Now the interesting part happens. Once the capacitor is fully discharged through the coil, the magnetic field starts to collapse around the coil. The voltage induced from the collapsing magnetic field recharges the capacitor oppositely. Then the capacitor begins to discharge through the coil again, generating a magnetic field. This process continues until the capacitor is completely discharged due to resistance. Technically this basic LC circuit generates a sine wave that loses voltage in every cycle. To overcome this, additional voltage is applied to keep the oscillator from losing voltage. However, to keep this oscillator going well, a switching method is used. A vacuum tube (or a solid-state equivalent such as a FET) is used to keep this LC circuit oscillating. The advantage of using a vacuum tube is that they can oscillate at specified frequencies such as a thousand cycles per second. 3.2.1. FREQUENCY An LC oscillator has resonant frequency of .

This is the frequency at which the LC circuit will oscillate if energy is put into it. Also, if you apply a voltage at this frequency to the circuit it will respond better than at any other frequency. At the resonant frequency, the reactance of the capacitor is equal to that of the inductor. Where = 2f
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Rearranging

So,

And

Parallel and Series Resonance There are two main types of LC resonance: series and parallel. To comprehend them, you must understand this. In general, capacitors like to conduct high frequencies, and dislike to conduct low frequencies. Alternatively, inductors like to conduct low frequencies, and dislike high frequencies. 3.2.2. PARALLEL RESONANCE Figure 3.4 displays the classic parallel resonant circuit. Ideally, this "resonant tank" will conduct all frequencies to ground excepting its resonant frequency. At resonance, it looks like an open circuit and conducts no current.

Fig. 3.4 Parallel Resonant Circuit Figure 3.5 is a frequency plot of a parallel resonant tank as the frequency is swept from just below to just above resonance. As you can see, the current flow is at a minimum when the tank is in resonance (therefore the voltage drop is the highest across the tank.) As you can see, this type of LC circuit can be useful in applications such as radio, in which one specific frequency is desired. By setting the tank circuit to resonate at a certain frequency,

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you can effectively "drop" unwanted frequencies to ground and pass along the desired frequency.

Fig. 3.5 Response Curve of a Parallel Resonant Circuit 3.2.3. SERIES RESONANCE Figure 3.6 shows the Series Resonant tank. It does not conduct until driven at it's resonant frequency. Thus, at resonance, it acts as a short circuit and conducts maximum current.

Fig. 3.6 Series Resonant Circuit From figure 3.6, at resonance, the series circuit is fully conducting. Again, frequency is swept from just beneath to just above resonance. Current flow is at a maximum during resonance, thus the low voltage drop. This circuit is especially useful in filter applications in which one specific frequency is undesired. The reverse of the parallel resonant circuit, it passes all frequencies but "drops" the undesired frequency to ground.

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Fig. 3.7 Response Curve of a Series Resonant Circuit

3.2.4. QUALITY FACTOR You may have noticed in the graphs a gentle slope instead of a sharp one. Does that mean that certain frequencies are not attenuated as much, That is the essence of "Q" or "quality" of a resonant tank. The sharper the slope, the higher the "Q." In most applications, a high Q is desired.

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CHAPTER 4 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

4.1. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig. 4.1 Broadcast FM Transmitter This circuit is a simple two transistor FM transmitter. No licence is required for this transmitter according to FCC regulations regarding wireless microphones. If powered by a 9 to 24 volts battery and used with an antenna no longer than 12 inches, the transmitter will be within the FCC limits. The microphone amplified by Q2. Q1, C5, and L2 from an oscillator that operates in 80 to 130 MHz range. The oscillator is voltage controlled, so it is modulated by the audio signal that is applied to the base of Q1. L1 and L2 can be made with wire and a pencil. The inductor (L1) is made by winding two pieces of 24 gauge insulated wire, laid side by side, around a pencil six times. Remove the coil you have formed and unscrew the two coils apart from each other. One of coils will be used in the tank circuit, and the other can be used in the next one you build. The antenna (24 gauge wire) should be soldered to the coil you made, about 2 turns up from the bottom, on the transistor side, and should be 8-12 inches long. To make C6, take a 4 inch piece of 24 gauge

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insulated wire, bend it over double and, beginning from the open end, twist the wire as if you were forming a rope. When you have about 1 of twisted wire, stop and cut the looped end off, leaving about of twisted wire (this forms the capacitor) and of untwisted wire for leads.

4.2 COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

Part C1 C2 C3,C4 C5 R1 R2,R5,R6 R3 R4 Q1 Q2 L1,L2 MIC MISC Description 0.001uf Disc Capacitor 5.6pf Disc Capacitor 10uf Electrolytic Capacitor 3-18pf Adjustable Capacitor 270 Ohm 1/8W Resistor 4.7K 1/8W Resistor 10K 1/8W Resistor 100K 1/8W Resistor 2N2222A NPN Transistor BC548 5 Turn Air Core Coil Microphone 9V Battery Snap, PC Board, Wire For Antenna Total Qty. 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 270 Ohm 1/4W Resistor 4.7K 1/4W Resistor 10K 1/4W Resistor 100K 1/4W Resistor Substitutions

Table 4.1: List of Components

4.2.1. CARBON MICROPHONE

The carbon microphone, also known as a carbon buttons microphone or a carbon transmitter, is a sound to electrical signal transducer consisting of two metal plates separated by granules of carbon. One plate faces outward and acts as a diaphragm. When sound waves strike this plate, the pressure on the granules changes, which in turn changes the electrical resistance between the plates. (Higher pressure lowers the resistance as the granules are pushed closer together.) A direct current is passed from one plate to the other and the
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changing resistance results in a changing current, which can be passed through a telephone system, or used in other ways in electronics systems to change the sound into an electrical signal.

Fig. 4.2 Operation of Carbon Microphone Before the proliferation of vacuum tube amplifiers in the 1920s, carbon microphones were the only practical means of obtaining high level audio signals, and were widely used in telephone systems. Their low cost, inherently high output and "peaked" frequency response characteristic were well suited for this application, and their use in new telephone installations continued up to the 1980s, long after they had been replaced by other types of microphones in other applications. (In most Western copper-wire telephone networks, old fashioned carbon-microphone based telephones can still be used without modification). Carbon microphones were widely used in early AM radio broadcasting systems (usually modified telephone microphones), but their limited frequency, as well as a fairly high noise level, led to their abandonment for that use by the late 1920s. They continued to be widely used for low-end public address, and military and amateur radio applications for some decades afterward.

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4.2.2 TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a three terminal electronic component composed of semi conducting material such as silicon or germanium. The purpose of a transistor is to use a small signal to vary the conductivity of a piece of semiconductor. The tiny signal can switch a large current on and off. Or, the signal can be used to control a larger signal, so the transistor becomes an amplifier. In Bipolar Junction transistors the large current must pass across an extremely thin insulating layer, and the width of this insulating layer controls the current. In Field Effect Transistors the large current must pass through a narrow conductive channel with insulating layers on either side. The width of this conductive channel controls the current. Function Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage. A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on). Types of Transistor

Fig.4.3 Transistor Circuit Symbols

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There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use NPN transistors. The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E). These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels! A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain. In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are usually referred to as FETs. Connecting Transistors have three leads which must be connected the correct way round. Please take care with this because a wrongly connected transistor may be damaged instantly when you switch on. If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will be clear from the PCB or strip board layout diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue to identify the leads. The transistors used in this project are 2N2222A and BC548. 2N2222A The 2N2222 is a common NPN bipolar junction transistor used for general purpose low-power amplifying or switching applications. It is designed for low to medium current, low power, medium voltage, and can operate at moderately high speeds. It is made in the TO18 metal can as shown in the picture. Replacements are commonly available now in the cheaper TO-92 packaging, where it is known as the PN2222 or P2N2222, which has similar specifications except for the lower maximum collector current. The 2N2222 is considered a very common transistor, and is used as an exemplar of an NPN transistor. It is frequently used as a small-signal transistor, and it remains a small general purpose transistor of enduring popularity. The 2N2222 was part of a family of devices described by Motorola at a 1962 IRE convention. Since then it has been made by many semiconductor companies, for example, Texas Instruments.
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Fig. 4.4 Transistor 2N2222A Specifications The JEDEC registration of a device number ensures particular rated values will be met by all parts offered under that number. JEDEC registered parameters include outline dimensions, small-signal current gain, transition frequency, maximum values for voltage withstand, current rating, power dissipation and temperature rating, and others, measured under standard test conditions. Other part numbers will have different parameters. The exact specs depend on the manufacture case type and variation. Therefore it is important to reference the datasheet for the exact part number and manufacturer. Manufacturer 2N2222A Vcc 40 V

Ic
800 Ma

PD
500 mW/1.8W

fT
300 MHz

Table 4.2 Specifications of 2N2222A All variations have a beta or current gain (hFE) of at least 100 in optimal conditions. It is used in a variety of analog amplification and switching applications.NPN silicon transistors with similar properties are also made in a variety of small through-hole and surface mount packages including TO-92, SOT-23, and SOT-223.

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 BC548 The BC548 is a general purpose epitaxial silicon NPN bipolar junction

transistor found commonly in European electronic equipment. The part number is assigned by Pro Electron, which allows many manufacturers to offer electrically and physically interchangeable parts under one identification. The BC548 is commonly available in European Union countries. It is often the first type of bipolar transistor young hobbyists encounter, and is often featured in circuit diagrams and designs published in hobby electronics magazines.

Fig. 4.5 Transistor BC548 If the plastic TO-92 package is held in front of one's face with the flat side facing toward you and the leads downward, (see picture) the order of the leads, from left to right is collector, base, emitter. Specifications Devices registered to this Pro Electron number must have minimum performance characteristics. Breakdown voltage, with base open VCBO = 30 V Rated collector current IC = 100 mA Rated total power dissipation Ptotal = 500 mW Transition frequency (gain-bandwidth product) ft = 300 MHz

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4.2.3. CAPACITOR Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals. This article is about the electronic component. A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes. A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[9] The non-conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from
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any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

Fig. 4.6 Capacitor Operation The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Electrolytic Capacitor An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an electrolyte (an ionic

conducting liquid) as one of its plates to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume than other types, but with performance disadvantages. All capacitors conduct alternating current (AC) and block direct current (DC) and can be used, amongst other applications,
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to couple circuit blocks allowing AC signals to be transferred while blocking DC power, to store energy, and to filter signals according to their frequency. The large capacitance of electrolytic capacitors makes them particularly suitable for passing or bypassing lowfrequency signals and storing large amounts of energy. They are widely used in power supplies and for decoupling unwanted AC components from DC power connections.

Fig. 4.7 Electrolyte Capacitor Super capacitors provide the highest capacitance of any practically available capacitor, up to thousands of farads, with working voltages of a few volts. Electrolytic capacitors range downwards from tens (exceptionally hundreds) of thousands of microfarads to about 100 nano farads smaller sizes are possible but have no advantage over other types. Other types of capacitor are available in sizes typically up to about ten microfarads, but the larger sizes are much larger and more expensive than electrolytic (film capacitors of up to thousands of microfarads are available, but at very high prices). Electrolytic capacitors are available with working voltages up to about 500V, although the highest capacitance values are not available at high voltage. Working temperature is commonly 85C for standard use and 105 for high temperature use; higher temperature units are available, but uncommon. Unlike other types of capacitor, most electrolytic capacitors require that the voltage applied to one terminal (the anode) never become negative relative to the other (they are said to be "polarized"), so cannot be used with AC signals without a DC polarizing bias (nonpolarized electrolytic capacitors are available for special purposes). Leakage current, capacitance tolerance and stability, Equivalent Series

Resistance (ESR) and dissipation factor are significantly inferior to other types of capacitor, and working life is shorter. Capacitors can lose capacitance as they age and lose electrolyte, particularly at high temperatures. A common failure mode which causes difficult to find
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circuit malfunction is progressively increasing ESR without change of capacitance, again particularly at high temperature. Large ripple currents flowing through the ESR generate harmful heat. Two types of electrolytic capacitor are in common use: aluminium and tantalum. Tantalum capacitors have generally better performance, higher price, and are available only in a more restricted range of parameters. Solid polymer dielectric aluminium electrolytic capacitors have better characteristics than wet-electrolyte types in particular lower and more stable ESR and longer life at higher prices and more restricted values. Ceramic Capacitor A ceramic capacitor is a fixed capacitor with the ceramic material acting as the dielectric. It is constructed of two or more alternating layers of ceramic and a metal layer acting as the electrodes. The composition of the ceramic material defines the electrical behaviour and therefore the application of the capacitors which are divided into two stability classes:

Class 1 ceramic capacitors with high stability and low losses for resonant circuit application

Class 2 ceramic capacitors with high volumetric efficiency for buffer, by-pass and coupling applications.

Ceramic capacitors, especially the multilayer version (MLCC), are the most produced and used capacitors in electronic equipment with a produced quantity of approximately 1000 billion pieces per year.

Fig. 4.8 Ceramic Capacitor

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4.2.4. INDUCTOR
An inductor (also choke, coil or reactor)is a passive two terminal electrical component that stores energy in its magnetic field. For comparison, a capacitor stores energy in an electric field, and a resistor does not store energy but rather dissipates energy as heat. Any conductor has inductance. An inductor is typically made of a wire or other conductor wound into a coil, to increase the magnetic field. When the current flowing through an inductor changes, creating a time varying magnetic field inside the coil, a voltage is induced, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it. Inductors are one of the basic components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents. With a little practice and patience you can construct almost all air cored inductors at home. The inductance of an air cored inductor can be represented using the simplified formula shown below and to calculate the inductance of an air core inductor, the same equation may be used. L = [d2 n2] / [18d + 40l] Where L is the inductance in Micro Henries [H] d is the diameter of the coil from one wire centre to another wire centre. It should be specifies in inches. l is the length of the coil specified in inches. n is the number of turns. Here note that, the length of the coil used in the inductor should be equal to or 0.4 times the diameter of the coil. As shown in the equation, inductance of the air-core inductor varies as the square of the number of turns. Thus the value l is multiplied four times if the value of n is doubled. The value of l is multiplied by two if the value of n is increased up to 40%.

.
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Fig. 4.9 Inductors

Winding The Coil The coil must be first wounded on a plastic former of the adequate diameter (equal to

the required core diameter). The winding must be tight and adjacent turns must be as close as possible. After the winding is complete, slowly withdraw the core without disturbing the coil. Now apply a thin layer of epoxy over the coil surface for mechanical support. Remove the insulation from the coil ends.

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CHAPTER 5 FM RECEIVER
In radio communications, a radio receiver is an electronic device that receives radio waves and converts the information carried by them to a usable form. It is used with an antenna. The antenna intercepts radio waves (electromagnetic waves) and converts them to tiny alternating currents which are applied to the receiver, and the receiver extracts the desired information. The receiver uses electronic filters to separate the wanted radio frequency signal from all other signals, an electronic to increase the power of the signal for further processing, and finally recovers the desired information through demodulation. The information produced by the receiver may be in the form of sound (an audio signal), images (video) or data (a digital signal). A radio receiver may be a separate piece of electronic equipment, or an electronic within another device. Devices that contain radio receivers include television sets, radar equipment, two-way radios, cell phones, wireless computer networks, GPS navigation devices, satellite dishes, radio telescopes, bluetooth enabled devices, garage door openers, and baby monitors. Radio receiver design includes the electronic design of different components of a radio receiver which processes the radio frequency signal from an antenna in order to produce usable information such as audio. This article only concentrates on the historical configurations leading up to and including the modern super heterodyne receiver design. The complexity of a modern receiver and the possible range of circuitry and methods employed are more generally covered in electronics and communications engineering. The term radio receiver is understood in this article to mean any device which is intended to receive a radio signal in order to generate useful information from the signal, most notably a recreation of the so-called baseband signal (such as audio) which modulated the radio signal at the time of transmission in a communications or broadcast system. In consumer electronics, the terms radio and radio receiver are often used specifically for receivers designed to reproduce the audio (sound) signals transmitted by radio broadcasting stations historically the first mass-market commercial radio application.

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 Types of Radio Receivers

Consumer audio and high

fidelity audio

receivers

and AV

receivers used

by

home stereo listeners and audio and home theatre system enthusiasts as well as audiophiles.

Communications receivers, used as a component of a radio communication link, characterized by high stability and reliability of performance.

Simple crystal radio receivers (also known as a crystal set) which operate using the power received from radio waves.

Satellite

television receivers,

used

to

receive

television

programming

from communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit.

Specialized-use receivers such as telemetry receivers that allow the remote measurement and reporting of information.

Measuring receivers (also: measurement receivers) are calibrated laboratory-grade devices that are used to measure the signal strength of broadcasting stations, the electromagnetic interference radiation emitted by electrical products, as well as to calibrate RF attenuators and signal generators.

Scanners are specialized receivers that can automatically scan two or more discrete frequencies, stopping when they find a signal on one of them and then continuing to scan other frequencies when the initial transmission ceases. They are mainly used for monitoring VHF and UHF radio systems.

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CHAPTER 6 APPLICATIONS

FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by analog VCR systems (including VHS) to record both the luminance (black and white) portions of the video signal. Commonly, the chrominance component is recorded as a conventional AM signal, using the higher-frequency FM signal as bias. FM is the only feasible method of recording the luminance ("black and white") component of video to (and retrieving video from) magnetic tape without distortion; video signals have a large range of frequency components from a few hertz to several megahertz, too wide for equalizers to work with due to electronic noise below 60 dB. FM also keeps the tape at saturation level, acting as a form of noise reduction; a limiter can mask variations in playback output, and the FM capture effect removes printthrough and pre-echo. These FM systems are unusual, in that they have a ratio of carrier to maximum modulation frequency of less than two; contrast this with FM audio broadcasting, where the ratio is around 10,000. Consider, for example, a 6 MHz carrier modulated at a 3.5 MHz rate; by Bessel analysis, the first sidebands are on 9.5 and 2.5 MHz and the second sidebands are on 13 MHz and 1 MHz The result is a reversed-phase sideband on +1 MHz; on demodulation, this results in unwanted output at 61 = 5 MHz The system must be designed so that this unwanted output is reduced to an acceptable level. Sound FM is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. This technique, known as FM synthesis, was popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature in several generations of personal computer sound cards. Radio Edwin Howard Armstrong (18901954) was an American electrical engineer who invented wideband frequency modulation (FM) radio. He patented the regenerative circuit in 1914, the super heterodyne receiver in 1918 and the super-regenerative circuit in 1922.Armstrong presented his paper, "A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio
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Signalling by a System of Frequency Modulation", (which first described FM radio) before the New York section of the Institute of Radio Engineers on November 6, 1935. The paper was published in 1936. As the name implies, wideband FM (WFM) requires a wider signal

bandwidth than amplitude modulation by an equivalent modulating signal; this also makes the signal more robust against noise and interference. Frequency modulation is also more robust against signal-amplitude-fading phenomena. As a result, FM was chosen as the modulation standard for high frequency, high fidelity radio transmission, hence the term "FM radio" (although for many years the BBC called it "VHF radio" because commercial FM broadcasting uses part of the VHF band the FM broadcast band). FM receivers employ a special detector for FM signals and exhibit a phenomenon known as the capture effect, in which the tuner "captures" the stronger of two stations on the same frequency while rejecting the other (compare this with a similar situation on an AM receiver, where both stations can be heard simultaneously). However, frequency drift or a lack of selectivity may cause one station to be overtaken by another on an adjacent channel. Frequency drift was a problem in early (or inexpensive) receivers; inadequate selectivity may affect any tuner. An FM signal can also be used to carry a stereo signal; this is done with multiplexing and demultiplexing before and after the FM process. The FM modulation and demodulation process is identical in stereo and monaural processes. A high-efficiency radio-frequency switching amplifier can be used to transmit FM signals (and other constantamplitude signals). For a given signal strength (measured at the receiver antenna), switching amplifiers use less battery power and typically cost less than a linear amplifier. This gives FM another advantage over other modulation methods requiring linear amplifiers, such as AM and QAM. FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech. Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Narrowband FM is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur radio settings. In broadcast services, where audio fidelity is important, wideband FM is generally used. In two-way radio, narrowband FM (NBFM) is used to conserve bandwidth for land mobile, marine mobile and other radio services.

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FM is widely used because of the many advantages of frequency modulation. Although, in the early days of radio communications, these were not exploited because of a lack of understand of how to benefit from FM, once these were understood, its use grew. There are many advantages of FM, but also some disadvantages, and as a result it is suitable for many applications, but other modes may be more suited to other applications. An understanding of the disadvantages and advantages of FM will enable the choice of the best modulation format to be made.

6.1. ADVANTAGES OF FREQUENCY MODULATION

There are many advantages to the use of frequency modulation. These have meant that it has been widely used for many years, and will remain in use for many years. Resilient to Noise One of the main advantages of frequency modulation that has been utilized by the broadcasting industry is the reduction in noise. As most noise is amplitude based, this can be removed by running the signal through a limiter so that only frequency variations appear. This is provided that the signal level is sufficiently high to allow the signal to be limited. Resilient to Signal Strength Variations In the same way that amplitude noise can be removed, so too can any signal variations. This means that one of the advantages of frequency modulation is that it does not suffer audio amplitude variations as the signal level varies, and it makes FM ideal for use in mobile applications where signal levels constantly vary. This is provided that the signal level is sufficiently high to allow the signal to be limited. Does not Require Linear Amplifiers in The Transmitter As only frequency changes are required to be carried, any amplifiers in the transmitter do not need to be linear. Enables Greater Efficiency than many other Modes The use of non-linear amplifiers, e.g. class C, etc means that transmitter efficiency levels will be higher linear amplifiers are inherently inefficient.
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6.2. DISADVANTAGES OF FREQUENCY MODULATION

There are a number of disadvantages to the use of frequency modulation. Some are can be overcome quite easily, but others may mean that another modulation format is more suitable. Requires more Complicated Demodulator One of the minor disadvantages of frequency modulation is that the demodulator is a little more complicated, and hence slightly more expensive than the very simple diode detectors used for AM. Also requiring a tuned circuit adds cost. However this is only an issue for the very low cost broadcast receiver market. Some other Modes have Higher Data Spectral Efficiency Some phase modulation and quadrature amplitude modulation formats have a higher spectral efficiency for data transmission that frequency shift keying, a form of frequency modulation. As a result, most data transmission system use PSK and QAM. Sidebands Extend to Infinity Either Side The sidebands for an FM transmission theoretically extend out to infinity. To limit the bandwidth of the transmission, filters are used, and these introduce some distortion of the signal. There are many advantages to using frequency modulation - it is still widely used for many broadcast and radio communications applications. However with more systems using digital formats, phase and quadrature amplitude modulation formats are on the increase.

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CHAPTER 7 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

In this project, we have been used audio amplifier, oscillator, frequency modulator and others. First, we give audio signal as input to carbon microphone. The microphone converts sound pressure wave to electrical signals. a carbon transmitter, is a sound to electrical signal transducer consisting of two metal plates separated by granules of carbon. One plate faces outward and acts as a diaphragm. When sound waves strike this plate, the pressure on the granules changes, which in turn changes the electrical resistance between the plates. A direct current is passed from one plate to the other and the changing resistance results in a changing current, which can be passed through a telephone system, or used in other ways in electronics systems to change the sound into an electrical signal.

Fig.7.1 FM Transmitter Block Diagram After this electrical signal give to first stage of the circuit. In this first stage consist transistor BC548. This transistor acts as a audio amplifier. Audio power is the electrical power transferred from an audio amplifier to a loudspeaker, measured in watts. The electrical power delivered to the loudspeaker, together with its sensitivity, determines the sound power level generated (with the rest being converted to heat). Amplifiers are limited in the electrical energy they can amplify, while loudspeakers are limited in the electrical energy they can convert to sound energy without distorting the

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audio signal or damaging themselves. These power ratings are important to consumers finding compatible products and comparing competitors. Now the output of first stage is given to second stage of the circuit. The second stage mainly consist oscillator and frequency modulator. In this project LC combination is used as oscillator. LC circuits are used either for generating signals at a particular frequency, or picking out a signal at a particular frequency from a more complex signal. They are key components in many electronic devices, particularly radio equipment, used in circuits such as oscillators, filters, tuners and frequency mixers. An LC circuit is an idealized model since it assumes there is no dissipation of energy due to resistance. For a model incorporating resistance see RLC circuit. The purpose of an LC circuit is to oscillate with minimal damping, and for this reason their resistance is made as low as possible. While no practical circuit is without losses, it is nonetheless instructive to study this pure form to gain a good understanding. Now 2N2222A transistor is used as a frequency modulator. In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency. This contrasts with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains

constant. Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a range of settings, a technique known as frequency shift keying. FSK (digital FM) is widely used in data and fax modems. Morse code transmission has been sent this way, and FASK was used in early telephone-line modems. Radio teletype also uses FSK. FM modulation is also used in telemetry, radar, seismic prospecting and newborn EEG seizure monitoring.[3]Frequency modulation is known as phase modulation when the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM signal. FM is widely used for broadcasting music and speech, twoway radio systems, magnetic tape-recording systems and some video-transmission systems. In radio systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in cancelling naturally occurring noise.

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CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION

We therefore conclude that this project is indeed suitable for Electronics Engineering students especially to students taking up FM Transmission and Reception in their Electronic Communications Theory subject. By accomplishing this project, we now appreciate the theory more. Through this project, we have now seen an exact application of our lessons such as Wireless communication, FM modulation, transmission, demodulation, reception, and also oscillators, amplifiers, and more. Being able to transmit and receive information by means of wireless FM communication is indeed fascinating.

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CHAPTER 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY

TEXT BOOKS REFERRED

1. The Giant Book of Electronics Projects by 73 Magazine Editors, tab book publishers. 2. Analog electronic design by J. B. Scott, Prentice Hall, 1992 publications.

WEBSITES REFERRED
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. www.kpsec.freeuk.com www.wikipedia.org www.howstuffworks.com www.eprlabs.com www.aaroncake.com www.ikalogic.com

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