NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORT

MEU 08213

AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS

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 MECHATRONICS
 MECHATRONICS: Is the integration of mechanical
engineering, electronics engineering and computer
technology in the design, manufacture and maintenance
of engineering products and processes
 The term ‘mechatronics’ was first coined by the Japanese
scientist Yoshikaza in 1969. The trademark was accepted
in 1972
 Mechatronics is a subject which includes mechanics,
electronics, and informatics as shown in the following
figure:

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 MECHATRONICS…

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 MECHANICS
 Mechanics involves knowledge of mechanical
engineering subjects, mechanical devices, and
engineering mechanics
 Basic subjects such as lubricants, heat transfer,
vibration, fluid mechanics, and all other subjects
studied under mechanical engineering directly or
indirectly find application in mechatronic systems
 Mechanical devices include simple latches, locks,
ratchets, gear drives, and wedge devices to
complicated devices such as harmonic and Norton
drives, crank mechanisms, and six bar mechanisms
4 used for car bonnets
 ELECTRONICS…
 Electronics involves measurement systems, actuators,
power electronics, and microelectronics
 Measurement systems, in general, are made of three
elements, namely, the sensor, signal conditioner, and
display unit
 A sensor responds to the quantity being measured,
giving an electrical output signal that is related to the
input quantity. The signal conditioner takes the signal
from the sensor and manipulates it into conditions
which is suitable for either display or control any other
systems
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 ELECTRONICS…
 In a display system, the output from the signal
conditioner is displayed
 Actuation systems comprise the elements which
are responsible for transforming the output from
the control system into the controlling action of a
machine or device
 Power electronic devices are important in the
control of power-operated devices to actuate
through a small gate power of the order milliwatts.
The silicon controlled rectifier (thyristor) is an
example of a power electronic device which is
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used to control dc motor drives
 ELECTRONICS…
 The technology of manufacturing microelectronic
devices through very large scale integrated (VLSI)
circuit designs is also gathering momentum
 Micro-sensors and micro-actuators are sub-
domains of the mechatronic system, which are
used in many applications

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 INFORMATICS
 Informatics includes automation, software design,
and artificial intelligence
 The programmable logic controller (PLC) or
microcontroller, or even personal computers, are
widely used as informatic devices
 A completely automated plant reduces the burden
on human beings in respect of decision-making
and plant maintenance, among other things
 Software is used not only for solving complex
engineering problems but also in finance systems,
communication systems, or virtual modelling
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 APPLICATIONS OF
MECHATRONICS
 Design and Modelling:
• Design and modelling are simplified to a large
extent by the use of mechatronic systems
• Basically, design involves drawing, analysis, and
documentation. In earlier days, the processes of
design were performed manually and it took weeks
or months together
• Now, the computer is used to complete processes
of design faster. There are many designing tools
such as AUTOCAD, IDEAS, and PROENGG,
through which 2D or 3D drawings can be made
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 APPLICATIONS OF
MECHATRONICS…
 Software Integration:
• Different kinds of software are used in
manufacturing, design, testing, monitoring, and
control of the manufacturing process
• Examples of such software include computer aided
design (CAD), computer aided testing (CAT),
computer aided engineering (CAE), and computer
aided processing planning (CAPP)
• The integration of the packets of software leads to
computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) or just-
in-time (JIT) manufacturing
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 APPLICATIONS OF
MECHATRONICS…
• Software integration is not only used for
manufacturing but also for communication
networks, economic analysis, etc

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 APPLICATIONS OF
MECHATRONICS…
 Intelligent Control:
• Feedback control systems are widespread not only in
nature and the home but also in industry
• There are many industrial processes and machines
which control many variables automatically
• Temperature, liquid level, fluid flow, pressure, speed,
etc. are maintained constant by process controllers
• Adaptive control and intelligent manufacturing are
the areas where mechatronic systems are used for
decision making and controlling the manufacturing
environment
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 APPLICATIONS OF
MECHATRONICS…
 Robotics:
• Robot technology uses mechanical, electronic, and
computer systems
• A robot is a multifunctional reprogrammable machine
used to handle materials, tools, or any special items to
perform a particular task
• Manipulation robots are capable of performing
operations, assembly, spot welding, spray painting, etc.
• Service robots such as mail service robots, household
servant robots, nursing robots in hospitals are being
used nowadays
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 APPLICATIONS OF
MECHATRONICS…
 Manufacturing:
• In the domain of factory automation, mechatronics
has had far-reaching effects in manufacturing
• Major constituents of factory automation include
computer numerically controlled (CNC) machines,
robots, automation systems, and computer integration
of all functions of manufacturing
• Low volume, more variety, higher levels of
flexibility, reduced lead time in manufacture, and
automation in manufacturing and assembly are likely
to be the future needs of customers, and mechatronic
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systems will play an important role in this context
 OBJECTIVES OF
MECHATRONICS
 To improve products and processes
 To develop novel mechanisms
 To design new products
 To create new technology using novel concepts

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 ADVANTAGES OF
MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS
 Mechatronic systems have made it very easy to
design processes and products
 Application of mechatronics facilitates rapid
setting up and cost effective operation of
manufacturing facilities
 Mechatronic systems help in optimizing
performance and quality

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 DISADVANTAGES OF
MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS
 The field of mechatronics requires a knowledge of
different disciplines
 The design cannot be finalized and safety issues
are complicated in mechatronic systems
 Such systems also require more parts than others,
and involve a greater risk of component failure

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 EXAMPLES OF MECHATRONIC
SYSTEMS
 An Electrical switch
 Thermostatically controlled heater or furnace
 Washing machine
 Automatic bread toaster

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 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING &
MACHINES IN MECHATRONICS
 SELF STUDY
• Force, friction and lubrication
• Materials
• Behaviour of material under load
• Machine structure
• Assembly techniques

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS
RESISTOR
 Resistance is defined as the property of a material
due to which it opposes the flow of electricity
through it
 Metals are good conductors of electricity
 They offer very low resistance to the flow of
current
 The resistance offered by a conductor depends
upon the length, cross-sectional area, and nature of
materials and the temperature of the conductor
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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 The electrical component that opposes the flow of
current is called resistor
 The unit of resistance is ohm

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
CAPACITOR
 A capacitor essentially consists of two conducting
surfaces separated by a layer of insulating medium
called dielectric
 The dielectric is an insulating medium through
which an electrostatic field can pass
 The main purpose of the capacitor is to store
electrical energy
 The property of the capacitor by which it stores
charge on its plates is called capacitance
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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 The charge of the capacitor is proportional to
applied voltage
 The proportionality constant is the capacitance of
the capacitor
 The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the
amount of charge required to create a unit potential
difference between its plates
 The unit of capacitance is farad
 One farad is defined as the capacitance of a
capacitor which requires a charge of 1 C to establish
a potential difference of 1 V between its plates
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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 Capacitance of a capacitor depends on the dielectric
constant k, area of one side of the plate A, number of
plates N, and separation of the plate surfaces d:
C = kA (N– 1)
d

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
INDUCTOR
 A wire wound in the form of a coil makes an inductor
 The property of an inductor is that it always tries to
maintain a steady flow of current and opposes any
fluctuation in it
 When a current flows through a conductor, it
produces a magnetic field around it in a plane
perpendicular to the conductor
 When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an
electromagnetic force is induced in the conductor

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 The property of the inductor due to which it opposes
any increase or decrease in current by the production
of a counter emf is known as self-inductance
 It is initially difficult to establish a current through a
coil, but once it is established it is equally difficult
to withdraw it
 Hence inductance is sometimes called electrical
inertia
 The emf developed is proportional to the rate of
current through the inductor

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 Mathematically, e = LdI
dt,
where the proportionality constant L is called the
self-inductance of the coil, I is the current, and e is
the voltage developed

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 Mutual inductance arrangements use two coils -
one acting as the power coil and the other as the
supply output
 A mutual inductance profile is used as a sensor for
measuring small displacements
 A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
works under the principle of mutual inductance

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
TRANSFORMER
 A transformer is a device by means of which electric
power in one circuit is transferred to the another circuit
without a change in frequency
 It essentially consists of two or more inductive windings
wound on the same core
 A transformer can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit
with corresponding decrease or increase in current
 Transformers are effectively used to step up and step
down voltages in power stations and substations,
respectively, so that power losses can be minimized

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 The following figure shows the schematic diagram
of a transformer

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
DIODE
 The device allows current to flow in one direction
and is called a diode
 Junction diodes can be made with a P-type and an
N-type semiconductor material
 This type of diode is called a P-N junction diode
 P-N junction diodes are made by doping a P-type
impurity on one side and an N-type impurity on the
other side in a single crystal of a semiconductor
 The P region is called the anode and the N region
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the cathode
 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 If a P-N junction diode is connected in a circuit
with the anode connected to the positive terminal
and the cathode connected to the negative terminal
of a battery, it is said to be forward biased
 On the other hand, when the polarity of the battery
is reversed, the diode is said to be reverse biased
 The forward and reverse characteristics of a diode
are illustrated in the following figure

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 The following figure illustrates the output
waveform for a single diode with load, centre-tap
rectifier and bridge rectifier
 The bridge rectifier is the most widely used
rectifier
 Its main advantage is that it eliminates the
requirement of a centre-tap transformer
 But the rectifier creates problems when the
secondary voltage is low

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
ZENER DIODE
 In a normal diode the reverse breakdown occurs at a
very high voltage, beyond which the current increases
steeply for every increase in applied voltage
 By varying the doping level, diodes with lower
voltages from 2 to 200 V can be manufactured
 Diodes which operate in the breakdown region by
reverse biasing are called zener diodes
 The voltage at which breakdown occurs is known as
zener voltage

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 The zener diode is of great importance for voltage
regulators since it can be used as a constant-
voltage source by applying the reverse voltage that
exceeds the zener breakdown voltage

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
TUNNEL DIODE
 By increasing the doping level one can obtain
breakdown voltage at 0 V
 This will happen when the concentration of
impurities is increased by more than 1000 times
 The diode starts conducting at zero volt in both
positive and negative directions
 Such a diode is known as tunnel diode or Esaki
diode

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
 In a forward-biased diode, free electrons cross the
junction and recombine with holes
 Whenever electrons combine with holes, energy is
radiated
 In a rectifier diode this energy is liberated as heat. But in
light-emitting diode, this energy is radiated as light - red,
green, yellow, orange, or infrared
 LEDs producing the visible radiation are often used in
instrument displays, digital readouts, digital clocks,
calculators, etc.
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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 LEDs producing infrared radiation are used in
burglar - alarm systems

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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
PHOTODIODES
 When a P-N junction of the diode is housed in a
glass package, strong light hitting the junction
increases the reverse current
 A photodiode is a normal diode optimized for its
sensitivity to light and is housed in a glass package
 The glass window lets the increasing light pass
through the housing and hit the P-N junction
 This light produces additional holes and electrons,
giving rise to higher reverse current
 Photodiodes are always used in reverse-biased
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conductors
 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
OPTOISOLATOR
 An optoisolator combines an LED and photodiode in a
single package
 The LED supply voltage forces a current through the
LED
 The light from the LED hits the photodiode and sets up
a current
 If the LED current varies, the output from the
photodiode also varies
 If the LED current has an AC variation, the photodiode
current will have an AC variation of the same
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 ELECTRONICS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 SELF STUDY
• Transistors
• Digital Electronic components (Logic gates, Flip-
flops, Shift registers, Multiplexers, Counters)

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 COMPUTING ELEMENTS IN
MECHATRONICS…
 SELF STUDY
• Analog to Digital Conversion
• Digital to Analog Conversion
• Microprocessors
• Microcontrollers
• PLC
• Computer peripherals

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 ROBOTICS
 Robotics is the art, knowledge base, and the know-
how of designing, applying, and using robots in
human endeavors
 Robotic systems consist of not just robots, but also
other devices and systems that are used together with
the robots to perform the necessary tasks
 Robots are very powerful elements of today’s industry
 They are capable of performing many different tasks
and operations precisely and do not require common
safety and comfort elements that humans needs
 However, it takes much effort and many resources to

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make a robot function properly
 ROBOTICS…
 The word robot always refers to an automated
multifunctional manipulator that works by energy,
to perform a variety of tasks
 The word robot was introduced in 1920 in a play
by Karel Capek called R.U.R., or Rossum’s
Universal Robots
 Robot comes from the Czech word robota,
meaning forced labor or drudgery

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 ROBOTICS…
 One of the first types of robots was a feedback (self-
correcting) control mechanism
 It was a watering trough that used a float to sense the
water level
 When the water gets to low, the float drops, opens a
valve, and more water dumps into the trough. As the
water rises, so does the float. Once it reaches a certain
height, the valve is closed and the water is shut off
 In 1954, the American inventor George Devol, Jr.
developed a primitive arm that could be programmed to
perform specific tasks
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 ROBOTICS…
 In 1975, the American mechanical engineer Victor
Scheinman developed a truly flexible multipurpose
manipulator known as the Programmable
Universal Manipulation Arm (PUMA)
 PUMA was capable of moving an object and
placing it with any orientation in a desired location
 Before the 1960s, robot usually meant a manlike
mechanical device (mechanical man or humanoid)
capable of performing human tasks or behaving in
a human manner
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 ROBOTICS…
 Today robots come in all shapes and sizes,
including small robots and larger wheeled robots
that play football with a full-size ball
 In 1995, there were about 700,000 robots operating
in the world
 A major user of robots is the automobile industry
 General Motors uses approximately 16,000 robots
for tasks such as spot welding, painting, machine
loading, parts transfer, and assembly

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 ROBOT
 A robot is a computer-controlled machine that is
programmed to move, manipulate objects, and
accomplish work while interacting with its environment
 According to the Robot Institute of America (1979), a
robot is defined as “a reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or
specialized devices through various programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks”
 Industrial robot is defined as “a number of rigid links
connected by joints of different types that are controlled
and monitored by computer”
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 ROBOT…
 One feature of a robot is the ability to operate
automatically, on its own
 This means that there must be in-built intelligence,
or a programmable memory, or simply an
arrangement of adjustable mechanisms that
command manipulation

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 INDUSTRIAL ROBOT
 Industrial robots are advanced automation systems,
mainly controlled by a computer
 Today computers form an important part of
industrial automation
 They supervise production lines and control
manufacturing systems (e.g., machine tools,
welders, laser cutting devices, etc.)
 The new generation of robots executes various
tasks in industrial systems and they participate in
the full automation of factories
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 INDUSTRIAL ROBOT…
 Japanese defined industrial robots in four levels:
• Manual manipulators: perform fixed or preset task
sequences
• Playbacks: repeat pre-programmed fixed
instructions
• NC robot: carry out tasks through numerically
loaded information
• Intelligent robots: perform through their own
recognition capabilities

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 INDUSTRIAL ROBOT…
 CLASS ACTIVITY
• What is the fundamental difference between robot
and crane?

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 LAWS OF ROBOTICS
 Isaac Asimov proposed three laws of robotics and he
later added a “zeroth law”
• Law One: A robot may not injure a human being, or,
through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm,
unless this would violate a higher order law
• Law Two: A robot must obey orders given to it by
human beings, except where such orders would conflict
with a higher order law
• Law Three: A robot must protect its own existence as
long as such protection does not conflict with a higher
order law
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 LAWS OF ROBOTICS…
• Law Zero: A robot may not injure humanity, or,
through inaction, allow humanity to come to harm

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 ROBOTICS MOTIVATING
FACTORS
 For robotics systems to be introduced to the
industrial world, they must have positive factors
that would make a difference in using them
 The motivating factors can be categorized as:
• Technical factors
• Economic factors
• Social factors

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 TECHNICAL FACTORS
 Robots can do incomparable tasks that humans can’t do
 It is generally considered that humans can’t match the
speed, quality, reliability, and the endurance of a
robotic system
 In that they offer:
• High flexibility of product type and variation
• Lower preparation time than hard automation
• Better quality of products
• Fewer rejects and less waste than labor intensive
production

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 ECONOMIC FACTORS
 The needs to increase production rates to remain
competitive
 Pressure from the market place to improve quality
 Increasing costs
 Shortage of skilled labor

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 SOCIAL FACTORS
 Some people think that the use of robotized
systems increases the unemployment of workers
and prevents many people from a main income
 But the usage of robots causes a reduction of
workload on workers and prevents dangerous
working conditions as robots can be used in
hazardous environments

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 ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS
 Increase in productivity, safety, efficiency, quality, and
consistency of products with the use of robots
 Robots can work in hazardous environments without the
need for life support, comfort, or concern about safety
 Robots need no environmental comfort such as lighting,
air conditioning, ventilation, and noise protection
 Robots can work continuously without experiencing
fatigue or boredom, do not have hangovers, and need no
medical insurance or vacation
 Robots have repeatable precision at all times, unless
something happens to them or unless they wear out

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 ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS…
 Robots can be much more accurate than humans

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 DISADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS
 Robots replace human workers creating economic
problems, such as lost salaries, and social problems
such as dissatisfaction and resentment among workers
 Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies,
unless the situation is predicted and the response is
included in the system. Safety measures are needed to
ensure that they do not injure operators and machines
working with them
 Robots are costly due to initial cost of equipment,
installation costs, need for training, and need for
programming
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT
 An industrial robot has a hand, wrist, arm, base, lifting
power, repeatability, manual control, automatic control,
memory, programs, safety interlock, speed of operation,
computer interface, reliability, and easy maintenance
 The hand of a robot is known as a gripper or end effector
or end-of-arm tooling. It is the driven mechanical
device(s) attached to the end of the manipulator
 The wrist of the robot is used to aim the hand at any part
of the work piece. The wrist may have three motions:
pitch (up-and-down motion), yaw(side-to-side motion),
and roll (rotating motion)

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT…
 The arm is used to move the hand within reach of a
part or work piece. It can pivot at its elbow and at
its shoulder joint.
 The waist, or base, of the robot supports the arm
and is called the shoulder. The arm can rotate
about the shoulder.
 Repeatability is the replication of motion within
some specified precision or tolerance
 An RCC or remote center compliance device helps
pull the hand or tool into the required position by
acting as a multi-axis float
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT…
 A manual control device is used to teach the robot
how to do a new task
 An automatic control system is used to carry out the
instructions stored in the robot’s memory
 The robot’s memory holds a library of programs to
use in executing different tasks
 Safety interlocks prevent the robot from inserting a
hand into a machine and causing damage to the
robot and machine
 The robot’s speed of operation in performing a task
should be at least equal to that of the human worker
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it is replacing
 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT…
 The robot’s computer interface enables the robot to
use the computer’s larger memory to hold more
task programs and to synchronize its actions with a
complete production line of robots and other
machines

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 COMPONENTS OF AN
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT
 Industrial robot systems consist of four major
subsystems:
• Mechanical unit
• Drive
• Control system
• Tooling
as shown in the following figure

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 COMPONENTS OF AN
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT…

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 MECHANICAL UNIT
 The mechanical unit refers to the robot’s manipulative
arm and its base. Tooling such as end effectors, tool
changers, and grippers are attached to the wrist-tooling
interface
 The mechanical unit consists of a fabricated structural
frame with provisions for supporting mechanical
linkage and joints, guides, actuators, control valves,
limiting devices, and sensors
 The physical dimensions, design, and loading capability
of the robot depends upon the application requirements

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 DRIVE
 An important component of the robot is the drive
system
 The drive system supplies the power, which enables the
robot to move
 Drive for a robot may be hydraulic, pneumatic, or
electric
 Hydraulic drives have been used for heavier lift systems
 Pneumatic drives have been used for high speed, non-
servo robots and are often used for powering tooling
such as grippers

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 DRIVE…
 Electric drive systems can provide both lift and/or
precision, depending on the motor and servo
system selection and design
 An AC or DC powered motor may be used
depending on the system design and applications

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 CONTROL SYSTEM
 Controller is the brain of the robot
 Controller is a communication and information-
processing device that initiates, terminates, and
coordinates the motions and sequences of a robot
 Most industrial robots incorporate computer or
microprocessor based controllers
 These perform computational functions and
interface with sensors, grippers, tooling, and other
peripheral equipment

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 CONTROL SYSTEM…
 Controller programming may be done on-line or
from off-line control stations
 Programs may be on cassettes, floppy disks,
internal drives, or in memory; and may be loaded
or downloaded by cassettes, disks, or telephone
modem
 Some robot controllers have sufficient
computational ability, memory capacity, and
input/output capability to serve as system
controllers for other equipment and processes
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 TOOLING
 Tooling is manipulated by the robot to perform the
functions required for the application
 Depending on the application, the robot may have
one functional capability, such as making spot
welds or spray-painting
 These capabilities may be integrated with the
robot’s mechanical system or may be attached at
the robot’s wrist-end effector interface
 Alternatively, the robot may use multiple tools that
may be changed manually (as part of set-up for a
new program) or automatically during a work cycle
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 TOOLING…
 Tooling and objects that may be carried by a
robot’s gripper can significantly increase the
envelope in which objects or humans may be
struck
 Tooling manipulated by the industrial robot and
carried objects can cause more significant hazards
than motion of the bare robotic system
 The hazards added by the tooling should be
addressed as part of the risk assessment

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 HUMAN BEING & INDUSTRIAL
ROBOT COMPARISON
 The following figure compares the physical parts
of the human being and those of the industrial
robot

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 THE HUMAN AND ROBOT
MANIPULATOR COMPARISON
 The parts of a robot’s manipulator are named after
similar parts in a human’s chief manipulators, i.e.,
the arm and the hand

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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES
 Links and Joints: Links are the solid structural
members of a robot, and joints are the movable
couplings between them
 Degree of Freedom (dof): Degree of freedom is the
number of independent movements a robot can realize
with respect to its base. The number of axes is
normally the same as the number of degrees of
freedom of the robot. Each joint on the robot
introduces a degree of freedom. Each degree of
freedom can be a slider, rotary, or other type of
actuator. Robots typically have five or six degrees of
freedom as shown in the following figure
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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…

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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 Three of the degrees of freedom allow positioning in
3D space, while the other two or three are used for
orientation of the end effector. Six degrees of freedom
are enough to allow the robot to reach all positions and
orientations in 3D space. Six degrees of freedom are
commonly available with articulated arm and gantry
robots
 Four degrees of freedom are typical with the selective
compliance assembly robot arm (SCARA)
configuration
 Seven or more axes are used for some special
applications
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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 The following figure shows an industrial robot
with three basic degrees of freedom plus three
degrees of freedom in the wrist and a seventh in its
ability to move back and forth along the floor

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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 Orientation Axis: Basically, if the tool is held at a
fixed position, the orientation determines which
direction it can be pointed in
 Roll, pitch, and yaw are the common orientation
axes used

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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 Position Axis: The tool, regardless of orientation,
can be moved to a number of positions in space
 Tool Center Point (TCP): The tool center point is
located either on the robot, or the tool as shown in
the following figure:

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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 Typically, the TCP is used when referring to the
robots position, as well as the focal point of the tool
(e.g., the TCP could be at the tip of a welding torch)
 The TCP can be specified in Cartesian, cylindrical,
spherical, etc., coordinates depending on the robot.
As tools are changed, one often reprograms the
robot for the TCP
 Accuracy: Accuracy specification describes how
close the arm will be when it moves to the desired
point

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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 Precision (validity): Precision is defined as how
accurately a specified point can be reached. This is
a function of the resolution of the actuators, as well
as its feedback devices
 Repeatability (variability): Repeatability is how
accurately the same position can be reached if the
motion is repeated many times

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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 Suppose that a robot is driven to the same point 100
times. Because many factors may affect the accuracy
of the position, the robot may not reach the same
point every time, but will be within a certain radius
from the desired point
 The radius of a circle that is formed by this repeated
motion is called repeatability. Repeatability is much
more important than precision
 If a robot is not precise, it will generally show a
consistent error, which can be predicted and thus,
corrected through programming
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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 Work envelope/Workspace: A robot can only work
in the area in which it can move. This area is called
the work envelope
 The work envelope is determined by how far the
robot’s arm can reach and how flexible the robot
is. The more reach and flexibility a robot has, the
larger the work envelope will be
 It is one of the most important characteristics to be
considered in selecting a suitable robot. Various
robot configurations have different work envelopes
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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 For a Cartesian configuration, the reach is a
rectangular-type space
 For a cylindrical configuration, the reach is a hollow
cylindrical space
 For a polar configuration, the reach is part of a
hollow spherical shape
 Robot reach for a jointed-arm configuration does
not have a specific shape
 The following figure shows the work envelope of a
robot:
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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…

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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 Stability: Stability refers to robot motion with the least
amount of oscillation. A good robot is one that is fast
enough but at the same time has good stability
 Speed: Speed refers either to the maximum velocity that
is achievable by the Tool Center Point (TCP), or by
individual joints. This number is not accurate in most
robots, and will vary over the workspace as the geometry
of the robot changes (and hence the dynamic effects)
 The number will often reflect the maximum safest speed
possible. Some robots allow the maximum rated speed
(100%) to be passed, but it should be done with great
care
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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 Payload: Payload is the weight a robot can carry and
still remain within its specifications. For example, a
robot’s maximum load capacity may be much larger
than its specified payload, but at the maximum level, it
may become less accurate, may not follow its intended
path accurately, or may have excessive deflections
 The payload of robots compared with their own weight
is usually very small
 Reach: Reach is the maximum distance a robot can
reach within its work envelope

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 ROBOT TERMINOLOGIES…
 Settling Time: During a movement, the robot
moves fast, but as the robot approaches the final
position it slows down, and slowly approaches at
final position
 The settling time is the time required for the robot
to be within a given distance from the final
position

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 ROBOTIC JOINTS
 A robot joint is a mechanism that permits relative
movement between parts of a robot arm
 The joints of a robot are designed to enable the robot to
move its end-effector along a path from one position to
another as desired
 The basic movements required for a desired motion of
most industrial robots are:
• Rotational movement: This enables the robot to place its
arm in any direction on a horizontal plane
• Radial movement: This enables the robot to move its
end-effector radially to reach distant points
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 ROBOTIC JOINTS…
• Vertical movement: This enables the robot to take
its end-effector to different heights
 Degrees of freedom, independently or in
combination with others, define the complete
motion of the end-effector
 These motions are accomplished by movements of
individual joints of the robot arm
 The joint movements are basically the same as
relative motion of adjoining links
 Depending on the nature of this relative motion,
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the joints are classified as:
 ROBOTIC JOINTS…
• Prismatic joints: are also known as sliding as well as
linear joints. They are called prismatic because the
cross section of the joint is considered as a generalized
prism. They permit links to make a linear displacement
along a fixed axis. In other words, one link slides on the
other along a straight line. These joints are used in
gantry, cylindrical, or similar joint configurations
• Revolute joints: a pair of links rotates about a fixed axis
 The following figure shows the prismatic and revolute
joint:

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 ROBOTIC JOINTS…

 The variations of revolute joints include:

• Rotational joint (R)
• Twisting joint (T)
• Revolving joint (V)

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 ROBOTIC JOINTS…

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 ROBOTIC JOINTS…
 A rotational joint (R) is identified by its motion,
rotation about an axis perpendicular to the adjoining
links. Here, the lengths of adjoining links do not change
but the relative position of the links with respect to one
another changes as the rotation takes place
 A twisting joint (T) is also a rotational joint, where the
rotation takes place about an axis that is parallel to both
adjoining links
 A revolving joint (V) is another rotational joint, where
the rotation takes place about an axis that is parallel to
one of the adjoining links. Usually, the links are aligned
perpendicular to one another at this kind of joint. The
rotation involves revolution of one link about another
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 CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
 Robots can be classified by four fundamental
elements of operation:
• Coordinate systems
• Power source
• Method of control
• Programming method

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