FUNDAMENTAL OF MECHATRONICS I (Part 1)

MCE 110

Prepared By

Mrs R.C. Okeze

2021
 CHAPTER ONE
Mechatronics system I
1.0 Introduction to Mechatronics
1.1 Definitions of Mechatronics
1.2 Components of a Mechatronics System
1.3 Examples of Mechatronics systems
1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of Mechatronics
1.5 Elements of mechatronics system

1.0 Introduction to Mechatronics

Mechatronics is the field of study concerned with the design, selection,
analysis, and control of systems that combine mechanical elements with electronic
components, including computers and/or microcontrollers. The word
“mechatronics” consist of two words namely: Mecha from mechanical/mechanics
and tronics from electronics. The term “mechatronics” was coined by Yasakawa
electric company. Mechatronics topics involve elements from mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering, and computer science, and the subject matter is
directly related to advancements in computer technology. A mechatronic system
integrates mechanical components, electronic components, and software
implemented either on a PC or MCU to produce a flexible and intelligent system
that performs the complex processing of signals and data. In many cases, a
mechatronic system can be used to improve the performance of a system beyond
what can be achieved using manual means. An example includes the speed control
of rotating equipment. In some cases, a mechatronic system is the only means by
which that system can operate (such as the control of magnetic bearings and in
nano-positioning control applications).
Many mechatronic systems use personal computers (PCs) with data
acquisition capabilities for implementation. Examples include control of
manufacturing processes such as welding, cutting, and assembly. A significant
number of controllers for a mechatronic system are implemented using a
microcontroller unit (MCU), which is a single-chip device that includes a
processor, memory, and input-output devices on the same chip. Microcontrollers
often are used for control of many consumer devices, including toys, hand-held
electronic devices, and vehicle safety systems. Control systems that use MCUs
often are referred to as embedded control systems.

1.1. Definitions of Mechatronics

 It is a multi-disciplinary approach to product and manufacturing system
design.
 It involves application of electrical, mechanical, control and computer
engineering to develop products, processes and systems with greater
flexibility, ease in redesign and ability of reprogramming.
 It is a field of study involving the analysis, design, synthesis and selection of
systems that combine electronics and mechanical components with modern
controls and microprocessors.
 Mechatronics is the synergistic integration of mechanical engineering with
electronics and intelligent computer control in design and manufacturing of
industrial products and process.

1.2. Components of a Mechatronics System

A block diagram which shows the components of a typical mechatronic
system is shown in Figure 1.1. A mechatronic system has at its core a
mechanical system which needs to be commanded or controlled. Such a system
could be a vehicle braking system, a positioning table, an oven, or an assembly
machine.
1.2.1. Controller: This is the ‘mind’ of the mechatronic system, which processes
user commands and sensed signals to generate command signals to be sent to the
actuators in the system. The controller needs information about the state of the
system. This information is obtained from variety of sensors, such as those that
give proximity, velocity, temperature, or displacement information. The user
commands are obtained from a variety of devices, including command
buttons, graphical user interfaces (GUIs), touch screens, or pads. The choice of
the controller for the mechatronic system depends on many factors, including cost,
size, ease of development, and transportability.
 Fig 1.1: Components of a mechatronics system

Open-loop operation: Here, command signals are sent to the actuators without
utilizing any feedback information from the sensors and for it to work, a good
calibration between the input and output of the system with minimal disturbances
is required.
Closed-loop operation: This is the more common mode of operation mode in
which the command signals sent to the actuators utilize the feedback
information from the sensors. This mode of operation does not require calibration
information, and it is much better suited for handling disturbances and noise.
1.2.2. Digital-to-Analog Converter: In many cases, the command signals to the
actuators are first converted from a digital to an analog form.
1.2.3. Drive Circuit: Amplifiers implemented in the form of drive circuits are used
to amplify the command signals sent to the actuators.
1.2.4. Actuator: This is the mechanism that converts electrical signals into
useful mechanical motion or action.
1.2.5. Sensors: A device that converts an environmental condition into an
electrical signal.
1.2.6. Signal Conditioning: Mostly, the signals produced by the sensors are not in
a form ready to be read by the controller and thus signal conditioning operations
are performed on them.
1.2.7. Analog-to-Digital Converter: The conditioned or sensed signals are then
converted to a digital form (if not already in that form) and presented to the
controller.
1.3. Examples of Mechatronics systems
Examples of mechatronic systems are commonly found in homes, offices, schools,
shops, and of course, in industrial applications. Common mechatronic systems
include:
(i) Domestic appliances, such as fridges and freezers, microwave ovens,
washing machines, vacuum cleaners, dishwashers, cookers, timers, mixers,
blenders, stereos, televisions, telephones, lawn mowers, digital cameras,
videos and CD players, camcorders, and many other similar modern devices;
(ii) Domestic systems, such as air conditioning units, security systems,
automatic gate control systems;
(iii) Office equipment, such as laser printers, hard drive positioning systems,
liquid crystal displays, tape drives, scanners, photocopiers, fax machines, as
well as other computer peripherals;
(iv) Retail equipment, such as automatic labelling systems, bar-coding machines,
and tills found in supermarkets;
(v) Banking systems, such as cash registers, and automatic teller machines;
(vi) Manufacturing equipment, such as numerically controlled (NC) tools, pick-
and place robots, welding robots, automated guided vehicles (AGVs), and
other industrial robots;
(vii) Aviation systems, such as cockpit controls and instrumentation, flight
control actuators, landing gear systems, and other aircraft subsystems.

1.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechatronics System

1.4.1. Advantages of Mechatronics system
1. It is cost effective and it can produce high quality products.
2. It serves effectively for high dimensional accuracy requirements.
3. It provides high degree of flexibility to modify or redesign the systems.
4. It provides excellent performance characteristics.
5. It Results in automation in production, assembly and quality control.
6. Mechatronic systems provide the increased productivity in manufacturing
organization.
7. It provides higher level of flexibility required for small product cycles.
8. It provides the possibility of remote controlling as well as centralized
monitoring and control.
9. It has greater extend of machine utilization.

1.4.2. Disadvantages of Mechatronics System

1. The initial cost is high.
2. Maintenance and repair may workout costly.
3. Multi-disciplinary engineering background is required to design and
implementation.
4. It needs highly trained workers to operate.
5. Techno-economic estimation has to be done carefully in the selection of
mechatronic system.
6. It has complexity in identification and correction of problems in the systems.

1.5. Elements of a Mechatronics System

Fig 1.2: Key Elements of Mechatronic System

The following are typical examples of mechatronic systems which consist of the
key elements of a mechatronics system.
  A Home/Office Example
An example of a mechatronic system is the common heating/cooling system for
homes and offices. Simple systems use a bimetal thermostat with contact points
controlling a mercury switch that turns on and off the furnace or air conditioner. A
modern environmental control system uses these same basic components along
with other components and computer program control. A temperature sensor
monitors the physical environment and produces a voltage level. After conversion
by the ADC, the microcontroller uses the digitized temperature data along
with a 24-hour clock and the user requested temperatures to produce a digital
control signal.
This signal directs the actuator e.g. a simple electrical switch. The switch, in turn,
controls a motor to turn the heating or cooling unit on or off. New
measurements are then taken and the cycle is repeated. Thus, it is a mechatronic
system because of its combination of mechanical, electrical, and computer
components.

 An Automotive Example

Another example is the Antilock Braking System (ABS) found in many vehicles.
The entire purpose of this type of system is to prevent a wheel from locking
up and thus having the driver loose directional control of the vehicle due to
skidding. In this case, sensors attached to each wheel determine the rotational
speed of the wheels. These data, probably in a waveform or time-varied electrical
voltage, is sent to the microcontroller along with the data from sensors reporting
inputs such as brake pedal position and vehicle speed. After conversion by the
ADC, the program in the microprocessor then determines the necessary action.
This is where the aspect of human computer interface (HCI) or human machine
interface (HMI) comes into play by taking account of the “feel” of the system
to the user. System calibration can adjust the response to the driver while, of
course, stopping the vehicle by controlling the brakes with the actuators. There are
two important things to note in this example. The first is that, in the end, the
vehicle is being stopped because of hydraulic forces pressing the brake pad
against a drum or rotor(a purely mechanical function). The other is that the ABS,
while an “intelligent product,” is not a stand-alone device. It is part of a larger
system, the vehicle, with multiple microcontrollers working together through the
data network of the vehicle.

 Industrial Robots
A robot is a mechanical device that can be programmed to perform a wide variety
of applications. The main components of a robot system are the controller and the
mechanical arm. The controller handles several operations, including the user
interface, programming, and control of the arm. The mechanical arm consists of
several mechanical links that are connected at joints. An actuator is used to drive
each link, and each actuator has a feedback sensor to indicate the location of the
link. A multi-link robot is a complicated device that requires coordination of the
motion of the links. This job is done by the control software, which processes
information from the desired motion of the arm, and the feedback sensors, which
send commands to the actuators or the servomotors to perform the desired task. To
enable a robot to handle variation in the environment in which it operates,
additional sensors are normally used (such as vision and proximity).

 Mobile Robot
A mobile robot consists of a number of modules that are commanded by a
controller. Due to their operation in unstructured environments, mobile robots rely
heavily on sensors to guide them in navigation and to avoid obstacles. Examples of
sensors used by mobile robots include ultrasonic proximity sensors, vision sensors,
and global positioning system sensors. An example of a mobile robot is the
Roomba® vacuum-cleaning robot made by iRobot® Corporation.
The Roomba has a cylindrical shape, two wheel modules, and a sensor to
detect obstacles. The Roomba has all of the main components of a mechatronic
system: actuators (wheel modules), sensors (target and dirt), and a controller.

 A flatbed scanner
A scanner is a device that captures an image of a document and converts it into a
format suitable for electronic storage. The main components of a scanner include
the scanning head, the transport device, the controller, and the control software.
The controller commands the transport device which carries the scanner head. The
transport device uses a stepper motor and a system of gears and belts to move the
scanning head in precise steps. After each step, the transport device stops, and a
scan is sampled. The scanning head involves some form of a line camera that
measures the reflectivity of a scanned line. The scanned line is brought to the scan
sensor through a system of mirrors and lenses. The output of the scanning head is
processed by the control software to create a map of the scanned document. This
map is further analyzed to reveal all of the features in the document and to filter
any noise signals from the captured data. The control software sequences the
operation of the scanner and communicates with the PC. When the scanning job is
completed, the scanned image is then transferred to a PC using a USB or a parallel-
port connection. This mechatronic system involves all of the elements of a typical
control system: sensor, actuator, and controller.

 Parking Gate
A parking garage gate is another example of a mechatronic system that involves a
number of elements. The system has an electric motor to raise and lower the gate
arm. It also has a proximity sensor to prevent the gate from striking people and
vehicles. In addition, it has a microcontroller in which software is used to run
the gate in different operating modes. Typically, a parking-garage gate operates
as follows: The user presses a button to get a ticket or swipes a card in a card
scanner. Once the ticket is picked up by the user or the card is validated, the gate
arm rotates upward. The gate arm remains in a raised position until the vehicle
has completely cleared the gate, at which point the gate drops down. The
operation of each stage of this system is dependent on sensor feedback and timing
information. The controller for this system cycles between the different operating
stages each time a vehicle needs to enter the parking garage.

TUTORIAL QUESTION
1. Explain the term “mechatronics”.
2. With the aid of a diagram, state the components of a mechatronics system.
3. Give 10 examples of a mechatronic system.
4. What are the key elements of a mechatronic system?
5. Give a typical system that comprises of the key elements of mechatronic
system.
 CHAPTER 2
Mechatronics system II

2.1 System
2.2 Types of systems.
2.3 System measurement.
2.4 Control System.
2.5 Microprocessor.
2.6 Applications of Mechatronic system

2.1 SYSTEM
A system is a collection of components that interact with one another and with
their environment. A system usually contains three main parts: input, process and
output.
A system (or plant) is a naturally occurring or man-made entity which transforms
cause (or inputs) into effects (or outputs). System behaviour can be modified by
interactions with other systems e.g. A CD player takes the signal on the CD and
transforms it into a signal sent to the loud speaker.

2.2 TYPES OF SYSTEMS

2.2.1 Mechanical System
A mechanical system is a device made up of various mechanical parts. Its
input is provided by an effort. Once the effort is applied, it can set off a motion to
move a load. The force applied to the load is the output of the mechanical system.
Examples of mechanical systems include levers, gears and shafts.

2.2.2 Electronic System

An electronic system is a system that employs electronic signals to control
devices, such as radios, calculators, video game machines, mobile phones and
portable computers. The input of an electronic system is provided by electronic
signals. After they are processed, they can generate output signals, which control
the operation of various devices, such as amplifiers and LCD. Electronic systems
can carry out many different tasks, such as generating sound, transmitting
information, displaying video, measuring, memorizing and calculating. Common
 examples of electronic devices include semi-conducting diode, transistors, and
capacitors that they are usually welded onto electronic circuit boards.

2.2.3 Computer Control System

A computer control system uses a computer to control its output devices
according to different input signals. Its function is similar to that of an electronic
system. Yet a computer control system can use high speed calculation to process
large volume of input signals within a very short time, and then generates
appropriate outputs with the help of pre-set programs. Examples of computer
control systems include computer numerical control press brakes, computer
controlled home appliances, and computer controlled underground railway
systems.

2.2.4 Pneumatic System

A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to transport and
control energy. Air is first pressurized to give energy in the cylinder. Then signals
are input into the system through the use of switches. Next, air is transferred
through sealed pipes to the pneumatic parts for processing. Finally, the force
produced by the pneumatic parts is utilized to finish the designated task. The use of
pneumatic systems is very extensive, for example, in controlling the movement of
train doors, the operation of automatic production lines and mechanical clamps.

2.2.5: CONTROL SYSTEM

A control system is a collection of components that is designed to drive a given
system (plant) with a given input to a desired output. In a control system there is an
interconnection between the constituent components such as electrical, mechanical,
hydraulic, pneumatic, etc.

2.3. System Measurement

The measurement system can be defined as all the components included from the
interface to the physical property being measured, pressure, vibration etc, to the
recorded data storage. This not only includes the physical devices, but the user as
well.
Figure 2.1: Complete measurement system

The measurement system in its simplest form generates a human readable interface
that can be used for simple monitoring. In this simple system any data must be
recorded by the operator. The measurement system may include an electrical
interface, allowing the data to be converted to some other format or in some other
location before it is presented to the operator. Data in this configuration is still
recorded by the operator, but the additional level of complexity allows for a certain
amount of pre-processing to be completed. As stated, this configuration also allows
the measurement to be transmitted to some remote location. A simple example might
be reading a temperature. It should be obvious that there is simply no good way to
read a glass thermometer from a control room several hundred feet away, let alone
several states or countries away. However, if we convert this measurement to an
electrical measurement, we have techniques that will allow this information to be
transmitted to this remote control room, and under some conditions anywhere in the
world. From figure 2.1, there are a number of levels of interface that must occur
between the physical condition being measured, and the operator. Each of these
blocks represents some form of conversion of the data, mechanical, physical or
electronic. Each of these also represents an opportunity for error (difference between
the actual value and the measured value) to occur in the measurement. The goal of any
good measurement system is to get the best possible data, while minimizing the
impact to the system being measured.

Sources of error in measurement systems

There are three basic categories of errors in measurement systems such as; systemic
errors, random errors and illegitimate errors.
I. Systemic errors: there are various types of systemic error. They are;
  Calibration errors: These are generally fairly easy to determine and are quite
quantifiable. This is a way of anticipating data, rather than reading the data
that actually exists. This particular type of error is not only difficult to
quantify but it is difficult to even determine as existing. They are more
specifically, non-linearity, hysteresis, repeatability and calibration curve
errors.
 Spurious readings from defective equipment: This particular error is best
dealt with by having a good feeling for what the reading should be, and if
the reading taken is out of the “credible” range, it should be considered
suspect, and the data should be checked with other probes, or the device
checked for accuracy. More difficult to detect are readings that are within
the “credible” range, yet are incorrect by small amount, or readings that are
generally correct, but contain intermittent incorrect readings. An example of
this could be a failing transducer that is subject to vibration. This transducer
could occasionally give a bad reading as one wire vibrates loose, but then
“fixes” itself a few seconds or minutes later. These type of intermittent
errors are extremely difficult to locate and resolve.
 Loading error: If we fully analyze any measurement system, we will realize that the
very process of taking data can affect the physical system we are measuring. One
simple example would be measuring sound levels emitted from a piece of equipment.
The very fact that the sound meter is located in the sound field affects the sound
pressure waves. Similarly, if we were to measure the temperature of water in an ice
cube tray in a freezer, as it freezes, we would find that the measurement probe we
have inserted into the water will affect how fast this water freezes.
These types of loading errors are seen in virtually every measurement we take. Even
simple electrical measurements, such as voltage or current, will be affected slightly by
the very instruments we are using to measure it.

 Resolution Error: this is having a measurement device, or system that does not
have adequate resolution. Resolution of the measurement system is defined as
the smallest increment of change the system is capable of indicating. Say for
example, we are using a glass thermometer to measure the temperature of
water. This thermometer might have graduations at 1 degree increments.
This is the resolution of the measurement device. If the process we are trying to
measure needs to be recorded in 0.1 degree increments, the tendency would be to try
to interpolate the small space between the 1 degree graduations into tenths of a degree,
extending the resolution. The error introduced by this attempt is known as resolution
error.

II. Random errors: These types of errors are simply impossible, in most cases, to
determine beforehand. These errors are most easily seen in a situation where
multiple readings of the same system are taken, and there is a variation in these
readings. Statistically you could calculate the total amount of error and
precision, after subtracting the known errors from this spread of points, you are
left with the random errors.
III. Illegitimate errors: This class of errors includes all the things that can go
wrong but shouldn’t, such as blunders by the person doing the experiment, or
incorrectly calculating results after the data has been taken. These types of
errors are rarely accounted for and are by far the most embarrassing to admit to.

2.4. CONTROL SYSTEM

Control systems contribute to every aspect of modern society. In our homes we find
them in everything from toasters to heating systems to VCRs. Control systems also
have widespread applications in science and industry, from steering ships and planes
to guiding missiles and the space shuttle. Control systems also exist naturally; our
bodies contain numerous control systems. Control systems are used where power gain,
remote control, or conversion of the form of the input is required.

A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled for the
purpose of obtaining a desired output with desired performance, given a specified
input. For example, consider an elevator. When the fourth-floor button is pressed on
the first floor, the elevator rises to the fourth floor with a speed and floor-leveling
accuracy designed for passenger comfort. The push of the fourth-floor button is an
input that represents our desired output.

A control system is a collection of components that is designed to drive a given

system (plant) with a given input to a desired output.
Controls are implemented by attaching a controller to the plant. The resulting
combined system is called a control system. Control systems incorporate either human
or machine controllers. When the controller is machine based, it is called automatic
control. Within any control system there are variables and functions. Variables can be
either constant or may vary with respect to some independent variable. Constant
variables are called parameters while varying variables are called signals.
A control system has an input, a process, and an output. Control systems can be open
loop or closed loop. Open-loop systems do not monitor or correct the output for
disturbances; however, they are simpler and less expensive than closed-loop systems.
Closed-loop systems monitor the output and compare it to the input. If an error is
detected, the system corrects the output and hence corrects the effects of disturbances.

Advantages of control system

1. Power amplification: For example, a radar antenna, positioned by the low-
power rotation of a knob at the input, requires a large amount of power for its
output rotation. A control system can produce the needed power amplification,
or power gain.
2. Remote control: For example, a remote-controlled robot arm can be used to
pick up material in a radioactive environment.
3. Convenience of input form: Control systems can also be used to provide
convenience by changing the form of the input. For example, in a temperature
control system, the input is a position on a thermostat. The output is heat. Thus,
a convenient position input yields a desired thermal output.
4. Compensation for disturbances: It has ability to compensate for disturbances.

Requirement of a control system

a. Stability: For any change in the input signal, the output of the system
reads or makes its response at a reasonable value.
b. Accuracy: This is the closeness of the measured value to the true value.
c. Response: This is the quickness with which an instrument responds to a change
in the output signal.
d. Sensitivity: This measure how much change is caused in the output by small
changes to the reference input.
2.4.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM
1. OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
This is a system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input to the
control process and is also known as open ended non-feedback systems.
Any inaccuracy in the system model results discrepancy in the desired output
response. Its operation is very simple, when an input signal directs the control
element to respond, an output will be produced. Examples of the open loop control
systems include washing machines, light switches, gas ovens etc.

Input Process Output

Fig 2.2 Block diagram of an open-loop control system

A washing machine is an example of an open loop control system. The input and
output of an open loop system are unrelated. An example is that the operation of a
washing machine does not depend on the cleanness of the clothes, but rather on the
pre-set time. Both the structure and the control process of an open loop control
system are very simple, but the result of the output depends on whether the input
signal is appropriate or not.
Washing/ Spraying/
Washing Input time Timer Discharging Output
Drying
Machine (preset time) procedures controller

Fig 2.3 Block diagram of an open loop control system (washing machine)

Another example of an open loop control system is the burglar alarm system. The
function of the sensor is to collect data regarding the concerned house. When the
electronic sensor is triggered off (for example, by the entry of an unauthorized
person), it will send a signal to the receiver. The receiver will then activate the
alarm, which will in turn generate an alarm signal. The alarm signal will not cease
until the alarm is stopped manually.

Input Electronic Sensor Receiver Alarm Output

(Alarm signal)

12V Power supply

Fig 2.4: Block diagram of an open loop control system (buglar alarm)
Advantages open loop control system
(i) Simplicity and stability: they are simpler in their layout and hence are
economical and stable too due to their simplicity.
(ii) Easy to construct: Since these are having a simple layout, they are easier to
construct.

Disadvantages open loop control system:

(i) Inaccurate and unreliable: since these systems do not have a feedback
mechanism, so they are very inaccurate in terms of result output and hence
they are unreliable too.
(ii) Unable to remove disturbances: Due to the absence of a feedback
mechanism, they are unable to remove the disturbances occurring from
external sources.

2. CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

A closed-loop control system uses input as well as some portion of the output to
regulate the output. Closed-loop systems are also called feedback control system.
In feedback control, the variable required to be controlled is measured. This
measurement is compared with a given set point. If the error results, the controller
takes this error and decides what action should be taken to compensate to
remove the error. Errors occur when an operator changes the set point
intentionally or when a process load changes the process variable accidentally.
The error could be positive or negative.
Temperature control in the electric furnace is an example of a closed loop control
system. In Figure 2.5, the temperature in the electric furnace is measured by a
thermometer, which is an analog device. The analog temperature is converted to a
digital temperature by an A/D converter. The digital temperature is fed to a
controller through an interface. This digital temperature is compared with the
programmed input temperature, and if there is any error, the controller sends out a
signal to the heater, through an interface, amplifier, and relay, to bring the furnace
temperature to a desired value.
Fig 2.5: Temperature Control System

Characteristics of Closed Loop Control Systems

(i) It reduces errors by automatically adjusting the systems input.
(ii) It improves stability of an unstable system.
(iii) It increases or reduces the systems sensitivity.
(iv) It enhances robustness against external disturbances to the process

Advantages Closed Loop Systems

(i) Accuracy: They are more accurate than open loop system due to their
complex construction. They are equally accurate and are not disturbed in the
presence of nonlinearities.
(ii) Noise reduction ability: Since they are composed of a feedback mechanism,
so they clear out the errors between input and output signals, and hence
remain unaffected to the external noise sources.

Disadvantages Closed Loop Systems

(i) Complex construction: They are relatively more complex in construction and
hence it adds up to the cost making it costlier than open loop system.
(ii) Creates oscillatory response: Since it consists of feedback loop, it may
create oscillatory response of the system and it also reduces the overall gain
of the system.
(iii) Less stable: It is less stable than open loop system but this disadvantage can
be cancelled off since we can make the sensitivity of the system very small
so as to make the system as stable as possible.
2.4.2. SEQUENTIAL CONTROL SYSTEM
It is used to repeat all the events in operation throughout a production cycle that
consist of on/off relay logic, time delay, predetermined counts of pulses and pulse
outputs for set-point control. It involves the sequential execution of well-defined
operations that are performed in a prescribed order. A sequential controller can be
classified into two types;
1. Event-based: the next step cannot be performed until the previous event or
step is complete.
2. Time-based: series of operation are sequenced with respect to time.
Thus, event-based controllers are more reliable than time-based controllers. A
typical example will be considered below.

Sequential control system of a domestic washing machine

The latest washing machine uses a microprocessor based controller in which
software program are used to perform various sequential operations.
It has four processes;
1. Pre wash cycle: Here, an electrically operated valve opens to allow cold
water into the drum for a period of time determined by output from the
microprocessor. A level sensor is used to check whether the drum is filled to
the present level. When the water reaches a preset level, the sensor stops the
water supply to the drum by switching off the current to the valve.
2. Main wash cycle: When the pre-wash is completed, the microprocessor
activates the switch to supply current to electric heater to heat the water for
main wash.
3. Rinse cycle: When the main wash is completed, the microprocessor gives an
output for rinse cycle, it opens the valve to allow cold water to drum and it
closed when it reaches a preset level. A drum motor is operated to rotate the
drum and it closed when it closed preset level.
4. Spin cycle: The microprocessor switches on the drum motor and it is
signaled to rotate at a higher speed than the rinsing cycle. Due to the
centrifugal action, the water drains from the clothes.
2.5. MICROPROCESSOR
Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a small
chip capable of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations and
communicating with the other devices connected to it.
Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit. ALU
performs arithmetical and logical operations on the data received from the
memory or an input device. Register array consists of registers identified by letters
like B, C, D, E, H, L and accumulator. The control unit controls the flow of data
and instructions within the computer.

How does a Microprocessor Work?

The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, Decode, and then Execute.
Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a sequential order. The
microprocessor fetches those instructions from the memory, then decodes it and
executes those instructions till STOP instruction is reached. Later, it sends the
result in binary to the output port. Between these processes, the register stores the
temporarily data and ALU performs the computing functions.

Features of a Microprocessor
 Cost-effective − The microprocessor chips are available at low prices
 Size − It is of small size chip, hence is portable.
 Low Power Consumption − They are manufactured by using metal oxide
semiconductor technology, which has low power consumption.
 Versatility − The same chip can be used in a number of applications by
configuring the software program.
 Reliability – it has low failure rate.

CLASSIFICATION OF MICROPROCESSOR
A microprocessor can be classified into three categories;
1. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) Processor: It is designed to
reduce the execution time by simplifying the instruction set of the computer.
Using RISC processors, each instruction requires only one clock cycle to
execute results in uniform execution time. The compiler also has to work more
to convert high-level language instructions into machine code. Examples are;
Power PC, DEC Alpha,: TS (R10000) RISC Processor, PA-RISC.

Characteristics of RISC
The major characteristics of a RISC processor are as follows;
 It consists of simple instructions.
  It supports various data-type formats.
 It utilizes simple addressing modes and fixed length instructions for
pipelining.
 It supports register to use in any context.
 It consists of larger number of registers.
 It consists of less number of transistors.

2. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) Processor: It is designed to

minimize the number of instructions per program, ignoring the number of cycles
per instruction. The emphasis is on building complex instructions directly into the
hardware. The compiler has to do very little work to translate a high-level
language into assembly level language/machine code because the length of the
code is relatively short, so very little RAM is required to store the instructions.
E.g. IBM 370/168, VAX 11/780, Intel 80486

Characteristics of CISC
 Variety of addressing modes.
 Larger number of instructions.
 Variable length of instruction formats.
 Several cycles may be required to execute one instruction.
 One instruction is required to support multiple addressing modes.

3. Special Processors: These are the processors which are designed for some
special purposes. Typical examples are;

A.Coprocessor
A coprocessor is a specially designed microprocessor, which can handle a
particular function many times faster than the ordinary microprocessor e.g. Math
Coprocessor.

B.Input/Output Processor
It is a specially designed microprocessor having a local memory of its own, which
is used to control I/O devices with minimum CPU involvement e.g. DMA (direct
Memory Access) controller, Keyboard/mouse controller, Graphic display
controller, SCSI port controller.
C.Transputer (Transistor Computer)
A transputer is a specially designed microprocessor with its own local memory
and having links to connect one transputer to another transputer for inter-
processor communications. It was first designed in 1980 by Inmos and is targeted
to the utilization of VLSI technology.
A transputer can be used as a single processor system or can be connected to
external links, which reduces the construction cost and increases the performance.
Examples are: 16-bit T212, 32-bit T425, the floating point (T800, T805 & T9000)
processors.

D.DSP (Digital Signal Processor)

This processor is specially designed to process the analog signals into a digital
form. This is done by sampling the voltage level at regular time intervals and
converting the voltage at that instant into a digital form. This process is performed
by a circuit called an analogue to digital converter (ADC). E.g. Texas
Instrument’s TMS 320 series, e.g., TMS 320C40, TMS320C50.

Advantages of microprocessor
 It can be programmed to execute a number of tasks.
 It has a good processing speed.
 It can quickly move data between the various memory locations.

Disadvantages of microprocessor
 It has a limitation on the size of data.
 Most of the microprocessor does not support floating point operations.
 The main disadvantage is it’s over heating physically.
 It should not contact with the other external devices.
 It does not have any internal peripheral like ROM, RAM and other I/O devices.

APPLICATIONS OF MICROPROCESSOR
 It is used in personal computers (PCs).
 It is used in LASER printers for good speed and making automatic photo
copies.
 It is used in modems, telephone, digital telephone sets, and also in air
reservation systems and railway reservation systems.
 It is used in medical instrument to measure temperature and blood pressure.
 It is also used in mobile phones and television.
 It is used in calculators and game machine.
 It is used in accounting system and data acquisition system.
 It is used in military applications.
 It is also used in traffic light control.
 It is used in home appliances such as microwave ovens, washing machine etc.

A Microprocessor control system

Fig 2.6 below shows a typical mechatronics system with mechanical, electrical,
and computer components. The process of system data acquisition begins with the
measurement of a physical value by a sensor. The sensor is able to generate some
form of signal, generally an analog signal in the form of a voltage level or
waveform. This analog signal is sent to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to
produce a digital output. This digital value is composed of a set of binary values
called bits (often represented by 0s and 1s). The set of bits represents a decimal or
hexadecimal number that can be used by the microcontroller. The micro-controller
consists of a microprocessor plus memory and other attached devices. The
program in the microprocessor uses this digital value along with other inputs and
preloaded values called calibrations to determine output commands. Like the input
to the microprocessor, these outputs are in digital form and can be represented by a
set of bits. A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) is then often used to convert the
digital value into an analog signal. The analog signal is used by an actuator to
control a physical device or affect the physical environment. The sensor then takes
new measurements and the process repeated, thus completing a feedback control
loop. Timing for this entire operation is synchronized by the use of a clock.

Measurement Control
Physical
Device

Sensor ADC Microprocessor DAC Actuator

Control
 Analog Digital Digital Analog

Clock Pulse

Clock Pulse Clock Pulse

Fig 2.6: Microprocessor control system

2.6. Mechatronics Applications

Mechatronics Systems in Manufacturing Applications
 Micro Factory
 Micro Factory drilling unit
 CNC bending
 Others are: robotics, machines, processes, etc.

Mechatronics Systems in Transportation Applications

 Brake-By-Wire system, Steer-By-Wire, Integrated vehicle dynamics
 Camless engines
 Integrated starter alternator
 High speed trains
 Others are: climate control, antilock brake, active suspension, cruise
control, air bags, engine management, safety, etc.

Mechatronics Systems in smart Robotic Applications

 Big Dog: it can carry 340 lb, Run 4 mph, Climb, run, and walk, Move over
rough terrain
 Vacuum Cleaner: Robots can vacuum floors
 Cleans gutter: Robots can clean gutters

Mechatronics Systems in Medical Applications

 Prosthetics: Arms, Legs, and other body parts can be replaced with
electromechanical ones.
  Pace Maker: Used by patients with slow or erratic heart rates. The pacemaker
will set a normal heart rate when it sees an irregular heart rhythm.
 Implantable Defibrillation: Monitors the heart. If heart fibrillates or
stops completely it will shock the heart at high voltage to restore a normal heart
rhythm
Others are: implant-devices, assisted surgery

Mechatronics Systems in Defense Applications

 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle: Some planes can now be flown remotely.
 Stealth Bomber: Advanced technology is making our soldiers safer.
 Others are: unmanned air, ground, and underwater vehicles, smart
amunitions, jet engines, etc.

Mechatronics Systems in Sanitation Applications

 Soap dispensers: Reduces spread of germs by making device hands free
 Paper towel dispensers: Reduces wasted materials by controlling how much is
dispensed
Mechatronics Systems in Sport Applications
 Running shoes: Automatically changes cushioning in shoe for different running
styles and conditions for improved comfort

Mechatronics Systems in Smart home Applications

 Smoke detector system
Others are: home security, camera, microwave oven,
toaster, dish washer, laundry washer-dryer, climate control units, etc.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. What is system measurement?
2. Define system.
3. State the different type of systems with examples.
4. State the advantages and disadvantages of a microprocessor.
5. State the difference between a closed loop and an open loop control system.
CHAPTER 3
Basic Electronics
3.0. Ohm’s law
3.1. Conductor and Semi-conductor
3.2. Functions of PN junction Diodes
3.3. Sources of Power Supplies

3.1. Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law states that the ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points
on a conductor to the current (I) flowing between them is constant, provided the
temperature of the conductor does not change i.e. V = constant or R
I
OR
Provided R is kept constant, current is directly proportional to the potential
difference across the ends of a conductor i.e. V α I, thus, V= IR

3.2. Conductor and Semi-conductor

Conductors: Conductors (e.g copper, aluminium) are those substances which
easily allow the passage of electric current through them. This is because there are
a large number of free electrons available in a conductor. Also, they are conducting
materials in which plenty of free electrons are available for electric conduction.

Semiconductor: this is a material in which electrical properties lie in between

those of insulators and good conductors e.g germanium and silicon. The
conductivity of semiconductors increases with temperature. At low temperature, it
behaves as an insulator.
Types of semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor: it is one which is made of semiconductor material in its
extremely pure form e.g. pure germanium and silicon
Extrinsic semiconductor: here, some impurity as been added in extremely small
amounts. It is divided into two namely: N-type and P-type semiconductors.

3.3 Functions of PN junction Diodes

1. As power or rectifier diodes: used to convert AC current into DC current for DC
power supplies of electronic circuits.
2. As Zener diode for voltage stabilization: used to keep the output voltage
constant regardless of variations in the input voltage or load.
3. As signal diode in communication circuits: used for modulation and
demodulation of small signals.
4. As varactor diodes: used in voltage-controlled circuits as found in radio and TV
receivers.
5. It is used in logic circuits used in computers
6. Voltage multipliers: it is used to build a rectifier to produce a DC voltage that is
nearly equal to the peak value of input AC voltage.

3.4 SOURCES OF POWER SUPPLIES

A power supply is an electrical device that converts the electric current that comes
in from a power source, such as the power mains, to the voltage and current values
necessary for powering a load, such as a motor or electronic device. It can either be
regulated or unregulated. In a regulated power supply, the changes in the input
voltage do not affect the output. On the other hand, in an unregulated power
supply, the output depends on any changes in the input. The two sources of power
supply are discussed below;

3.4.1. AC (Alternating Current) Power Source

Alternating current (AC) power is the standard electricity that comes out of power
outlets and is defined as a flow of charge that exhibits a periodic change in
direction. AC's current flow changes between positive and negative because of
electrons (electrical currents) which can move in either a positive (upward) or
negative (downward) direction. This is known as the sinusoidal AC wave, and this
wave is caused when alternators at power plants create AC power.
Also, an AC Power Source is a device that is capable of supplying variable power
and frequency to a load. They are commonly used for electrical testing in aviation,
lighting, laboratory testing, military and factory production.
While many electrical devices such as lamps and appliances use AC power, others
require converting the electricity into DC format. Alternating current (AC) occurs
when the electric current periodically inverts its direction. AC is the method used
to deliver electricity through power transmission lines to homes and businesses. It
is used for power transportation because electricity needs to be transformed several
times during the transportation process.
3.4.2. DC (Direct Current) Power Source
Direct current (DC) power is a linear electrical current which moves in a straight
line. It occurs when the current flows in one constant direction. It usually comes
from batteries, solar cells, or from AC/DC converters. It can also be made from AC
power by using a rectifier that converts AC to DC. DC is the preferred type of
power for electronic devices. DC power is far more consistent in terms of voltage
delivery i.e. most electronics rely on it and use DC power sources such as batteries.
Electronic devices can also convert AC power from outlets to DC power by using a
rectifier, often built into a device's power supply. A transformer will also be used
to raise or lower the voltage to a level appropriate for the device in question.
Not all electrical devices use DC power because many devices, household
appliances, especially, such as lamps, washing machines, and refrigerators, all use
AC power, which is delivered directly from the power grid via power outlets.

3.4.3. Differences between AC and DC power source

1. AC can travel farther than DC power.
2. AC source comes from the transmission lines and feeds electricity directly
into a device or through a power supply that converts the power into another
form or voltage.
3. DC is not capable of traveling the same long distances from power plants to
buildings that AC is.
4. It is also a lot easier to generate AC than DC due to the way generators turn.
5. AC is cheaper to operate i.e. power can be hauled through national grids via
miles and miles of wire and pylons easily.
6. Direct current for electronics is preferable because the highs and lows of
alternating current can damage the delicate components inside electronic
devices.

Tutorial Questions
1. Define a conductor and semiconductor.
2. State the difference between the two types of semiconductors.
3. State ohm’s law and write the mathematical expression.
4. State 4 functions of a PN junction diode.
5. State 4 differences between AC and DC power source.

CHAPTER 4
 Transistors and operational amplifiers
4.1. Transistor
4.2. Thyristor
4.3. Operational Amplifier

4.1. Transistor
A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by adding either p-type or n-type
semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. In the transistor, one junction is
forward biased and the other is reverse biased. The forward biased junction has a
low resistance path whereas a reverse biased junction has a high resistance path.
Therefore, a transistor transfers a signal from a low resistance to high resistance.
There are two basic types of transistors, namely;
i. BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) and ii. FET (Field Effect Transistor)
These two transistor types differ in both their operating characteristics and their
internal construction.
BJT has two types which are;
(i) NPN transistor (ii) PNP transistor
An NPN transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin
section of p-type.
A PNP transistor is formed by two p-sections separated by a thin section of n-type.

Fig 4.0: (i) NPN transistor structure (ii) PNP transistor structure
 (a) (b)
Fig 4.1: (i) NPN transistor symbol (ii) PNP transistor symbol

Emitter: it supplies majority charge carrier to the base.

Collector: it collects majority charge carriers coming from the emitter and passing
through the base.
Base: it forms two PN junctions between the emitter and the collector.

Uses of transistor
1. It acts as an amplifier i.e. raises the strength of a signal.
2. It is used in digital circuits as an electronic switch.
3. For controlling and generating electrical signals

Two of the most common standard BJT circuits are called the common emitter
circuit and the emitter follower circuit.

Common Emitter Circuit

The common emitter circuit is shown in Figure 4.3. In this circuit, Vin is the control
voltage, Vout is the output voltage, and VCC is the supply voltage. It is the common
emitter circuit, because both the emitter and the supply voltage ground are
connected to the same common point. In this circuit, a resistor (RC) is always
placed between the supply voltage lead and the collector. In practice, this resistor
represents the resistance of a load (such as an LED or motor) that needs to be
switched on and off, and hence, the name of this circuit.
Fig 4.3: Common Emitter circuit

Input Characteristic: This is the curve between base current IB and base emitter
voltage VBE at constant collector-emitter Voltage VCE as shown in Figure 4.4 (a).
Input Characteristic: This is the curve between collector current Ic collector-
emitter voltage VCE at constant base current IB as shown if fig 4.4 (b) shows the
relationship between IC and VCE as a function of the base current (IB).

Fig 4.4: (a) Input characteristic curve (b) Output characteristic curve

EMITTER FOLLOWER CIRCUIT

The output is connected to the emitter is this case, and there is no resistor between
VCC and the collector. This circuit is called the emitter follower, because the
output voltage follows the input voltage with a difference of about 0.6 V.
Fig 4.5: Emitter Follower Circuit

4.2. THYRISTOR
A thyristor (silicon-controlled rectifier or SCR) is a three-terminal semiconductor
device that behaves like a diode but with an additional terminal. The additional
terminal is called a gate, and when a small current flows into the gate, it allows a
much larger current to flow from the anode to the cathode (provided that the voltage
between the anode and the cathode is forward biased).

Fig 4.6: (i) thyristor structure (b) thyristor symbol

Uses of thyristors
1. As static contactors i.e. as a switch.
2. for power control.
3. for speed control of DC shunt motor.
4. For overlight detection.
5. As a crowbar i.e. used in protecting a voltage sensitive load from excessive DC
power supply output voltage.
4.3. Operational Amplifier
An operational amplifier is a circuit that can perform such mathematical operations
such as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation. The key electronic
circuit in an OP-Amp is the differential amplifier. A differential amplifier can
accept two input signals and amplifies the difference between these two input
signals.

Fig 4.7: Block diagram of an operational amplifier

Uses of Op-Amp
 It is used in computers,
 It is used as video and audio amplifiers in communication electronics

Properties of Op-Amp
i. It has an inverting and a non-inverting input.
ii. An OP-Amp can amplify DC as well as AC signals.
iii. It has very high input impedance (ideally infinite)
iv. It has very low output impedance (ideally zero).
v. It has very high open-loop voltage gain (ideally infinite), typically more than
200,000.
Tutorial Questions
1. Define transistor.
2. State the 2 uses each of transistors and thyristors.
3. Differentiate between a transistor and thyristor.
4. Draw the block diagram of an op-amp and state its five properties.
5. Draw the input and output characteristic curve of a common emitter circuit.