MODULE 1

PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction

1.2 Definition of Mechatronics

1.3 Multi-disciplinary scenario.

1.4 Evolution of Mechatronics.

1.5 Design of Mechatronics system

1.6 objectives, Advantages & Disadvantages of Mechatronic Systems.

PART 2: TRANSDUCERS AND SENSORS

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Definition and Classification of Transducer

2.2.1 Classification of Transducer

2.3 Definitions and Classification of Sensors

2.3.1 Classification of Sensors:

2.4 Light sensors:

2.5 Photo diodes

2.6 Proximity sensors:

2.6.1 Eddy current proximity sensors:

2.6.2 Capacitive proximity Sensor:

2.6.3 Inductive proximity Sensor:

2.6.4 Optical Proximity Sensor

2.6.5 pneumatic Sensor

2.6.6 Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

2.7 Hall Effect Sensor

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1.1 Introduction:
An automation and control method adopting integrated approach to technology has
become relevant to industries, machinery and consumer engineering products. Most of the
domestic equipment like automatic washing machines, automatic cameras, digital cameras,
DVD players, hard disc drives are examples of Mechatronic system which we use without
bothering to know the technology adopted in it.

1.2 Definition of Mechatronics:

Definition 1:
Mechatronics may be defined as” the complete integration of mechanical system with
electronics, electrical and computer system into a single system”.

Definition 2:
Mechatronics is “the synergistic (Together) combination of mechanical engineering,
electronic engineering, control engineering and systems thinking in the design of products
and manufacturing processes”

Example: automatic washing machine, digital fuel injection system, engine management
system. Etc.,

1.3 Multi-disciplinary scenario:

• Mechatronics is the synergistic (Together) combination of mechanical engineering,
electronic engineering, control engineering and systems thinking in the design of products
and manufacturing processes”.

• Multi-disciplinary products are not new; they have been successfully designed and used for
many years. Most common is the electromechanical system.

• It employs a sequential design-by-discipline approach. For example, in the design of

electromechanical system three stages of design are adopted. They are design of mechanical
system, design of microelectronic system and control system.

• Each design application follows the completion of the previous one to overcome
drawbacks.
1.4 Evolution of Mechatronic system:
The word Mechatronics was coined by Japanese in the late 1970‟s to describe the philosophy
adopted in the design of subsystem of electromechanical systems. The field of Mechatronics
received the international recognitions only in the last few years. The field has been derived
by rapid progress in the field of microelectronics.

At R&D level the following areas have been recognized under Mechatronics discipline.

a) Motion control actuators and sensors

b) Micro devices and optoelectronics

c) Robotics

d) Automotive systems

e) Modeling and design

f) System integration

g) Manufacturing

h) Vibration and noise control.

The technology has evolved through several stages that are termed as levels. The evolution
levels of Mechatronics are:

a. Primary level Mechatronics (first)

b. Secondary level Mechatronics (second)

c. Tertiary level Mechatronics (third)

d. Quaternary level Mechatronics (fourth)

a. Primary level Mechatronics (first):

In the early days Mechatronics products were at primary level containing I/O devices such as
sensors, and actuators that integrated electrical signals with mechanical action at the basic
control level.

Examples: electrically controlled fluid valves and relays

b. Secondary level Mechatronics (second):

This level integrates microelectronics into electrically controlled devices.

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Examples: cassette player.

c. Tertiary level Mechatronics (third):

This incorporates advances feedback functions into control strategy, thereby enhancing the
quality in terms of sophistication. Mechatronics system at this level is called „smart system‟.

The control strategy includes microelectronics, microprocessor and other application specific
integrated circuits‟ (ASIC).

Examples: DVD player, CD drives, automatic washing machine, CD drives, etc.

d. Quaternary level Mechatronics (fourth):

This level includes intelligent control in Mechatronics system.

The level attempts to improve smartness a step ahead by introducing intelligence and fault
detection and isolation (FDI) capability system.

Examples: artificial neural network and fuzzy logic technologies.

1.5 Design of Mechatronics system

Here the primary concern is to produce high quality products and also to maintain them. They
are called life cycle design. Some of the life cycle factors are reliability, maintainability, and
delivery in time, serviceability, upgradeability, and disposability. Mechatronics consists of
three design phases, namely -- modeling, simulation and prototyping and deployment.
Modeling in mechatronics is carried out in two ways –

• Simple models: - These are models created based on first principles (basic
equations).

• Detailed models: - These are models that are created by the extension of the first
principle models providing more details and accuracy than the previous models. All the
above models are created by connecting what are known as blocks. Each block is called a
sub-system and got an input and output signal.

1.6 Objectives, Advantages and disadvantages of Mechatronics:

Objectives:
1. to integrate mechanical, electrical, electronic and computer systems

2. to improve the efficiency of the system

 3. to reduce the cost of production

4. to achieve high accuracy and precision

5. to easily control the system

6. customer satisfaction and comfort

Advantages:
1. The products produced are cost effective and very good quality.

2. High degree of flexibility

3. Greater extent of machine utilization

4. Greater productivity

5. High life expected by proper maintenance.

6. The integration of sensor and control system in a complex system reduces capital expenses.

Disadvantages:
1. Higher initial cost of the system.

2. Imperative to have Knowledge of different engineering fields for design and

implementation.

3. It is expenses to incorporate Mechatronics approaches to existing/old systems.

4. Specific problem of various systems will have to be addressed separately and properly.

Applications:
1. Automotive machines.

2. Fax and photocopier mechanics

3. Dishwashers.

4. Automatic washing machine

5. Air conditioners, elevator controls.

6. Documents scanners

7. IC manufacturing systems.

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8. Robotics employed in welding, nuclear inspection, painting etc.,

Measurement system:
A group of device/element arranged in rational manner to achieve the act of measurement.
Measurand: is a numerical quantity of physical phenomenon such as force, quantity,
displacement, time, velocity, etc,
Measurement: is a represent of physical phenomenon in numerical values.

Generalized measurement system:

Generally a measurement system consists of 3 basic elements.
1. Sensor/transducer.
2. Signal conditioner.
3. Display/read out devices.
In addition to the above, electrical power is also required.

Functions of each elements of measurement system:

1. Sensor/transducer unit:
 The heart of any measurement or control system is sensor/transducer.
 Sensor/transducer is a device it converts the one form of energy to another form.
 Sensor/transducer it senses the physical phenomenon to be measure and transform it
from one form to another form (generally electrical form).
 The output of this unit is input to the signal conditioner which is next element.
 Figure: basic concept of transducer

2. Signal conditioner unit:

This unit senses the output signals of sensor and converts it into suitable, measurable level of
signals. An amplifier is acts as a signal conditioner in the figure.
The following functions of signal conditioners are:
a. Amplification of signals: the level of signals from the transducer may be of low level for
the next use and hence need to be amplified (increased).
b. Attenuation: similarly the level of signals from the transducer may be of higher level for
the next use and hence need be attenuated (decreased).
c. Filtering: signals from the transducer may contain some other undesirable signals which
need to be filtered or eliminated before it is used. Otherwise a corrupt output will be
generated.
d. Analog to digital conversion (ADC): the signals from the transducer may be analog in
nature and if these signals were to be used as input to electronic system/computer system,
they need to be converting to digital form. Similarly sometimes we use DAC.

3. Display/read out unit:

It displays the output of signal conditioner unit and this display will be the quantitative form
of measurand. Display unit may be either of analog (dial gauge) and digital (LED) type.

Example of Measurement system: Digital thermometer principle.

Control system:
The word control means “to regulate”, “manipulate” and “command”.
Examples:
1. A container is to be filled with water from a tap. Once the water fills the container,
the valve is closed (that is spilling of water is avoided) by observation from a human
being who senses the filling and based on the observation closes the valve.
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 2. The driver applies the brake of the vehicle, when he/she observes red traffic light.

Definition of Control system:

A group of devices/elements which maintains the required output based on the predefined
value by controlling the parameter responsible for output.

Classification of control system:

1. Open loop control system (NO FEEDBACK control system).
2. Closed loop control system (WITH FEEDBACK control system).
1. Open loop control system (NO FEEDBACK control system):
In which the output is dependent on the input, but input is independent of output is
called open loop control system.

Example:
1. ON/OFF of an electric lamp: electric lamps are used for lighting the lamp. ON/OFF
control is carried out with the help of a switch and the switch is generally operated by an
operator depending on the amount of light that exist in that area. If the switch is ON, the lamp
is glow. If the person operating the switch does not put OFF of the switch, the lamp remain
ON until he switched OFF. So it is called open loop control system.
2. Control the temperature of the room with room heater: the amount of heat generated
by a room heater depends on the amount of input power controlled by a regulator. If the
power is switch ON, the power supplied to the heater continues and temperature of the room
goes on increasing immaterial of whether heat is required in the room or not. Here person is
go and OFF the power supply switch and there by cooling the temperature of the room is
decreasing.

Advantages of open loop control system:

1. Less costly.
2. Relatively simple.
3. Good reliability.
4. Easy maintenance.
5. Inherently stable.
Disadvantages of open loop control system:
1. Inaccurate since there is no correction of error.
2. Relatively slow in response to change in demand.
3. The control depends on the human judgment.
4. Often leads to waste.
5. Any change in system component not to be taken care automatically.

2. Closed loop control system (WITH FEEDBACK control system):

In which input is depend on the output. i.e., variation in the output influences the input by
some means of controlling on the input is called a closed loop system.
Elements of closed loop control system:
The basic elements of a closed loop control system are:
1. Comparison element.
2. Control unit.
3. Correction unit.
4. Process unit.
5. Feedback unit.
Functions of each elements of a closed loop system:
Comparison element: this unit compares the reference value with feedback value and
produces an error signal.
Error = reference value – feedback value
Control unit: Control unit analyses the error signal and decides what action is to be taken.
Correction unit: the modified signal from the control unit will be received by the correction
unit which produces a change in the process to correct or change the controlled condition.
Process unit: process unit is the unit which is being controlled.
Examples:
1. Hand reaching an object.

 This is an example of closed loop control system.

 A person wants to reach for an object.
 Position of the object is given as reference, feedback signals and the eyes compares
the actual position of the hands with reference to the position of the object.
 Error signal is given to the brain.
 Brain manipulates this error and gives signals to the hands.
 This process continues till the hand reaches the object.

2. Speed control of an automobile:

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• The driver observes the speedometer, and based on the speed shown by the
speedometer he decides whether the fuel supply should be increased or decreased or
gear change is to be made.
• Here speed shown a speedometer is a feedback. A feedback signal from the eye
compares the desire speed in the memory of the driver.
• Error signals are given to brain. Brain manipulates the error signals and gives it ton
hand and leg and increase the fuel supply if the speed is less than the desired speed,
otherwise decrease the fuel supply.
• Changing of gear and increase or decrease of fuel supply, depends on whether it an
upward or downward gradient respectively.
3. Water level control of overhead tanks:

• The overhead tank has a fixed float (sensor) fixed at the desired height inside the
tanks.
• The level of the water is sensed by the float. The float has an electrical contactor,
which is positioned between fixed connectors.
• The inflow regulation valve is electrically operated. The electrical circuit of the
system is closed when the float touches the fixed connectors and open when it is not
making contact with it.
• When the level of water in the tank falls, the float moves down and makes contact
with fixed contactor and circuit is closed and pump is switched ON.
 • When the level of water rises the float moves up and breaks the circuit and pump is
switches OFF. Thereby the required level of water is maintained in overhead tank.

4. Room temperature controller (manual):

• In this case the required room temperature will be decided by person in the room and
thus is compared mentally.
• Based on whether the room temperature is high or low, the person will operate the
switch of the room heater till the desired or comfortable temperature is achieved.
• Block diagram is illustrating the above process.
Advantages of closed loop control system:
1. More accurate.
2. Any change in system component can be taken care automatically.
3. Use of feedback system response is relatively insensitive to external disturbances and
internal variations in system parameters.

Disadvantages of closed loop control system:

1. Expensive and complicated to construction.

Differences between open loop control system and closed loop control system

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Sequential control system:
 Control of sequences of operations in a sequence is called as a sequence control
system.
 Working of washing machine is a sequential control system wherein control is
exercised based on event, or parameter etc., i.e., control action will be executed one
after another event.
 The events to be carried out in a domestic washing machine are soaking, washing,
rinsing and drying.
 Each of these operations involves a number of steps.

Microprocessor based controllers:

Introduction:
Recent development in the large scale integration (LSI), VLSI, SVLSI of
semiconductor devises and the resulting availability of inexpensive microprocessor,
memory chips and analog to digital converters (ADC) have made it possible to use
computer as integral part of control system without much increase in cost.
Some of the application areas of microprocessor and microcontroller based control system
include; Automatic washing machine, automatic cameras, ATM, Computers, Automatic
engine management systems, Disc drivers in system, Industrial automations, etc.,

Microprocessor based processor control system of an Automatic camera:

Working:

Camera is used to photograph an object, the switch is pressed which activates the system.
The range sensor sense the distance of the object to be photographed and this data is
input to microprocessor.
The microprocessor in turn sends on output to motor to drive to position the lens for
focusing.
The position of the lens is input to microprocessor.
Next the light sensor sends the signal of light intensity on the object to microprocessor.
Aperture control drive focuses the particular object by blurring the background depending on
the light intensity from the light sensor.
Based on this, signals are sent to control the duration of time the shutter have to be kept
open.
All these action and reaction take place within a fraction of second.
Once the film has exposed, the information is input to the microprocessor which gives
output for driving the motor for advancing the film to drive and the camera is ready for the
next exposure.

Microprocessor based processor control system of Automatic washing machine:

Working:
This is a sequential control system wherein control is exercised based on event, or
parameter etc., i.e., control action will be executed one after another event.
The events to be carried out in a domestic washing machine are soaking, washing,
rinsing and drying.
Each of these operations involves a number of steps.
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Soaking involves selection of correct quantity of detergent and water based on the type
and amount of cloth.
This requires opening of the valve to fill the machine drum to required level and closing
the valve once the required level of water has reached and rotating the drum in either
directions for a pre-set amount of time during the soaking operation.
This is followed by washing which is a time parameter event.
Then the rinsing event which measures the pH value using a chemical sensor of water in
the drum and compares it with supply of water.
This event continues till the pH value of the water in the cloth and the supply water are
equal.
Finally drying operation till the minimum percentage of moisture is retained in the cloth.
All these events were earlier controlled with the help of mechanical system involving a
set of cam-operated switches.

 In modern washing machine mechanical system is replaced by digital devices. i.e., a

microcontroller and the sequence of instruction; program embedded in the
microcontrollers.
 The amount of detergent, amount of water, pH value are all sensed by the sensor and
these sensed qualities are input to the microcontroller.
 Based on the input and the software embedded, the corresponding output of the
microcontroller to carry out the different sequence of operations.

Engine management system using microprocessor:

The figure illustrates the basic concept of engine management system using a
microprocessor.
Engine management system is used for managing the ignition and air/fuel requirement of
an IC engine.
In the case of four stroke multi cylinder petrol engine, each cylinder has a piston
performing all the four stroke (suction, compression, working or expansion and exhaust
strokes) and the piston rod of each
Piston connected to common crankshaft, and their power strokes at different time‟s
resulting power for rotation of the crankshaft.
The power and speed of an engine are functions of ignition timing and air/fuel mixture.
Hence, by controlling the ignition timing and air/fuel mixture it is possible to control the
speed and power of the engine.
In modern cars the ignition timing, opening and closing of valves at appropriate time,
quality of air/fuel mixture are controlled by microprocessor with the help of sensors.

 For ignition timing the crankshaft drives a distributor which makes electrical contacts
for each spark plug and turns a timing wheel.
 The timing wheel generates pulses which are input the microprocessor.
 The microprocessor as per the program adjusts the timing at which high voltage
pulses are sent to the distributor so that spark occurs at the right time resulting in
complete combustion of fuel.
 The quantity of air/fuel mixture entering the cylinder during suction stroke is again
controlled by microprocessor by varying the time for which the solenoid is activated
to open the intake and throttle position.
 The quantity of fuel injected into the air stream is sensed by sensor of the mass flow
rate computed from one method, and then input to the microprocessor which in turn
gives an output to control the fuel injection.

PART 2: TRANSDUCERS AND SENSORS

2.1 Introduction:
Sensors and transducers are the heart of any mechatronic system. Without sense organs there
is no life and so also there is no mechatronic system without transducers and sensors. In fact,
they are the essential elements of any measurement or control system.

2.2 Definition and Classification of Transducer:

A Transducer is a device which transforms one form of physical phenomenon or energy to
another form for various purposes including measurement, control and information transfer.
The physical phenomenon may be position, displacement, force, torque, flow of fluid,
pressure of fluid, temperature, etc.

Transduce= Trance (Change) + Induce (Provide)

Classification of transducer:
The transducers are broadly classified on basis of following factors:
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1. Based on whether the device sense and converts
2. Based on nature and type of output signal.
3. Based on whether they are self generated or externally powered
4. Based on type of sensing element used.
5. Based on type and nature of measurand to be measured.
6. Based on the purpose in the measurement system.
7. Based on methods of conversion of energy.
1. Based on whether the device sense and converts:
a. Primary transducer
b. Secondary transducer
Primary transducer: they are also called as „detectors‟. It sense a physical phenomenon and
converts into an analogous output.
Example: Thermocouple.
Secondary transducer: secondary transducers are those which convert the analogous output
of the primary transducer (detector), which has sensed the physical phenomenon into an
analogous output.
Example: 1. Pressure measurement with Bourdon tube and LVDT.
2. Load cell with strain gauges.

2. Based on nature and type of output signal.

a. Analog transducer
b. Digital transducer
Analog transducer: are those which convert physical phenomenon into an analogous output
which is a continuous function of time.
Example: Strain gauges, Thermistors, LVDT, Etc.
Digital transducer: are those which convert physical phenomenon into an electrical output
which is in the form of pulses.
Example: Angular digital encoders and digital level transducers.
3. Based on whether they are self generated or externally powered
a. Active transducer
b. Passive transducer
Active transducer: are those which develop their own power to producing output signal.
They are also known as self generating transducers.
Examples: thermocouples, photo-voltaic cell etc
Passive transducer: are those which require external power producing output signal. They
are also
known as externally powered transducers. However they absorb some energy from the
measurand.
Example: photoemissive cell, Thermistors, resistance thermometers, etc.
4. Based on type of sensing element used
a. Elastic element
b. Mass sensing element
c. Thermal sensing elements
d. Hydropneumatic elements
Elastic element: most pressure measuring devices use a bourdon tube, a bellow or
diaphragm. The actions of these elements are based on elastic deformation brought about by
the force resulting from pressure summation.
Example: Springs, Proving ring, bourdon tube etc.
Mass sensing element: this is based on the inertia of concentrated mass.
Example: Vibration pickups, accelerometers.
Thermal sensing elements: these elements sense the heat of a system by indicating some
change in the property of the material used, which varies with the heat.
Examples: bimetallic thermometer, thermocouples, Thermistors, optical pyrometer.
Hydropneumatic elements: the two examples of these are float and hydrometer, used in
static fluid which converts liquid level into displacement.

5. Based on type and nature of measurand to be measured.

a. Mechanical transducers
b. Electrical transducers
c. Electromechanical transducers
d. Electromagnetic transducers.
e. Electrochemical transducers.
Mechanical transducers: are used for measuring quantities such as position, velocity, force,
torque, displacement, time, pressure, vibration, strain mass etc.
Electrical transducers: are used for measuring voltage, current and electrical conductivity.

Electro mechanical transducers: galvanometers, MEMS, Potentiometers, load cels etc.

Electro-magnetic transducers: hall effect sensors, antenna, CRT, LDR etc.,

Electro-chemical transducers: pH probes, electro-galvanic fuel cell.

6. Based on the purpose in the measurement system:

a. Input transducers
b. Output transducers
Input transducers: these transducers convert a non electrical quantity into an electrical
signal .
Example: Strain gauges, photovoltaic cell

Output transducers: these transducers convert electrical signal back into non electrical
signal according to whether they make physical contact or not.

7. Based on method of conversion of energy: the energy or signals produced due to physical
phenomenon are converted into another form using mechanical linkages as in the case of
simle dial gauge.
Example: the property of expansion of liquid due to heat is used in mercury thermometers to
measure temperature.

Advantages and disadvantages of Mechanical transducer:

Advantages:
1. They posses high accuracy.
2. Rugged (rough handling)
3. Relatively low cost.
4. Operate without any external source (Active transducers)
Disadvantages:
1. Have poor frequency response.
2. Require large force to overcome friction.
3. Incompatibility when remote control or indication is required.
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Advantages and disadvantages of Electrical transducer:
Advantages:
1. The output can be amplified or attenuated to any desired level.
2. The output can be indicated and recorded remotely.
3. Compact instrumentation
4. Can be controlled with very small power.
5. Friction and mass inertia effects are minimum.
6. Possibility of non-contact measurement.
Disadvantages:
1. Expensive.
2. Require external power.
3. Response to external disturbances.

Definitions of Sensors:
Sensor: Sensor is a device which can respond directly to different physical attributes such as
heat, light, magnets, force related quantities, radiation etc, or to their vibration.

Sensor is a device which converts the energy from one form to another.

A sensor is infact a highly refined transducer provided with signal conditioning circuit of
modifying the signals from the transducer.

If the sensor itself transduces the physical attributes in addition to sensing (detecting) is called
‘detector transducer’.

Quality parameters of a sensor system:

Resolution : It is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that can be
detected.

Repeatability : It is the ability to reproduce the output signal exactly when the same
measured quantity is applied repeatedly under the same environmental conditions.

Accuracy : It is a measure of difference between the measured value and actual value.
Generally defined as % of actual value. Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated
by a measured system might be wrong OR The accuracy of a measurement means
conformity to truth. It is thus the summation of all possible errors that are likely to occur.
Accuracy is expressed as % of full range O/P or % of full - scale deflection. Accuracy is the
closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity being
measured.

Precision : Precision is the ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings

within a given deviation.

Range : It is defined as the limits between which inputs can vary. Range of a transducer
defines the limits between which the input can vary. Range represents the highest possible
value that can be measured by an instrument.

Span: is maximum value minus the minimum value of the input.

Span = Max. value of I/P - Minimum value of I/P.

Stability (drift) - It is the ability to give same output when a constant input is measured over
a period of time. Drift is expressed as % of full range output.

Hysteresis: Different output for increasing and decreasing value of input. Transducers can
give different outputs from the same value of quantity being measured according to whether
that value has been reached by a continuously increasing change / or continuously decreasing
change. This effect is called hysteresis.

Sensitivity:
It is the ability of the measuring instrument to respond to changes in measured quantity.
It is ratio of change of output to change of input.

Magnitude of O/P quantity

Static Sensitivity = -------------------------------------
Magnitude of I/P quantity

= Slope of O/P V/S I/P curve

Static and dynamic characteristics of a sensor system

Static characteristics are the values given when steady state conditions occur. Input is not
varying and output is constant. Output changes only due to drift.
Dynamic characteristics refer to time varying signal with corresponding time varying output.

Response time : This is the time which elapses after a step input, when the transducer gives
the output corresponding to some specified percentage of steady state value e.g. 95%

Time constant : This is 63.2 % of response time.

Rise time : Time taken for the output to rise to some specified percentage of the steady state
output. From 10% to 90%. Settling time : This is the time taken for the output to settle to
within some percentage e.g. 2% of steady state value.

Classification of sensors:
The classification of sensors based on following factors:
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 1. Based on types of energy transferred
2. Biological sensors.
3. Geodetic sensors.
4. Light sensors.
5. Proximity sensors.
6. Hall Effect sensors.

Based on type of energy transferred, we have

Thermal: This senses the heat.

Temperature sensors: thermometers, thermocouples, Thermistors, bimetal thermometers
etc.

Electromagnetic:
Electrical resistance sensors: ohm meter, multimeter.
Electrical current sensors: galvanometer, ammeter.
Electrical voltage sensors: voltmeter.
Electrical power sensor: watt-hour meters.
Metal detector, radar

Mechanical:
Pressure sensor: altimeter, barometer, pressure gauge.
Mechanical sensor: position sensor, acceleration sensor.
Humidity sensor: hygrometer.

Chemical sensor: is a device that transforms chemical information, ranging from the
concentration to total composition analysis, into an analytical useful signal.
Example: oxygen sensor, pH glass electrodes etc.

Orientation sensors: gyroscope, artificial horizon distance sensor.

Light sensor: sensor which senses the presence of light are called light sensors of photo
sensors.
These are also known as photo electric transducers because when light falls on these sensors,
there exists a change in their electrical property. i.e., light signals induce change in electrical
properties of conductance, resistance, inductance, etc., of the material.
The most common materials used in manufacturing of light sensors are cadmium sulphide,
cadmium sulpho solenide, and lead telluride and semi conductors.

2.4 Light sensors:

Principle of Working and Applications of Light Sensors:

A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light sensors
such as photocell/ photo resistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing and other
industrial applications.

Photo resistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high resistance e
semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdS photo resistor varies
inversely to the amount of light incident upon it. Photo resistor follows the principle of
photoconductivity which results from the generation of mobile carriers when photons are
absorbed by the semiconductor material.
Figure shows the construction of a photo resistor. The CdS resistor coil is mounted on a
ceramic substrate. This assembly is encapsulated by a resin material. The sensitive coil
electrodes are connected to the control system though lead wires. On incidence of high
intensity light on the electrodes, the resistance of resistor coil decreases which will be used
further to generate the appropriate signal by the microprocessor via lead wires.

Fig 1: Construction of Light Sensors

Photo resistors are used in science and in almost any branch of industry for control, safety,
amusement, sound reproduction, inspection and measurement.

Applications of Light Sensor:

• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to automatically
control the brightness of a screen.

• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor technology

• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and robots.

• Auto Flash for camera

• Industrial process control.

2.5 Photo diodes

Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric current. It is
made of Silicon. It consists of a shallow diffused p-n junction, normally a p-on- n
configuration. When photons of energy greater than 1.1eV (the band gap of silicon) fall on
the device, they are absorbed and electron-hole pairs are created. The depth at which the
photons are absorbed depends upon their energy. The lower the energy of the photons, the
deeper they are absorbed. Then the electron-hole pairs drift apart. When the minority carriers

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reach the junction, they are swept across by the electric field and an electric current
establishes.

Photodiodes are one of the types of photo detector, which convert light into either current or
voltage. These are regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed to
detect vacuum UV or X-rays or packaged with an opening or optical fiber connection to
allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device.

Fig 2: Construction of Photo diodes

Figure shows the construction of Photo diode detector. It is constructed from single crystal
silicon wafers. It is a p-n junction device. The upper layer is p layer. It is very thin and
formed by thermal diffusion or ion implantation of doping material such as boron. Depletion
region is narrow and is sandwiched between p layer and bulk n type layer of silicon. Light
irradiates at front surface, anode, while the back surface is cathode. The incidence of light on
anode generates a flow of electron across the p-n junction which is the measure of light
intensity.

Applications of photo diodes:

Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-focus, Photographic Flash Control

Medical: CAT Scanners - X Ray Detection, Pulse Oximeters, Blood Particle Analyzers.

Industry

• Bar Code Scanners

• Light Pens

• Brightness Controls

• Encoders

• Position Sensors

• Surveying Instruments
• Copiers - Density of Toner

Safety Equipment

• Smoke Detectors

• Flame Monitors

• Security Inspection Equipment

Linear Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDT)

LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction and the displacement which
is a non-electrical energy is converted into an electrical energy.

•LVDT consists of a cylindrical shell which is wound by a primary winding and

two secondary windings at the sides.
• The number of turns in both the secondary windings is equal, but the windings
are opposite to each other.
• Hence the net output voltages will be the difference in voltages between the two
secondary coils.
• The two secondary coils are represented as V1 and V2.
• A movable iron core is placed in the centre of the cylindrical shell.
Working –

Case 1

If the iron core is in the center, then the voltage induced in both the secondary windings
are equal which results in net output is equal to zero. Vout = V1 – V2 = 0.

Case 2

When an external force is applied and if the iron core tends to move out, then the emf
voltage induced in the upper secondary coil is greater when compared to the emf induced
in the lower secondary coil 2. V1 > V2

Case 3

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When an external force is applied and if the iron core moves in, then the emf induced in
the lower secondary coil 2 is greater when compared to the emf induced in the secondary
coil 1. V1 < V2

Advantages -

• Infinite resolution can be achieved.

• High sensitivity instrument.
• Good linearity is achieved.
• No friction, inertia, mechanical parts involved.
• Very low power consumption.
Disadvantages

• It can't be widely used in the area of dynamic measurement since the core is of
appreciable mass compared with the mass of a strain gauge.
• If 60 cps supply voltage is used then it becomes a limiting factor as for as
dynamic measurement is concerned.

2.6 Proximity sensors:

2.6.1 Eddy current proximity sensors:
Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but conductive materials.
They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit. Figure shows the
construction of eddy current proximity switch. When an alternating current is passed thru
this coil, an alternative magnetic field is generated. If a metal object comes in the close
proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced in the object due to the magnetic field.
These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which distorts the magnetic field
responsible for their generation. As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the
amplitude of alternating current. This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined
level of change in current.
 Fig 3: Construction of Eddy current proximity sensors
Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size, highly reliable and
have high sensitivity for small displacements.

Applications of eddy current proximity sensors:

• Automation requiring precise location

• Machine tool monitoring

• Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives

• Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating element,

• Drive shaft monitoring

• Vibration measurements

2.6.2 CAPACITIVE TYPE PROXIMITY SENSOR:

These sensors are used to detect both metallic and nonmetallic object includes plastic, wood,
water, liquid etc.

Principle of operation:

Capacitive sensors use the variation of capacitance between the sensor and the object being
detected. When the object at a preset distance from the sensitive side of the sensor, an
electronic circuit inside the sensor begins to oscillate, the rise and fall of such oscillation is
identified by a threshold circuit that drives an amplifier of an external load.

A circuit provided in the sensor uses DC power to generate AC, to measure the current in the
internal AC circuit, and switch the output circuit when the amount of AC current changes.

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A capacitive proximity sensor detects changes in the capacitance between the sensing object
and the sensor. The amount of capacitance varies, depending on the size and distance of
sensing object.

Capacitor plate holds the positive charge whereas the negative charges are attracted into the
other (object being sensed). Only one of the required two capacitor plates is actually built into
the capacitive sensor.The changes in the capacitance generated between these two [plates are
detected. The object that can be detected depends on their dielectric constants.

Fig 4: Schematic of Capacitive Proximity Sensor

2.6.3 Inductive proximity Sensor:

Fig 5: Schematic of Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive proximity switches are basically used for detection of metallic objects. Figure
shows the construction of inductive proximity switch. An inductive proximity sensor has four
components; the coil, oscillator, detection circuit and output circuit. An alternating current is
supplied to the coil which generates a magnetic field. When, a metal object comes closer to
the end of the coil, inductance of the coil changes. This is continuously monitored by a circuit
which triggers a switch when a preset value of inductance change is occurred.

Applications of inductive proximity Sensor

• Industrial automation: counting of products during production or transfer

• Security: detection of metal objects, arms, land mines

2.6.4 Optical Encoder:

Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. These are
widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts. Figure shows the
construction of an optical encoder. It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of
equally spaced holes. Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the
holes. These sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the
mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted. The inner track has
just one hole which is used locate the „home‟ position of the disc. The holes on the middle
track offset from the holes of the outer track by one-half of the width of the hole. This
arrangement provides the direction of rotation to be determined. When the disc rotates in
clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner; in counter clockwise
direction they lag behind. The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc.
With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution would be,

360⁰/100 = 3.6⁰.

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 Fig 6: Construction and working principle of Optical Proximity Sensor

2.6.5 Pneumatic Sensors:

Fig 7: working principle of pneumatic Sensor

These involve the use of compressed air. The displacement or the proximity of an object
being transformed into a change in air-pressure. Low-pressure air allowed to escape through a
port in front of the sensor. This escaping air, in the absence of any close by object, escapes
and in doing so also reduces the pressure in the nearby sensor O/P port. However, if there is a
close-by object, the air cannot so readily escape and the result is that the pressure increases in
the sensor output port. The O/P pressure from the sensor thus depends on the proximity of
objects. Such sensors are used for the measurement of displacements of fractions of mm in
ranges of 3 to 12 mm.

2.6.6 Ultrasonic proximity sensor:

 Fig 8: working principle of Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
Working Principle:

An ultrasonic proximity sensor uses a piezoelectric transducer to send and detect sound
waves. Transducer generates high frequency sound waves and evaluates the echo by the
detector which is received back after reflecting off the target. Sensors calculate the time
interval between sending the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance to the
target. When the target enters the operating range the output switches. The ultrasonic
proximity switches are equipped with temperature sensors and a compensation circuit, in
order to be able to compensate for changes in operating distance caused by temperature
fluctuations. The ultrasonic sensor can work in diffuse (direct reflection type), reflex or thru-
beam mode.

2.6.7 Magnetic Type Proximity Sensor:

These sensors are used to detect magnetic object.
Principle of operation: Magnetic proximity sensors are actuated by the presence of a
permanent magnet. It uses a reed contact which consists of two low reluctance Ferro-
magnetic thin plates enclosed hermetically in a glass bulb containing inert gas

Working principle: the presence of magnetic field makes the thin plates flex and touch each
othe causing an electric contact. The plate`s surface has been treated with a special material
particularly suitable for low current or high inductive circuits.

2.6.8 Optical proximity sensor:

Optical proximity sensors are also called as photoelectric proximity sensors use light
sensitive elements to detect objects. A complete optical proximity sensor is consists of light
source and light sensor that detects the light.

The light source generates light of a frequency that light sensor is best able to detect, and that
is not likely to be generated by other nearby source. Infra-red light is the most commonly
used light in most optical sensor.

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Most optical proximity sensor light sources pulses the infra-red light on and off at a fixed
frequency.
The light sensor in the optical proximity sensor is a typically a semiconductor device such as
photodiode, which generates a small current when light energy strikes it.
Four types of optical proximity sensors are commonly used are:
1. Direct reflection type (diffused)
2. Retro-reflective type (Reflection with retro reflector)
3. Polarized reflection with reflection.
4. Through-beam type.

1. Direct reflection type (diffused):

In this type both emitter and receiver are homed together in a single unit and use the light
reflected directly off the target or object for detection.
Or
In this type both emitter and receiver are homed together in a single unit and use the light
reflected directly back from the target or object for detection.

Distance of sensing is depends upon the color and type of surface of the object.

2. Retro-reflective type (Reflection with retro reflector)

In this type both emitter and receiver are homed together in a single unit and requires
reflector. An object detected when it interrupts the light beam between the sensor and the
reflector. They detect target that reflect light back to the sensor.
Figure shows the principle of retro reflective proximity sensor.

3. Polarized reflection with reflection.

It is similar to Retro-reflective type.
In this type both emitter and receiver are homed together in a single unit and requires
reflector. An object detected when it interrupts the light beam between the sensor and the
reflector but uses an anti-reflex device, which bases its functioning on a polarized band of
light, offers considerable advantages and secure readings even when the object to be sensed
has a very shiny surface.
4. Through-beam type.
In this type both emitter and receiver are housed separately. An object detected when it
interrupts the light beam between the emitter and the receiver. These sensors allow for
longest distance sensing.

2.7 Hall Effect Sensors:

Hall Effect sensor is a device that detects the presence of magnetic field is work based on
Hall Effect. The Hall Effect was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1869.
Hall Effect sensors work on the principle that when a beam of charge particles passes through
a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the current beam is deflected from its straight
line path. Thus one side of the disc will become negatively charged and the other side will be
of positive charge. This charge separation generates a potential difference which is the
measure of distance of magnetic field from the disc carrying current.
Hall Effect: when the current I is passed through the conduction and the same conductor is
placed in magnetic field B perpendicular to the current flow then a voltage called hall voltage
is generated perpendicular to the both current and magnetic field. This is known as Hall
Effect.

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 Fig : Hall Effect

The hall voltage Vh is directly proportional to the magnetic field B and intensity of current I
and inversely proportional to the thickness t of the edge of the conductor.
Mathematically,

The advantages of Hall Effect sensor are:

1. Non-contact operation so there is no wear and friction.
2. High speed operation.
3. Can measure zero speed.
4. Wide temperature range.
5. Capable measuring large current.

The disadvantages of Hall Effect sensor are:

1. Large temperature drift.
2. Large offset voltage.

Application:
1. Current sensing
2. Power sensing.
3. Fluid level measurement.
4. Speed detector.
5. Position sensing.

Hall Effect sensor used for determining the level of fluid in automobile fuel
tanks:
 Figure: fluid level detector
Working: A magnet is attached to a flat and as the level of fuel changes and so the float
distance from the hall sensor changes.
The result is a hall voltage output which is measure of the distance of the float from the
sensor and hence the level of fuel in the tank is determined.

Difference between transducer and sensor:

One of the significant difference between the sensor and the transducer is that the sensor

senses the physical changes occur in the surrounding whereas the transducer converts the

physical quantity or nonelectrical into another signal or electrical signal.

The transducer and sensor both are the physical devices used in electrical and electronic

instruments for measuring the physical quantities. The sensor detects the energy level and

changes it into an electrical signal which is easily measured by the digital meters. The

transducer transfers the energy either in the same form or another.

Definition of Sensor

The sensor is a device that measures the physical quantity (i.e. Heat, light, sound, etc.) into an

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easily readable signal (voltage, current etc.). It gives accurate readings after calibration.

Examples – The mercury used in the thermometer converts the measurand temperature into

an expansion and contraction of the liquid which is easily measured with the help of a

calibrated glass tube.

Definition of Transducer

The transducer is a device that changes the physical attributes of the non-electrical signal into

an electrical signal which is easily measurable. The process is completed into two steps. First

by sensing the signal and then strengthening it for further processing.

The transducer has three major components; they are the input device, signal conditioning or

processing device and an output device.

Key Differences Between Sensor and Transducer

The following are the key differences between the sensor and transducer.

1. The sensor senses the physical change across the surrounding whereas the transducer

transforms the one form of energy into another.

2. The sensor itself is the major component of the sensor, whereas the sensor and the signal

conditioning are the major elements of the transducer.

3. The primary function of the sensor is to sense the physical changes, whereas the transducer

converts the physical quantities into an electrical signal.

4. The accelerometer, barometer, gyroscope are the examples of the sensors whereas the

thermistor, and thermocouple is the examples of the transducer.

QUESTION BANK:

1. Define Mechatronics and Brief evolution of Mechatronics. (Dec 2018/Jan 2019),

(June/July 2015)

2. Write short notes on: (i) Proximity switch (ii) Hall effect sensor (Dec 2018/Jan 2019)

3. What are the objectives of Mechatronics? (June /July 2011), (Dec 2018/Jan 2019)

4. Elaborate mechatronics a multidisciplinary scenario. (Dec 2018/Jan 2019)

 5. State any two merits and demerits of mechatronics. (June /July 2019), (Dec 2015/Jan
2016)

6. Define sensor and its classification. Define transducer and its classification. (Dec
2016/Jan 2017), (June /July 2012)

7. State and Explain the principle and working of Hall Effect sensor. (Dec 2016/Jan
2017), (Dec 2014/Jan 2015.

8. Write a note on light sensors (June /July 2014)

9. Explain with a sketch, working of eddy current proximity sensor (June /July 2014)

10. Explain the following: i) active and passive transducer ii) primary and secondary
transducer (June /July 2011)

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