Geological Survey of India

Nature and the antiquity of ancient metallurgical slags found in Rajasthan and Gujarat
Signatures of ancient metallurgical processing of ores are seen in almost all base metal prospects or in close vicinity of metal mining sites in Rajasthan and Gujarat in the form of slag and/ or broken furnaces/ retorts, etc. The slag is found either as small to large-sized heaps/ mounds or as strewn/ scattered pieces. During smelting of metallic ores, varieties of slags are produced due to the varying nature of ores (copper, lead, multi-metals), raw materials and the flux (quartz, dolomite, salts, limestone). Flux is added to reduce the melting point of metals and removal of iron impurities in the form of slag, mainly fayalite. It forms an easily identifiable material. Based on physical characters and metal association, the slags located in different parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat, are categorized into the following categories: Copper slag: It is greenish grey to dark grey, fine to medium-grained, somewhat massive and showing large vesicles or bubble-marks and comparatively less flowage-marks (due to higher viscosity during melting). It is the most common variety found in copper prospects of Agar, Anjeni, Bairat, Bedawal, Bhagoni, Boraj, Dewal, Dhaula, Jodhawas, Kalabar, Kalajoda, Kho-Dariba, Kotri, Naldeshwar, Narai, Piplai/ Jhiri, Pratapgarh, Satkui, Dhanota, Vasu, Wari etc., confirming it as copper slag. Presence of tiny globules or specks of copper metal are seen in such slags at Adwana, Angari, Chainpura, Kalabar and Udaipurwati areas. Silver slag: It is feather-light in weight, extremely spongy and pale greenish yellow in colour identified only from Jodhawas, a well-known copper-silver prospect in Alwar district and Ramgarh-Ras area in Ajmer district. High silver (10-20 ppm) is analyzed in lithounits of Jodhawas but the slags showed depletion (<5 ppm) of silver. It is indicative of the extraction of silver from the rocks. Spongy slag of Ramgarh-Ras, however, analyzed high silver (25 ppm), which indicates a link between slag and silver. Such slags are also seen in Dariba, Rajsamand district and Maliawas area, Alwar district. Iron slag: It is cherry red to brownish black in colour and displays more flowage or melt-flow features (due to less viscous nature or high temperature at the time of melting) as compared to copper slag. Reddish tinge in its colour is due to abundance and oxidation of iron minerals. Recovery of iron nuggets from Rampura-Tonda (Khetri belt), Baldeogarh slag and chunks of iron ore in Nilkanth Mahadev and Baldeogarh slags (Alwar belt) further confirm it. The analytical results indicate that these are depleted in base metals as seen in slags of Hamirpur-Jindoli-Bahroj; Gamaniya Moti; Jhikri; Bhilaria and Datunda; Baldeogarh, Nilkanth Mahadev and Rajgarh areas. Lead-zinc slag: Owing to special metallurgical processing, which involved smaller retorts, these slags are rarely preserved e.g. at old Zawar area. Some slags somewhat similar to that of copper, however, have been reported from lead-zinc prospects of Rampura-Agucha, Jhikri, Gelaji temple in Jahazpur belt and Narayanpura in Bundi district. In general, silver content in such slags is higher and seems to be associated with lead, which could be argeniferous in nature. Glassy or flinty slag: It is identified from a few prospects i.e. at Dilwara near Jharka and BhukiaJagpura prospects (south Rajasthan), Gothri Guru Ki, Maliawas-Matasula and Baldeogarh prospects (Alwar-Jaipur belt in north Rajasthan). The glassy slag strewn near Dilwara is very fine-grained and displays varied shades of red, green, yellow and brownish black as well as convoluted colour laminations, at places. Gothri Guru Ki slag is greenish blue in colour while that of Baldeogarh is apple green. The chemical analyses of such slags indicate anomalous copper and very low gold values. Sometimes more than one type of slag is present at one place, which is indicative of the multiple metallurgical processing of various metal ores. Important occurrences of slag/ slagheaps and related observations are described here.
Contributed by: A.K. GROVER, Director Operation Rajasthan, GSI, WR, Jaipur-302004

Geological Survey of India

Extensive slag heaps (upto 7 m thick) are present in Kho-Dariba are, the reserves of which are estimated of the order of 5000 to 6000 tons. Number of slag heaps (upto 5 to 6 m thick) are seen on the slopes around the mineshafts in Bhagoni prospect with estimated reserve of 2,20,000 tonnes. Part of Agar village with an old Shiv temple, is located on large slag dumps. The total quantity of slag is estimated to be about one million tonne. The town of Bairat is virtually situated on huge slag dumps with slag spread over 0.33 sq km area and thickness of 6 m. Its reserves are estimated as 3.5 million tonnes. Huge quantity of slag is seen near Dhaula (about 24000 tons) and Badshahpur (about 10,000 tons). A large piece of copper metal weighing about 10 kg was also recovered from Badshahpur slag heaps. Slag dumps of considerable quantity are present north of Singhana (0.7 million tonnes ) and near Khetri. The old township of Udaipurwati located close to Dhanaota prospect, is virtually situated over large slag heaps. Globules or buttons of metallic copper are recovered from this slag. Several thousand tonnes of slag is present at Satkui copper prospect. Recovery of a 20 kg iron nugget from old mines indicates that smelting in Fatehpura area was for iron. Broken cylindrical retorts with thick clay walls and slag still attached to it are seen near Nathukheri, east of Ghatol in Banswara district. As per local people the slag area occasionally yields fine specks/ tiny gold nuggets after the rains. Near Boreshwar Mahadev temple, Udaipur district, large slag dumps are present, the slag of which is massive and form larger chunks like that of Dewal near Dungarpur. Scattered slags are recorded near Dilwara and Makanpura Talav showing flinty or glassy nature i.e. it breaks with concohoidal fracture and display shades of green, red, yellow, brown and black. Near Salumbar, extensive slagheaps are located in Manpura-Sanjela area; a slag sample analyzed anomalous gold. Slag dumps are also seen near Anjeni, Bedawal, Boraj and Malpura. Slag lying near Parsola is considered for iron smelting. Huge heaps of brownish black slags with some malachite stains occur over a large area near Dewal. Two types of slags are seen (i) a greenish grey, thick, massive slag and (ii) dark grey to brownish, thin slag showing more flowage. The massive slags with clay and rock pieces on one side suggest that it could be the outer part of the furnace. Oval-shaped large, broken and somewhat flattened furnace-structures are noted in the area. Several thousand tons of slags occur west of Iswal and near Nandvel. Extensive slags occur near Chandera, Nana and Sakroda areas at the contact of Aravalli and Pre-Aravalli rocks in Udaipur district. Slags spread over 40 m x 40 m zone with average thickness of 3 m, are present near Kotri. Slag heaps/ scattered slags are also reported from Mando Ki Pal, Metali, Padar Ki Pal and Kitord. Slag near Metali is flinty in nature. In in Jahazpur belt in Central Rajasthan, minor specks of copper metal are recovered from Chainpura slag, two huge dumps of which are present west of village. Innumerable cupolas are seen in slag heaps present NE of Amargarh and near Kishangarh. Slag dumps occur east of Kondli and Nandanwas, SE of Nandanwas, NW of Gwari, NW of Jiwat and SW of Marwaro. Nandanwas slag dumps are significant as these yielded large-sized earthen pots (presumably retorts). Slag dumps of Jhikri have also yielded broken hearths and crude retort-like structures. Heaps of slags, locally called Keeta, are also seen near Amarpura, Bigod, Gagera, Gokulpura, Hajiwas-Kanti-Paroli, Itaunda, Jahazpur, Karoli, Kedariya, Maharani Mata, Manohargarh-Bilati, Gardara, Pachanpura-Chabriya, Pagara, Sitapura, Saran Ka Khera, Saroli, Umar and Umedpura, Amalda, Rajwas, Nathun, Gelaji temple, Jhinkli, Lohakhan, Belwa and Tola. The slags are porous and displayed tarnished metallic sheen and malachite stains at places. Huge slag heaps are present at the outskirt of Pur-Dariba some of which are 7 to 8 m high with about 0.3% copper and at Gurla and between Gurla, Pur and Banera, Suras, west of Tana near Bhilkhera, south of Bhinder, Akola and at Dhulkhera. Slags are also recorded from Tiranga hill area. Large slag dumps are recorded near Mata Ji temple in Rajpura-Dariba area. Indurated, vitreous and vesicular slag alongwith cylindrical retorts occur over large area east of Rampura and old Agucha mine. One of the most impressive sites of huge piles (upto 10 m thick, estimated about 600,000 tonnes) of spent, earthen cylindrical retorts is near old Zawar village; it is spread over several sq km on either side of Tiri River. The site marks the presence of old ruins and dilapidated Hindu temples. Majority of the
Contributed by: A.K. GROVER, Director Operation Rajasthan, GSI, WR, Jaipur-302004

Geological Survey of India

walls of ruined structures are built by spent retorts - a noble example of waste disposal by re-using the refuse generated during smelting by ancients. Only minor amount of sinter is seen within spent retorts. Analytical results of the slag showed upto 10% zinc. Slag dumps after copper smelting, are also present in a nala east of Pipaldaran, about 3 km north of Zawar within zinc-lead-silver belt. Large slags heaps (after iron) present near Natharia Ki Pal displayed auriferous nature. In Chittaurgarh district, the slag heaps/ scattered slags are recorded from near Kanad; near Kathupura and west of Kolgarh (for iron); at northern fringe of Dhaneshwar Mahadev pond near Kiron Ki Dhani and west and east of Angoriya. Presence of slag dumps are recorded from Manj Ka Khera, Borundi, Gundalpura and Matamangri areas, however, no signs of old mine workings exist nearby. As per local inhabitants the ore was brought in these places for smelting of iron during ancient times. Presence of slag dumps and earthen retorts is recorded from Gangwara area in Sawai Madhopur district. In Bikaner district slag is recorded in Bidasar-Dariba area and near hill temple of Biramsar Ki Dungri in Churu district. Slags are also seen at Sunarkuri in Ajmer district and at Chaondia in Jaipur district. Heaps of iron slags are located near Mohanpura, Sherganj and Talwas in Bundi district. In close vicinity of Great Boundary Fault, slags are recorded from old working zones near Bhilaria, SW of Datunda and WNW of Narayanpura in Bundi district and the slags of the first two localities are rich in Fe-Mn while the third is in lead-zinc. Slag dumps/ scattered slags are also identified in Anua, Jawa, Pipela, between Pagaru and Sukli River, Amli, Awa, Basantgarh, Deri, Golia, Iawa, Rampura, Thandiberi, Silva, Velloriya and Watera prospects in Sirohi district. In Pali district slag heaps are reported near Sojat, the ore for which was transported from Sandarla/ Punagarh mines as per local inhabitants. Large slagheaps occur over several sq km from Ambaji to Kumbharia and near Kotesar in Banaskantha district, Gujarat. Maximum accumulation of slag is behind Jain temples at Kumbharia where smelting tools and blebs of smelted metals are found. Slag dumps at Kumbharia itself are spread over 0.2 sq km and are upto 10 m thick. Detailed mapping and sampling of part of Kumbharia slags (0.03 sq km) lying outside Jain temples indicated 0.1 million tonnes of slag reserves. A total of 38 bulk samples analysed 0.52 to 5.9 % lead, 1.38 to 6.08 % zinc and 0.44 to 1.55% copper (average of total base metals is 6.2%; average of zinc alone being 3.9%). With appropriate conditions zinc recovery of 88% is possible from these slags. An estimate of about 0.6 million tonnes of slags is present in Ambaji-Kumbharia area. In Broach district slagheaps are noticed at about one km west of Navaraphalia and just north of Boridra in Nandod taluk indicating ancient iron smelting activities. Laterite in the vicinity (Valia, Vasana) has been worked for iron ores in the past. Slags are also recorded from near Jharkaria and Masabar. Large ancient smelting sites with slags, earthen retorts and smelted iron are present near Datrana along the roadside and near Limbdi village. Slag is also recorded from West of Kundol, near Pipli, Jher, Anas and Lakai; and alongwith retorts along Anas River and at Mal village in Panchmahals district. The antiquity of slag or slag heaps is directly related to the time-period of metal smelting. It can be inferred from the metal mining activities if present in the vicinity. The old town site of modern Udaipur City (founded in 1559) was a well-known ancient copper-smelting site (Tamba Nagari) of Ahar culture (2100-1300 BC). The Bairat town, situated right on huge slag heaps, is considered as the famous city of Virat Nagar of Mahabharata period. The area also revealed existence of Rock Edicts of King Ashoka the Great (268 - 232 BC) and an old Buddhist temple of 4th century BC close to the ancient copper workings of Kalajoda. Mogul Emperors had a mint at Bairat and the copper coins (period 1556 to 1707 AD) of Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb bearing the mint name of Bairat are well known. The site of mint was a large walled-enclosure occupying loftiest portion of the town. Mention of metal mines near Amba Mata, Gujarat exists in Jain religious texts i.e. Puratan Parbandh Sangrah (1090 AD), Vicharashreni (1137 AD) and Thirathamala (1447 AD). Colonel James Todd (1829) mentioned that th th Mining industry existed in the area since 1st century BC and flourished in 11 to 15 century AD. It was during the period of Rana Lakha, when mounted throne in Cheetore (1373 AD), tin (zinc?) and
Contributed by: A.K. GROVER, Director Operation Rajasthan, GSI, WR, Jaipur-302004

Geological Survey of India

silver mines of Zawura (Zawar) were found in areas inhabited by Bhils of Chhuppun. He had the merit th of having first worked these mines. Mining thrived in this area from the 7 century to 1820 when the activity abruptly ended due to some catastrophe. Maharaja Shri Sindhu Singh Jee of Bhangarh established Agar village in Alwar district in 1666 AD. Part of the village with an old temple of Lord Shiva is located on slag dumps near the village. Dating of material from Zawar, Rajpura-Dariba and Agucha old mines was conducted by a team of British Museum, Hindustan Zinc Limited and Baroda University. The oldest dates of charcoal from these mines (2410 100 BP Zawar Mala; 2350 40 BP Agucha; 3040 150 BP Dariba) indicated that the metal mining in Rajasthan State is very old. A carbon date of charcoal from Iswal slags gave an age of 1100 170 BP for the past metallurgical activity. Gold analyses of slags were started in early nineties after discovery of Bhukia-Jagpura gold deposit in south Rajasthan. A total of 87 slag samples have been analysed for gold but only a few showed gold anomalies e.g. 1300 ppb in Manpura-Sanjela, 1000 ppb in Rampur and 750 ppb in Gafa slags. Such slags occur in copper prospects. Silver anomalies in slags are noted in Agucha (Pb-Zn) and Jodhawas (Cu-Ag) prospects. Iron has been analysed in slag samples of Jahazpur belt which showed average Fe2O3 of 42.45%. Interestingly the iron ore samples of these areas indicate nearly similar Fe2O3 content, which is suggestive of the fact that smelting was not for iron in such areas. A few slag indicated anomalous lead as compared to lithounits of the area e.g. 1300 ppm in slag of Vasu area while in rock samples it is <50 to 50. It is suggestive of addition of lead during metallurgical processing. The slags, at most places, are being used as road material. However, wherever rich in metals, these may be re-used as ores e.g. Ambaji slags, which analyze metal content between 3.4% and 14.1%. The slag dumps in Khetri copper belt are also of the order of 1.4 million tonnes and assuming 0.2% copper recovery, these may contain about 2800 tonnes of copper. There are more such slag areas.

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Contributed by: A.K. GROVER, Director Operation Rajasthan, GSI, WR, Jaipur-302004

Geological Survey of India Photographs of some slags and slag heaps

Details of the photographs

1. Spongy silver slag of Jodhawas area, Alwar district, Rajasthan 2. Greenish grey copper slag from Naldeshwar area, Alwar district, Rajasthan 3. Reddish brown iron slag from Nilkanth Mahadev and Baldeogarh areas, Alwar district, Rajasthan 4. Greenish glassy slag from Gothri Guru Ki area, Alwar district, Rajasthan 5. Large copper slagheap in Khod-Dariba area, Rajasthan 6. Two large slag dumps in Udaipurwati town area, Sikar district, Rajasthan 7. Slagheaps near Ajabgarh village, Alwar district, Rajasthan 8. Copper slag dumps in Matasula (North) area, Rajasthan 9. Iron slag at the foothill of old Rajgarh fort area, Alwar district, Rajasthan 10. Mine dumps with spongy slags in Jodhawas area, Alwar district, Rajasthan 11. Spent retorts in old Zawar area, Udaipur district, Rajasthan 12. A general view of the old Zawar area showing old house walls made of spent retorts.

Contributed by: A.K. GROVER, Director Operation Rajasthan, GSI, WR, Jaipur-302004